1.What is language?
(1) Definition:
1) human speech
2) the ability to communicate by this means
3) a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression
or communication of thoughts and feelings
4) the written representation of such a system
5) any means of expressing or communicating, as gestures, signs, or animal sounds
6) a special set of symbols, letters, numerals, rules etc. used for the transmission of information, as in a computer
(2) The study of other senses also receives attention: the study of Multimodal discourse which resorts to such symbolic
resources as images and sounds.
The term multimodal refers to at least five modes of meaning-making: linguistic,visual,gestural,spatial and audio, working together to create texts.
(3) The barest of definition: language is a means of verbal communication.
●It’s instrumental because: communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.
●It’s social and conventional because: language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place
effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.
●Language learning and use are determined by the intervention of: biological,cognitive,psycho-social and
environmental factors.
●In short, language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal
communication system.
2. Design features of language
(1) Definition: the features that define our human languages, or features that distinguish man from animals whose
language is instinctive and discontinuous.
(2) Features:
1) Arbitrariness: first proposed by Saussure, it refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural
relationship to their meaning. Different level of arbitrariness:
○1Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning. (eg: Dog bark: bowwow&汪汪)
（arbitrariness and onomatopoeic effect may work at the same time）
○2Arbitrariness at the syntactic level.
●By syntax we refer to the ways that sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement.
syntax is less arbitrary than words.
●Systemic functionalists and American functionalists believe that language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.
●Functionalists hold that the most strictly arbitrary level of language exists in the distinctive units of sounds
(eg: pin&bin; fish& dish)
○3Arbitrariness and convention.
●The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.
●Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.
●Conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious.
●For learners of a foreign language, it is the conventionality of a language that is more worth noticing than its
arbitrariness.
2) Duality: Languages have two levels of structures, units of the primary level (words) are composed of elements of
the secondary level (sounds) and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.
●Sounds do not convey meaning in themselves. Their only function is to combine with one another to form units
that have meaning, such as words.
●The property of duality then only exists in system that is with both elements and units( animal’s special calls
have corresponding meanings, that is, the primary units have meanings but cannot be further divided into
elements ,so they don’t have this feature.)
●Language is hierarchical. 听不懂的外语就像是continuous stream一样，but no language is truly continuous. To
●Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never
come across that usage before.(与其他动物的交流区别开来)
●Creativity partly originates from its duality, because of duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic
units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.
●Language is creative also because of its potential to create endless sentences. (recursive nature of language)
4)Displacement: Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not
present(in time and place) at the moment of communication.
●Most animals respond communicatively as soon as they are stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest.
Such animals are under “immediate stimulus control”.
●Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus-free. What we are talking about need no t
be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state.
●Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.
5) Cultural Transmission:Language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next by
teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. Animal call systems are genetically transmitted.
3. Origin of Language
Some well-known theories about the origin of language though some of them have now been discredited.
(1)The “bow-wow”theory: In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment
they lived and speech developed from that. Onomatopoeic words seem to be a convenient evidence for this theory.
But in our discussion below we can find they are very different in the degree of resemblance they express with the natural sounds.
(2) The “Pooh-pooh”theory: In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger
and joy. As for evidence, we can only cite the universal use of sounds as interjections. What makes the theory
problematic is that there is only a limited number of interjections in almost all languages. Besides, interjections such as Oh, Ah, Aiyo bear little relationship with the sound system of a language and therefore are not good evidence. (3)The “yo-he-ho”theory: As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which
gradually developed into chants and then into language. We do hove prosodic use of rhythms in languages, but rhythmic grunts are far different from language in its present sense.
4. Functions of language
(1) For Jakobson, language is above all, as any semiotic system, for communication. While for many people, the purpose
of communication is referential, but for him, reference is not the only, not even the primary goal of communication.
In his famous article, Linguistics and Poetics, he defined the six primary factors of any speech event, namely:
context, message, speaker, addressee, contact, code.
In conjunction with these, Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely:
referential(to convey message and information)
poetic(to indulge in language for its own sake.) eg: poetry
emotive(to express attitudes, feelings and emotions) eg: intonation showing anger
conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests) eg: imperatives and vocatives
phatic (to establish communion with others) eg: Good morning
metalingual function (to clear up intentions and meanings) eg: Hello, do you hear me?
(2)○1Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is language has these functions:
Ideational function(constructs a model of experience as well as logical relations)
Interpersonal (enacts social relationships)
Textual (creates relevance o context)
○2In his earlier works, he proposed seven categories of language functions by observing child language development: Instrumental; Regulatory; Representational; Interactional; Personal; Heuristic; Imaginative
(3)Summary of the categories of the functions:
○1Informative: Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud, for instance, when they are working on a math problem.
●It is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.
○2Interpersonal Function: It’s the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and
maintain their status in a society.
●This function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and
the addresser’s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.
●Attached to the interpersonal function of language is its function of expressing identity.
-physically in terms of age, sex, and voiceprints
-psychologically in terms of language, personality and intelligence
-geographically in terms of accents and dialects
-ethnically and socially in terms of social stratification, class, status. role solidarity and distance.
○3Performative: It originates from the philosophical study of language represented by Austin and Searle, and refers to the function of doing things with words or language.
●The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage
ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals.
●The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.
○4Emotive Function: Language can express an addressor’s emotions and feelings and change the emotional status of an audience.
●According to Crystal, it si a means of getting rid o four nervous energy when we are under stress. eg. swear words,
obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to a piece of art or scenery.
●It is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and
totally without any implication of communication to others. eg. Ouch!
○5Phatic Communion: It originates from Malinowski’s study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language.
●We all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people
without involving any factual content. eg. Good morning, God bless you.
○6Recreational Function: Language is used for the sheer joy of using it.
eg. baby’s babbling, chanter’s chanting, verbal dueling
○7Metalingual Function: Our language can be used to talk about itself.
This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive: We human beings can talk about talk and think about thinking, and thus only humans can ask what it means to communicate, to think, to be human.
5. What is Linguistics: The scientific study of language
●Lyons predicted that linguistics is empirical, rather than speculative or intuitive: It operates with publicly variable
data obtained by means of observation or experiment.
●Nowadays we are expecting the qualitative and quantitative research approaches to take an even divide and be
more complementary in linguistic studies.
6.Main Branches of Linguistics
It is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic.
(1) Phonetics:Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is, how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.
or processes a sound wave---- auditory phonetics.
(2)Phonology: Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and
the shape of syllables.
●It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.
●A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.
●Differences between Phonetics and Phonology: Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is
capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.
The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses on order.
(3) Morphology: It is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of
meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.
●Morphemes serve different purposes. Some derive new words by changing the meaning or the part of speech,
others only refine and give extra grammatical information about the already existing meaning of a word. They are pairings of sounds with meanings.
●Languages differ in their degrees of dependence on the morphological components.
(4)Syntax: It is about principle of forming and understanding correct English sentences.
●The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax. These rules specify word order, sentence
organization, and the relationships between words, word classes and other sentence elements.
●A single string of words that without any change of order can have different meanings, eg. The chicken is too hot to
eat.
(5)Semantics: It examines how meaning is encoded n a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as
lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it. eg. meanings of morphemes and sentences.
●The following are what the key concepts look like:
Semantic components; Denotation of words; Sense relations between words such as antonymy and synonymy;
Sense relations between sentences such as entailment and presupposition and more.
(6)Pragmatics: It is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is
especially concerned with the various ways in which many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally structured.
●It regards speech performance as primarily a social act ruled by various social conventions.
7.Macrolinguistics
With its coming of age linguistics is developing interactive links with other sciences. The central goal of describing the underlying system remains; This is the province of general, descriptive linguistics. Main branches:
(1)Psycholinguistics: It investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and
in language acquisition for example.
(2)Sociolinguistics: It is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including
the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users
●It is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the
characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.
●It seeks to discover the societal rules and norms that explain and constrain language behavior and the attitudes
toward language in speech communities.
●It also seeks to determine the symbolic value of language varieties for their speakers.
(3) Anthropological Linguistics: In contrast with other linguists, anthropological linguists are interested primarily in the history and structure of formerly unwritten languages. They are concerned with the emergence of language and also with the divergence of languages over thousands of years.
(4) Computational Linguistics: Computational Linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.
●Human language is also known as “natural language”
●To this field, linguistics contributes an understanding of the special properties of language data, and provides
theories and descriptions of language structure and use.
●Computer Science contributes theories and techniques for designing and implementing computer systems.
8. Important Distinctions in Linguistics
(1) Descriptive &Prescriptive: The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.
Eg: Don’t say X. (Prescriptive)
People don’t say X. (Descriptive)
●The nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.
●To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which
the members of a language community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.
(2) Synchronic & Diachronic:
○1A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation.
○2Saussure’s diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.
●But of course synchrony is a fiction, for language changes as the minutes pass and grammar-writing is a lengthy
enterprise. However, the fiction of synchronic description is essential to linguistics.
(3) Langue & Parole: Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of
linguistics(utterances) as langue and parole.
●While parole constitutes the immediately accessible data, the linguist’s proper object is the langue of each community,
the lexicon, grammar, and phonology implanted in each individual by his upbringing in society and on the basis of which he speaks and understands his language.
●Language is not complete in any speaker, it exists perfectly only within a collectivity. In separating language(langue)
from speaking (parole) we are at the same time separating :○1what is social from what is individual ;and○2what is essential from what is accessory and more or less accidental.
(4) Competence and Performance: This fundamental distinction is discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of
Syntax. A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.
●According to Chomsky, the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of
rules that has been mastered by the language user.
●○1Not all linguistics agree with Chomsky in thinking that “linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal
speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community, who knows its language perfectly.”
○2Dell Hymes approaches language from a socio-cultural view point with the aim of studying the varieties of ways of speaking on the part of the individual and the community.
○3It is found that speakers vary their performance not at random but in a regular way.
○4Thus it is possible to extend the notion of competence, restricted by Chomsky to a knowledge of grammar, to
incorporate the pragmatic ability for language use. This extended idea of competence can be called communicative competence.
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is
Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)
Literary linguistics studies the language of literature. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 9.1 Theoretical background
9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical form 9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche 9.2.3 The analysis of literary language
9.3.1 Sound patterning 9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning Rhyme Alliteration Assonance Consonance Reverse rhyme Pararhyme Repitition
-Metre(Dimetre, Trimetre, Tetrametre, Hexametre, Heptametre, Octametre) -Foot (Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl,Spondee, Pyrrhic) 9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets Quatrains Blank verse Sonnet 9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?
第11章第二语言和外语教学 11.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The relation between linguistics and language teaching 语言学与语言教学之间的关系 2. Grammar, input and language learning 语法、输入与语言学习 3. Interlanguage in language teaching 语言教学中的中介语 4. Linguistics and syllabus design 语言学与教学大纲设计 5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析 6. Corpus linguistics and language teaching 语料库语言学与语言教学 常考考点： 语言学与语言教学的关系；语言学与语言学习；语言学与教学大纲设计；二语学习者的主要障碍；对比分析与错误分析；中介语；语料库语言学与语言教学等。
本章内容索引： I. Definition of Applied Linguistics II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning 1. Grammar and Language Learning 2. Input and Language Learning 3. Interlanguage in Language Learning IV. Linguistics and Language T eaching 1. The discourse-based view of language teaching 2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design 1. Syllabus and curriculum 2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design 3. Types of syllabus (1) The structural syllabus (2) The situational syllabus (3) The communicative syllabus (4) The task-based syllabus 4. Current trends in syllabus design (1) The co-existence of the old and the new (2) The emphasis on the learning process
英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版） Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1.What is language? “Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Ch inese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2.Design Features of Language. “Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3.Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2)Directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer
英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版) Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1. What is language? “ Languageis system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains a is explained by the fact that different languages have different “ books ”“:book ”in English, “ livre in” French, “shu” ii n eCseh. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “ human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2. Design Features of Language. “ Design features ” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1) Arbitrariness: By “ arbitrariness ”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2) Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3) Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one?s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4) Displacement: “ Displacement ”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5) Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6) Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3. Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1) Phatic function: The “ phaticfunction r”efers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2) Directive function: The “ directive function ”thamt laenagnusage may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the res you finish. ” (3) Informative function: Language serves an “ informational function ”when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). (4) Interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “ interrogat
第12章现代语言学理论与流派 12.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 布拉格学派与功能句子观 2. The London School and context of situation 伦敦学派与语境观 3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 韩礼德与系统——功能语法 4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism 布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义 5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar 乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法 常考考点： 各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。 本章内容索引：
I. Saussure and modern linguistics II. The Prague School 1. Main points and contribution 2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 3. Communicative Dynamism (CD) III. The London School 1. Introduction 2. Malinowski’s theories 3. Firth’s theories 4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar (1) Systemic grammar (2) Functional grammar IV. American Structuralism 1. Introduction 2. Three stages of the development V. Transformational-Generative Grammar 1. Introduction 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 3. Generative Grammar 4. Stage of development of TG Grammar 5. Main features of TG Grammar
语言学：It studies how speech sounds are produced,transmitted,and perceived.研究语音的发生、传递和感知 2. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学: the study of production of speechsounds.研究语言的发生 phonetics声学语言学：is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.研究语音的物质特征 or Auditory phonetics感知语音学或听觉语音学：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.研究语音的感知 音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.研究各种语言的语音模式和语音系统 6. IPA国际音标表: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet 变音符:are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.是与元音或辅音符号结合使用的一些附加符号或记号，用于表示元音或辅音在发音上的微小变化 辅音: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.声道紧闭，或声道变窄的程度达到无法 9. Vowl元音:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.气流可以相对不受阻碍的从口腔或鼻腔中排出
Chapter3 Lexicon Lexical change
3.1 What is word? 3.1.1 Three senses of word 3.1.2 Identification of words 1) stability 2) Relative uninterruptibility 3) A minimum free form 3.1.3 Classification of words 1) Variable and invariable words 2) Grammatical words and lexical words 3) closed-class words and open
3.2 The Formation of Word 3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology Morpheme destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. 2) Morphology which studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.
3.2.2 Types of morphemes 1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme 2) Root, affix and stem 3) Inflectional affix and derivational affix ?Inflectional affixes often only add a minute or delicate grammat to the stem, therefore serve to produce different forms of a sin derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. ?Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word th whereas derivational affixes might or might not. ?Inflectional affixes are conditioned by the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence; deriv
第7章Language, Culture and Society 第一部分Language and culture 一、Language and culture 语言与文化的关系 In a broad sense, culture means the total way of a people, including the patterns of beliefs, language, institutions, techniques, customs, and objects that shape the life of the human community. In a narrow sense, culture may mean local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc. The relationships are as follows: (1) Culture is a wider system that includes language as a subsystem. The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole. (2) Culture affects language. Culture universals and biological universals lead to linguistic universals. E.g. the seven days of a week. In addition, different cultural features produce different linguistic features. E.g. “24 jie qi” in Chinese. (3) Language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. A language not only expresses facts, ideas, or events which represent similar world knowledge by its people, but also reflects the people’s beliefs, attitudes and world outlooks etc. (4) Language plays an important role in perpetuating culture over time, especially, in print form. Therefore, on the one hand, language as an integral part of human beings, runs through his thinking and way of viewing the world. On the other hand, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture. 二、The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis This hypothesis suggests that our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speaker’s unique ways of understanding the world. Following this argument, there are two important points in this theory. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other hand, similarity between languages is relative. And this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity. Consequently, two versions of the hypothesis have been developed, a strong and a weak version. The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns. The weak version is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical. 三、Culture in language teaching classroom? 怎样实现；两者关系 There are at least three objectives for us to teach culture in our class: (1)To get the students familiar with cultural differences; (2)To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will; (3)To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practices. Therefore, successful mastery of a given language has much to do with an understanding of that culture, because language and culture are correlated with each other at different levels of linguistic structure. 四、Firth 语境说的观点 Firth tried to set up a model to illustrate the close relationships between language use and its co-occurrent factors. He developed the theory of context of situation: