文献出处：Bobirca A, Cristureanu C. The international competitiveness of trade in tourism services [J]Advances in Tourism Economics.，2014，16（5）: 189-202.
原文
The International Competitiveness of Trade in Tourism Services
Ana Bobirca and Cristiana Cristureanu
1 Introduction
Tourism is the only service activity that can potentially provide trading opportunities for all nations, regardless of their level of development. However, it is also a sector where there is clearly an uneven distribution of bene?ts that is l argely dependant on countries’ ability to strengthen their performance in the global economy, which in turn requires improving their competitiveness.
Since the beginning of the 1990s, Romania has experienced major changes in its tourism exports volume, growth rate and structure. These disparate punctuations have all in?uenced the relative competitive position of Romania on the international tourism market and have been associated with changes in its tourism trade balance. In the same time, the new and more heterogeneous European architecture has induced signi?cant changes in Romania’s regional tourism competitiveness.
Against this background, the paper attempts to suggest a framework for assessing the international competitiveness of Romania’s tourism services trade, by focusing on the relationship between competitiveness and tourism trade performance.
To this end, the ?rst part starts by introducing the concept of international competitiveness and by presenting, evaluating and systematizing key issues of the complex analysis on international competitiveness. The paper subsequently considers the relationship between export performance and international competitiveness, as well as its relevance for international tourism. The second part includes a macro overview of the tourism sector, focusing spherically on its importance to the econ omy. The third part of the paper sets out in detail the framework for calculating the proposed measures of competitiveness and shows the importance of the methodological approach in interpreting the information provided by these indicators. It also illustrates the recent performance of Romanian tourism, based on an integrated measure of international trade competitiveness. The paper concludes by explaining the competitive position of Romania on the European tourism market and by identifying research issues that require further study.
2 Perspectives on International Competitiveness – The Relationship Between Export Performance and International Competitiveness and its Relevance for International Tourism
The concept of international competitiveness, although controversial and elusive, has gained acceptance and continues to attract the attention of both academics and policymakers worldwide.
Most measures of international competitiveness that have so far been considered were undertaken at the economy-wide level (Garelli 2003) and generally refer to the ability of a country to produce goods and services that meet the test of international markets, while simultaneously maintaining and expanding the real income of its citizens (European Commission 2007).
Because competitiveness ultimately depends upon ?rms in a country competing successfully on the domestic and international markets, attention has focused on competitiveness at the ?rm level (Porter 1990), where it is generally understood to refer to ―.. . the ability of the ?rm to retain and, better still, enlarge its global market share, increase its pro?ts and expand‖ (Clark and Guy 1998, OECD 1993).
According to traditional economic theory, a ?rm can gain competitive advanage through comparative cost of production by, for example, reducing labor cost. However, recent research suggests that non-price factors are equally important determinants of competitiveness. The range of non-price factors is diverse and includes human resource endowment, such as skills; technical factors, such as research and development capabilities and the ability to innovate; managerial and organization factors, both internal to the ?rm and externally organized through relationships with other bodies, customers, suppliers, public and private research institutes, and other ?rms (Clark and Guy 1998, Fagerberg 1986). Together, these factors determine the ability of the ?rm to compete successfully in international markets, on the background of changing technological, economic, and social environments. Export performance and the ability of the ?rm to maintain its market share remain the ultimate indicators of international competitiveness.
Consequently, although widely proclaimed, the theoretical bases of international competitiveness as it relates to national economies and their international trade have been less analyzed in academic literature. Thus, the nature, bene?ts and constraints on a nation of being internationally competitive remain ambiguous (Coldwell 2000, Krugman 1994, 1996).
International competitiveness, within the context of trade in goods and services, refers to a nation securing and maintaining a trade advantage vis-à-vis the rest of the world. International competitiveness is advanced whenever the economic welfare of a nation is enhanced through an increase in the ?ow of trade or through an alteration in the conditions of trade starting from a presumed initial equilibrium (Coldwell 2000).
Trade theory asserts that economic welfare is dependent on the production of goods and services that a country has comparative advantage in. This, in effect, means that international competitiveness is secured when production is in line with a country’s comparative advantage situation. If countries perform well internati onally and compete successfully for export markets, this could be a sign of their sound international competitiveness.
Therefore, at the international level, competitiveness can be de?ned as the ability
of an economy to attract the demand for its exports and the investment to supply that demand, all within social norms that result in an improved standard of living for its citizens. This, in turn, depends on the macro and microeconomic policies, regulations and institutions that affect the productivity of the economy’s factors of production and the costs of doing business.
A review of available literature and empirical evidences supports the notion that international competitivenes s can be explained, to some extent, by a country’s ability to export (Dollar and Wolff 1993, Fagerberg et al. 2004). There is, in fact, a self-recurring relationship between export performance and international competitiveness. Exports are the ?rst level o f international competitiveness affirmation. The improvement in export performance leads to an increase in a country’s competitiveness. This effect is a result of enterprises’ skills, knowledge, propensity to innovate and use new technology, ability to exploit technological opportunities in a successfully commercial way, etc.
On the other hand, in striving to achieve successful exports in highly competitive global markets, a country is forced to improve its competitiveness. The more competitive a country is, the more economically powerful it is. Consequently, it is more capable to compete on the global market, to attract people with higher level of knowledge, skills, to buy new technologies, etc., and to improve its export performance, as well as to achieve better export results. This can, in turn, favor additional innovations and trigger an improvement in its competitiveness.
Consequently, export performance and competitiveness should not be considered in isolation, since they are mutually interdependent.
However, competitiveness should not be equated only with a country’s ability to export. The evolution of export market shares is also an important element of trade competitiveness, while the latter is just a component of a nation’s competitivenes s de?ned by the European Declaration of Lisbon as the capacity to improve and raise the standard of living of its habitants by providing more and higher quality employment, and a greater social cohesion. The gains or losses of world market shares by individual countries are often considered as an index of their trade competitiveness. However, market share growth depends also on structural factors. Due to changes in demand, a country’s geographical and sect oral specialization at the beginning of a period is an important factor shaping future market share growth. Similarly, the country’s ability to adapt its exports to such changes will also affect the ?nal outcome. Furthermore, the concept of international competitiveness in tourism services also encompasses qualitative factors, that are difficult to quantify; the quality of services involved, the degree of specialization, the capacity for technological innovation, the quality of human resources (Rubalcaba and Cuadrado 2001) are factors that may in?uence a country’s tourism trade performance favorably. Likewise, high rates of productivity growth are often sought as a way of strengthening competitiveness. But it is not necessarily the case that favorable structural factors of this sort will give rise to increased sales on foreign markets. They may, instead, show up as improving terms of trade brought about through exchange-rate appreciation, while leaving export performance broadly unchanged. It is for this reason, as well as because these factors
are hard to measure in quantitative terms, that consideration here is con?ned to a more speci?c and integrated method for determining Romania’s relative competitive position in international tourism.
3 An Overview of Romania’s International Trade in Tourism Services
3.1 Key Facts
Romania’s Travel and Tourism Economy1 currently shows a return to positive territory, following negative results posted during the early years of economic transition, with an optimistic outlook for growth over the next ten years, much stronger than that of the EU.
With a 4.8% contribution of tourism to GDP, Romania ranks the 162nd among 174 countries, being currently among the lower-tier, tourism-intensive countries of the region and the world. However, Romania’s prospects for tourism sector growth are better than for most of its neighbors and competitors within the regional and world ranking, i.e. 6.7% contribution to GDP over the next 10 years and 12th position, respectively (World Travel and Tourism Council 2007).
Romania’s Travel and Tourism Industry2 contributed 1.9% to GDP in 2006, rising to 2.5% of total GDP by 2016, while in the European Union, the Travel and Tourism Industry posted a GDP contribution of 3.9% in 2006 (World Travel and Tourism Council 2007).
While the Travel and Tourism Economy accounts for 8.7% of global employment, Romania’s Travel and Tourism Economy employment was estimated at 485,000 jobs in 2006, representing 5.8% of total employment, or one in every 17.4 jobs. The current 265,000 Travel and Tourism Industry jobs account for 3.1% of total employment, as compared with 4.2% of total employment in the European Union (8.6 million jobs) (World Travel and Tourism Council 2007).
Travel and Tourism represented, in the European Union, 13.0% of total exports in 2006. In Romania, exports make up a very important share of Travel and Tourism’s contribution to GDP. Out of the total Romanian exports, Travel and Tourism represented 5.2% (1.2 billion Euros) in 2004, with a prospect to increase, in nominal terms, to 1.8 billion Euros (4.6% of total) by 2016 (World Travel and Tourism Council 2007).
The vast majority of international arrivals in Romania are from Europe. Since 2000, some 95% of visitors every year have been intra-regional. Out of these, a growing number – 75% according to 2004 ?gures –represent arrivals from the ?ve countries with which Romania shares a border: Ukraine, Moldavia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Serbia and Montenegro.
3.2 Major Findings
The analysis shows that, while still lagging behind the developed economies, the trend towards a service-oriented society is observable for Romania. This is also re?ected by the increasing proportion of GDP attributable to tourism services and the growing share of employment in the tourism services sector.
Although the overall tourism balance of Romania is positive, EU represents a net exporter of tourism services to Romania (the tourism balance is negative, with a
worsening de?cit from 2005 to 2006); still, the propensity to trade with EU partners is stronger in this ?eld, re?ecting a high er degree of integration into the EU tourism services market (EUROSTAT 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006).
While Romania’s Travel and Tourism is growing in terms of international visitors, the country’s tourism receipts have been lagging considerably behind neighbori n countries. In 2004, Romania registered some 38% of those registered by Bulgaria, approximately 12% of those registered by Hungary and the Czech Republic and a mere 7% of Croatia’s receipts. This re?ects the fact that many of Romania’s visitors do not stay overnight or spend anything while they are in the country, an important weakness to address for any tourism plan going forward (EUROSTAT 2003, 2004, 20058, 2006).
–Within EU-15 countries, Romani a’s largest markets are Germany, Italy, France, Austria and the UK. Worryingly, arrivals from all of the EU-15 countries showed negative growth in 2004. This can be attributed in part to the accession of ten new countries to the EU and related incentives for visitors to these countries, such as low-cost airlines.
– Growth in 2004 was driven by Hungary, which showed a 69% increase in arrivals in Romania. Outside Europe, Romania’s main international markets are the USA, which has shown steady growth since 2000, to 111,000 arrivals in 2004, as American tourists have started to be aware of the fact that Romania is more than a ―Dracula‖ destination; and Israel, although the Israeli market has remained stagnant in recent years. Tourists from China are also expected to increase in the future, as Romania received approved destination status in June 2004 (EUROSTAT 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006). Analysis of accommodation ?gures shows that a large number of these visitors do not stay in registered facilities and either reside with friends or relatives, or do not overnight in Romania. Thus, it is difficult to quantify their impact on the economy.
– The majority of international arrivals to Romania are by road, again mirroring the large proportion of the country’s visitors from bordering countries. However, arrivals by air have also seen a healthy rise over the past ?ve years, with increased frequency of scheduled services and some charters operating in regional airports.
As Romania is forced to liberalize its aviation industry as a consequence of EU accession, air transport is set to rise dramatically in the near future. Arrivals by rail are decreasing at almost the same rate that air arrivals are increasing, as air travel becomes cheaper and more accessible.
4 Methods for Assessing the International Competitiveness of Trade in Tourism Services
4.1 The Research Method
For the speci?c assessment of the international competitiveness of trade in tourism services, the underlying methodological approach undertaken in this study is based on the idea that the economy with an improving degree of competitiveness in tourism services is the one able to enhance the size of its tourism services exports to a certain market. Similarly, the economy with a declining degree of competitiveness is the one that increases the size of its tourism services imports coming from other countries.
The greater or smaller degree of competitiveness a country (or sector) has shows the nature and degree of participation it has – through its exports – in the imports carried out by the analyzed market, i.e., a country improves its competitiveness in the way that the other country increases its imports coming from the former one (Mandeng 1991).
In addition, the process of inserting a country in the international economy is related not only to its exporting progresses, but also to the behavior and actions of other competitors. The model is adapted from De la Guardia, Molero, and Valadez (De la Guardia et al. 2004) that introduced the aspect of the dynamic nature of markets and implemented through their work an ex—post assessment of services competitiveness, by providing a descriptive reference on the changes produced in the competitiveness level and specialization degree, in international trade. The commercial advantage is revealed through the evolution of tourism exports which re?ects improvements in competi tiveness, and through the evolution of tourism imports that re?ects a worsening of the commercial advantage.
(1). Based on the aforesaid, the changes in the international tourism services trade competitiveness are measured through the analysis of different variables: 1. the ?rst variable is the market share or participation in the market, and measures the portion of the market that is supplied by a certain country or the tourism sector of this country;
(2). the second variable used is the export structure of the analyzed country. This variable re?ects the relative weight of the tourism sector in the total exports of that country;
(3) ?nally, by means of the import structure of the market, the degree of dynamism that the tourism sector has in the analyzed import market can be determined. Through the combination of the aforementioned variables, three ―tourism competitiveness matrices‖ (see Table 12.1) are constructed, that allow for the description of Romania’s international tourism trade development pro?le.
The Market Share Competitiveness Matrix illustrates the fact that a country’s tourism exports can be classi?ed according to their international competitiveness starting from the behavior of the country’s market share in tourism exports and the evolution of the world tourism services imports over time.
In effect, the world market share held by each country in tourism services exports can increase or diminish throughout time; such modi?cations take place in the same time with the increase or decline that tourism imports register in international trade.
This allows for the classi?cation of a country’s tourism exports as performing, missed opportunities, declining and retreating.
Tourism services are performing when a country enhances its market share in tourism, in circumstances in which this activity has an increasing importance in world-wide trade.
Tourism services are missed opportunities when a country is losing market share, while international trade in the sector is enhancing.
Declining are those tourism services in which the exporting country increases its market share, while the international market is shrinking.
Finally, we de?ne the situation of tourism services as retreating when this
economic activity, besides losing market share, registers a decline of dynamism in international trade.
The competitiveness matrix of the export structure is obtained relating the behavior of a country’s tourism services export structure with the tourism services import dynamism of the international market.
This matrix shows how the adjustments of the export structure can take place in the same direction or in the opposite direction with respect to the changes in world imports structure. The different segments of services exports, including tourism, can be classi?ed, from the point of view of their international competitiveness, through the changes that take place in the services export structure of the country and the world services imports structure throughout time.
Combining these two variables, tourism, as a services exporting sector can be classi?ed as performing, missed opportunity, declining and retreating, with the equivalent meaning mentioned before.
Finally, tourism exports can also be classi?ed from the point of view of their international competitiveness throughout time, when the degree of trade specialization of each country and the evolution of the world imports are simultaneously analyzed.
The specialization index is de?ned as the relative par ticipation that an exporting sector of a country has in world trade.3
Similarly, tourism, as an exporting sector can be classi?ed as performing, missed opportunity, declining and retreating, with an identical interpretation to the ones previously indicated.
Our aim here is to adapt and apply the model developed by De la Guardia, Molero, and Valadez in order to assess the international competitiveness of tourism services, using information related to the current situation of the EU-25 countries and to that of Romania, based on the statistical information available.
Balance of payments transactions for tourism services are less easy to link to actual tourism services provision than is the case for goods; some tourism activities may be difficult to disentangle from goods or capital transactions. Countries have developed unique national methods for assembling the data: some have tended to rely more on statistical surveys and others have relied more on central banks’ administrative systems. Even so, there has been and still remains considerable variation in data collection methods. To compound the picture, methods of collection have changed considerably over time.
Despite these troubles, we believe that the forthcoming descriptive analysis could bring some highlights on international competitiveness and the factors determining the commercial position in tourism services trade.
The sample data is drawn from UNCTAD-IMF-BOP Statistics on Trade in Services by sector and country (OECD 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, UNCTAD 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006), a data-set which covers exports (credits) and imports (debits) of three main services categories: transportation, tourism and travel and other commercial services, according to the concepts and dentitions’ of the IMF Balance of Payments Manual with a focus on tourism services. Data-set comprises the 25 EU countries, Romania and the world (178 countries) and covers a yearly time period
comprising 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006.
4.2 The Research Results
4.2.1 The Indicators
The evolution of the market share shows the penetration ability of tourism as a services exporting sector of each country in the international economy.
The data reveal that, for the analyzed period, the EU-25 economies were among the main world suppliers of tourism services, since they maintained an overall participation next to 45% of the world supply in tourism exports. Altogether, the group constituted by these countries slightly diminished the held proportions of the world quota in tourism services (–0.68% growth rate).
From the perspective of individual countries, the economies that registered an increase of their quotas in the world market of tourism services were, in order, those of Poland, Estonia, Lithuania, UK and Luxemburg.
By contrast, especially signi?cant are the results registered by countries like Hungary, Finland and Spain, which decreased their market share in tourism.
Romania’s market share in tourism services exports declined at both world level (Romania –world) and in relation to EU-25 countries (Romania –EU-25), but the decrease in the latter case was more severe (20.85%, as opposed to 4.65%). Also, the reduction in Romania’s market share on the EU-25 market was much higher then the overall European market retreat.
Through the analysis of the export structure we can appreciate the importance that export of services has as currency provider for the EU-25 economies and Romania.
Data show that, in relation to the examined services sectors, the exports of tourism services represent about 27% of the overall services exports in the EU-25 countries and about 28% at world level, meaning that, compared to the world export structure, the EU-25 countries exhibit a similar pattern, with a slight negative deviation for tourism services.
In the analyzed period, most of the countries registered minor decreases in their currency entry through exports of tourism services. The countries that opposed this trend were Poland, Estonia, Malta, Germany, UK.
In Romania, tourism services represent about 14% of the overall services exports, which is below the world and European average (27–28%).The evolution is similar with that signaled above, meaning that the structure of Romania’s exports is altered in the detriment of tourism services, that are decreasing both in relation to the world and to the EU-25 countries, but with a much higher amplitude in the latter case (27.85%, as compared to 6.14%).
译文
旅游服务贸易的国际竞争力
安娜；克瑞斯缇娜
1 引言
对所有国家来说，旅游业都可以为本国提供交易机会，这也是唯一可能的服务活动。然而,它也是一个有着明显的收益分布明显不均匀的活动，有的国家旅游旅游贸易收入高，有的则相对较低，对于这些国家来说，都需要提供其旅游贸易的国际竞争力。
自上世纪90年代初以来,罗马尼亚的旅游出口总量、增长速度和结构等都经历了重大的变化。这些变化影响了罗马尼亚在国际旅游市场上的相对竞争地位,已改变了旅游贸易的平衡。与此同时，新的以及更多元化的罗马尼亚的欧式建筑都吸引了大批的游客，引起了罗马尼亚的区域旅游竞争力的显著变化。
在此背景下，本文试图提出一个框架，以竞争力和旅游贸易表现之间的关系为重点，来评估罗马尼亚的旅游服务贸易的国际竞争力。
为此，文章第一部分开始引入国际竞争力的概念和提出、评价复杂的国际竞争力分析的关键问题，并将之分类。接着文章考虑了出口业绩和国际竞争力，以及其相关的国际旅游。第二部分包括一个旅游部门的宏观概述，特别注重其对经济的重要性。本文的第三部分详细列明计算竞争力的建议措施的框架，并表明在解释这些指标提供的信息的方式方法的重要性。也说明了在一个综合衡量国际贸易竞争力的基础上，罗马尼亚旅游业的近期发展。文章最后解释了罗马尼亚在欧洲旅游市场上的竞争地位，并确定了需要进一步研究的问题。
2国际竞争力视角：出口业绩和国际竞争力之间的关系及其与国际旅游业的相关性
尽管对国际竞争力的概念有很多争议，并且是难以捉摸的，但现在，其概念已经得到了广泛的认可，并继续吸引世界各地的学者和决策者对其进行研究。
Gee Journal 31.4457-465457?1993 (Dec) by Kluwer Academic Publishers Ecotoufism in the Small Island Caribbean Weave~ David B., Prof. Dl:, UniversiO, of Regina, Luther College, Regina, Saskatchewan $4S OA2, Canada ABSTRACT: Ecotourism-related strategies can serve to enhance the tourism industries of small Caribbean islands, which are presently dominated by a 3S (sea, sand, sun) product. In the first place, the principles of Alternative Tourism can be applied to 3S tourism in order to minimize negative environmental impacts. Secondly, diversionary ecotourism opportunities can be promoted to diversify the tourism product, thus providing a nature-oriented alternative to resort-based tourists. Thirdly, regional ecotourism, catering to ecotourists, can be fostered in mountainous interiors, peripheral islands, undeveloped coastlines, rural agricultural areas and in offshore reefs. A fourth strategy, exemplified by Dominica, entails a comprehensive ecotourism approach for destinations in which 3S tourism is undesired or unsuited. Introdactien The concept of ecotourism has attracted a considerable amount of interest among both academics and non-academics since the term was first introduced in the mid-1980s (see for example Boo t990; Goriup 1991; Lindberg 1991; Nelson, Butler and Wall 1993; Whelan 1991; Ziffer 1989). In a frequently cited definition, Ceballos-Lascurain (1988) characterizes ecotourism as Tourism that involves travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific object of studying, admiring and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural aspects (both past and present) found in these areas. While this definition is useful in stressing the environmental orientation of ecotourism, it is clear that the term has also come to be associated with a range o f characteristics which collectively define an "alternative tourism" (AT) paradigm (Dernoi 1981; Krippendorf 1987; Singh, Theuns and Go 1989). This paradigm has emerged as an alternative to "conventional mass tourism" (CMT), which has been criticized as an often inappropriate form of tourism, especially for smaller destinations. CMT characteristics, outlined and contrasted in Tab 1 with the AT model, tend to appear during the middle and later stages of a destination's cycle of evolution (Butler 1980; Christaller 1963; Stansfield 1978). With respect to accommodations, attractions, market and economic impact, the argument can be made that ecotourism and AT are merely other names for the early "exploration" stage of the resort cycle, when relatively unspoiled areas are opened up to further tourist incursions by a few pioneer travellers. However, as pointed out by Weaver (1991), what distinguishes this "circumstantial" AT from "deliberate" AT is the lack of regulations and policies which attempt to ensure that the activity is maintained at environmentally, economically and socially sustainable levels. "Deliberate" ecotourism, the subject of this paper, is therefore very" much associated with intentions of identifying and working within the carrying capacities of a particular area, and o f discouraging the emergence of a CM T product where it is deeme d to be undesirable or inappropriate. The recent proliferation of ecotourism case studies, based largely in the underdeveloped world, is not surprising in light of deliberate ecotourism's status as the fastest growing form o f tourism (Whelan 1991). For example, Dearden (1989) and Zurick (1992) examined the p h e n o m e n o n of mountain trekking in Nepal and northern Thailand respectively, while Boo (1990), and Fennell and
https://www.doczj.com/doc/6e8726521.html,/finance/company/consumer.html Consumer finance company The consumer finance division of the SG group of France has become highly active within India. They plan to offer finance for vehicles and two-wheelers to consumers, aiming to provide close to Rs. 400 billion in India in the next few years of its operations. The SG group is also dealing in stock broking, asset management, investment banking, private banking, information technology and business processing. SG group has ventured into the rapidly growing consumer credit market in India, and have plans to construct a headquarters at Kolkata. The AIG Group has been approved by the RBI to set up a non-banking finance company (NBFC). AIG seeks to introduce its consumer finance and asset management businesses in India. AIG Capital India plans to emphasize credit cards, mortgage financing, consumer durable financing and personal loans. Leading Indian and international concerns like the HSBC, Deutsche Bank, Goldman Sachs, Barclays and HDFC Bank are also waiting to be approved by the Reserve Bank of India to initiate similar operations. AIG is presently involved in insurance and financial services in more than one hundred countries. The affiliates of the AIG Group also provide retirement and asset management services all over the world. Many international companies have been looking at NBFC business because of the growing consumer finance market. Unlike foreign banks, there are no strictures on branch openings for the NBFCs. GE Consumer Finance is a section of General Electric. It is responsible for looking after the retail finance operations. GE Consumer Finance also governs the GE Capital Asia. Outside the United States, GE Consumer Finance performs its operations under the GE Money brand. GE Consumer Finance currently offers financial services in more than fifty countries. The company deals in credit cards, personal finance, mortgages and automobile solutions. It has a client base of more than 118 million customers throughout the world
第一章 一、旅游经济学是以经济学的一般理论为指导，研究旅游经济活动中各种经济现象，经济关系和经济规律的学科。 二、经济学是研究人类社会在各种发展阶段上的各种经济活动、经济关系和经济规律的学科总称。 三、旅游学是以世界为整体，研究旅游活动产生、发展及其运行规律的学科，目的是揭示旅游活动的内在性质、特点及发展趋势。 四、旅游经济学特征：旅游经济学是一门应用学科，旅游经济学是一门产业经济学，旅游经济学是一门基础学科，旅游经济学是一门新兴的边缘学科。 五、旅游经济学研究的对象是旅游经济活动中旅游产品的需求与供给的矛盾。 旅游经济学的研究任务：第一，揭示影响和作用于旅游经济活动的基本经济因素和经济关系。第二，在研究旅游经济活动的基础上，寻觅和获取旅游业发展的最佳经济效益和社会效益的途径。第三，为制定旅游业发展方针、政策和法国提供理论基础。 六、旅游经济学研究的内容：1.旅游经济的形成及产业标志。2.旅游产品的开发及供求关系。3.旅游产品的市场开拓及销售。4.旅游产品的消费及合理化。5.旅游产品的经营成本及效益。6.旅游经济结构及发展。 七、旅游经济学的研究方法：1.理论与实际相结合的方法。2.定性分析与定量分析相结合的方法。3.静态分析与动态分析相结合的方法。
4.微观分析与宏观分析相结合的方法。 八、旅游经济学与其他学科的关系：1.旅游经济学与经济学的关系：旅游经济学是一门经济类的应用学科，经济学理论在旅游经济学中也是适用的。旅游经济学规律与一般的经济规律是高兴与共性的关系。 2.旅游经济学与旅游学的关系：旅游经济学是旅游学的一部分，它与旅游学的关系是特殊与一般的关系。旅游经济学是从经济这个角度研究旅游活动中所反映的诸关系中的经济关系，从经济学的角度加深对旅游学的研究。 3.旅游经济学与其他旅游学科的关系：第一类是与旅游经济学成平行关系的学科，旅游活动是它们相互联系的纽带。第二类是与旅游经济学成纵向关系的学科，旅游经济学同这些学科的关系是抽象与具体的关系，它们都是旅游经济学的基本理论在各具体领域中的应用和具体化。 第二章 一、旅游经济是社会生产力发展到一定阶段的产物，是视频生产发展的结果，是国民经济的重要组成部分。 二、旅行社是指依法成立并具有法人资格，在旅游经济活动中从事招徕、接待旅游者，组织旅游活动，获取经济收入，实行独立核算、自负盈亏的旅游企业。 三、旅游饭店是为旅游者提供住宿、餐饮、娱乐和其他服务的旅游企业。 四、旅游交通是旅游业的重要组成部分，没有发达的现代交通运输业，就不可能有发达的现代旅游业。
外文翻译 译文 标题：乡村旅游与可持续发展 资料来源: 亚诺什学院 - 布达佩斯经济科学大学 作者：塔玛拉拉茨 - 拉斯洛坡格左 引言 乡村旅游是旅游产业的一个部分，这在匈牙利显得尤为重要。在一个国家没有壮观的自然景观，没有海滨、高山、雨林、珍奇动物的情况下，迷人的村庄、温泉、河流和湖泊这些旅游资源可以利用起来。优美环境与当地人们传统的热情接待相结合，能够提供给游客愉快的体验，让游客在安静的环境中得到放松并且欣赏到文化景观。 一方面，乡村旅游业的发展使匈牙利旅游资源呈现多样化，使国家形象更加多姿多彩。另一方面，乡村旅游是刺激经济增长的一种手段，促进了欠发达地区的产业发展，并改善当地居民的生活水平。 如果乡村旅游要发挥其真正的作用，在某种程度上得到进一步的发展，那么在其自身发展的基础上，就要确保资源的长期可持续性发展。那么，什么是乡村旅游的可持续发展方式？如何对其可持续性进行监测来达到促进农村发展的目的？本文试图回答这些问题，并且通过提出匈牙利乡村旅游指标来了解被认为是这种类型的旅游的目前情况。 旅游业可持续发展 可持续发展的概念是由世界环境与发展委员会在1987年的布伦特兰报告中关提出来的，可持续发展定义为“发展，以满足当代人的需求又不损害子孙后代能满足自己的需要”。 旅游业是世界各地最重要的经济活动之一，1997年世界各地国际运送超过6.17亿人，年收益产生448亿美元（WTO，1998年），这是一个重要的经济力量。1996年产生生产总值3153.3亿美元，为255万人创造就业机会，参与生产应用程序。旅游业生产值占到世界10.7%的国内生产总值，766亿美元用于投资应用程序，每年都
毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献及译文 英文题目Component-based Safety Computer of Railway Signal Interlocking System 中文题目模块化安全铁路信号计算机联锁系统 学院自动化与电气工程学院 专业自动控制 姓名葛彦宁 学号 200808746 指导教师贺清 2012年5月30日
Component-based Safety Computer of Railway Signal Interlocking System 1 Introduction Signal Interlocking System is the critical equipment which can guarantee traffic safety and enhance operational efficiency in railway transportation. For a long time, the core control computer adopts in interlocking system is the special customized high-grade safety computer, for example, the SIMIS of Siemens, the EI32 of Nippon Signal, and so on. Along with the rapid development of electronic technology, the customized safety computer is facing severe challenges, for instance, the high development costs, poor usability, weak expansibility and slow technology update. To overcome the flaws of the high-grade special customized computer, the U.S. Department of Defense has put forward the concept：we should adopt commercial standards to replace military norms and standards for meeting consumers’demand [1]. In the meantime, there are several explorations and practices about adopting open system architecture in avionics. The United Stated and Europe have do much research about utilizing cost-effective fault-tolerant computer to replace the dedicated computer in aerospace and other safety-critical fields. In recent years, it is gradually becoming a new trend that the utilization of standardized components in aerospace, industry, transportation and other safety-critical fields. 2 Railways signal interlocking system 2.1 Functions of signal interlocking system The basic function of signal interlocking system is to protect train safety by controlling signal equipments, such as switch points, signals and track units in a station, and it handles routes via a certain interlocking regulation. Since the birth of the railway transportation, signal interlocking system has gone through manual signal, mechanical signal, relay-based interlocking, and the modern computer-based Interlocking System. 2.2 Architecture of signal interlocking system Generally, the Interlocking System has a hierarchical structure. According to the function of equipments, the system can be divided to the function of equipments; the system
第一章 一、 二、四、旅游经济学特征：旅游经济学是一门应 用学科，旅游经济学是一门产业经济学，旅游经济学是一门基础学科，旅游经济学是一门新兴的边缘学科。 三、五、旅游经济学研究的对象是旅游经济活动中 旅游产品的需求与供给的矛盾。 四、旅游经济学的研究任务：第一，揭示影响和作 用于旅游经济活动的基本经济因素和经济关系。第二，在研究旅游经济活动的基础上，寻觅和获取旅游业发展的最佳经济效益和社会效益的途径。第三，为制定旅游业发展方针、政策和法国提供理论基础。 五、六、旅游经济学研究的内容：1.旅游经济的形 成及产业标志。2.旅游产品的开发及供求关系。3.旅游产品的市场开拓及销售。4.旅游产品的消费及合理化。5.旅游产品的经营成本及效益。6.旅游经济结构及发展。
六、七、旅游经济学的研究方法：1.理论与实际相 结合的方法。2.定性分析与定量分析相结合的方法。3.静态分析与动态分析相结合的方法。4. 微观分析与宏观分析相结合的方法。 七、八、旅游经济学与其他学科的关系：1.旅游经 济学与经济学的关系：旅游经济学是一门经济类的应用学科，经济学理论在旅游经济学中也是适用的。旅游经济学规律与一般的经济规律是高兴与共性的关系。2.旅游经济学与旅游学的关系：旅游经济学是旅游学的一部分，它与旅游学的关系是特殊与一般的关系。旅游经济学是从经济这个角度研究旅游活动中所反映的诸关系中的经济关系，从经济学的角度加深对旅游学的研究。3.旅游经济学与其他旅游学科的关系：第一类是与旅游经济学成平行关系的学科，旅游活动是它们相互联系的纽带。第二类是与旅游经济学成纵向关系的学科，旅游经济学同这些学科的关系是抽象与具体的关系，它们都是旅游经济学的基本理论在各具体领域中的应用和具体化。
第二章考试试题 2012年1月 1．旅游需求的指向性包括旅游需求的________和________。 单选：1．旅游产品价格不变，而影响旅游需求的其他因素发生变化时，旅游需求曲线会发生移动，以下因素会导致需求曲线向右方移动的是( ) A.客源地政府放宽居民出境旅游所携外汇限制 B.目的地国家通货膨胀率大大高于客源地国家 C.客源地国家提高出境税收 D.客源地国家货币相对目的地国家货币贬值 2．旅游需求缺乏弹性的产品，当其价格下降的时候，需求与价格之间的变动方向以及销售总收入与价格之间的变动方向分别是( ) A.正方向；正方向 B.正方向；反方向 C.反方向；正方向 D.反方向；反方向 3．以下各项测量旅游需求的指标中，能反映一定时期内一个国家或地区产生外出旅游需求能力的指标是( ) A.旅游支出 B.游客人均支出 C.出游频率 D.出游率 多选：1．下列旅游需求预测方法中，属于定性分析方法的有( ) A.趋势分析法 B.专家意见法 C.经理评判意见法 D.营销人员意见法 E.旅游意向调查法 名词解释：1．有效旅游需求 2．旅游需求相互制约弹性 计算题：七、计算题(本大题10分) 2006年我国某航空公司由x国飞往我国的机票为400美元，年乘客为60000人，我国某旅行社为x国旅游者制定的包价旅游产品每人每天80美元，年接待x国旅游者65000人；2007年因燃油价格上涨，该航空公司将机票提高到430美元，年乘客降至50000人，由于航空机票价格上调，该旅行社也将其包价旅游产品提高至每人每天85美元，年接待x国旅游人次减至62000人，求该航空公司机票提价10%，则对该旅行社产品需求的影响程度。（运用点弹性公式计算） 2011年10月 1.旅游需求预测按照预测方法分为___ _____和__ _______。 单选：1.在其他因素不变的前提下，人们在一定时期内对旅游产品的需求量会随着旅游产品价格的升降而呈现怎样的变化？（） A.同向 B.反向 C.螺旋式 D.随机性 2.一般来说，在其他因素不变的情况下，人们的可自由支配收入同旅游需求量之间的变化关系是（）
关于生态旅游的文献综述 摘要:生态旅游作为一项以保护性、教育性和责任性为主要特征的旅游活动，在生态环境问题日趋严重的今天，显示出越来越大的生命力，目前生态旅游已成为世界各国旅游者的一种时尚和旅游业的热点。生态旅游迅速的发展，已成为当今旅游发展的重要方向。本文对生态旅游的产生背景，概念内涵以及特性、国内为发展概况等研究文献进行了综述。 关键词：生态旅游内涵特性国内外发展 一．引言 在全球人类面临生存的环境危机的背景下，随着人类环境意识的觉醒，绿色运动及绿色消费已席卷全球。生态旅游作为一种绿色旅游消费，一经提出便在全球引起巨大反响，短短几十年的今天，生态旅游的概念迅速普及到全球，其内涵也得到了不断地充实，针对目前生态环境的不断恶化的状况，旅游业从生态旅游的对象是自然景物出发，将生态旅游定义为“回归大自然旅游”和“绿色旅游” [1]。作为一个综合性的服务部门和第三产业的重要构成部分，旅游业以其强大的关联和带动作用，在区域乃至国家经济社会发展中的作用日记重要，促使诸多地区将旅游业作为支柱性产业或主导性产业加以培育和发展，致使区域间旅游发展竞争日趋激烈[2]。针对现在旅游业发展中出现的种种问题，旅游业从生态旅游的对象不应受到损害出发，将生态旅游定义为“保护旅游”和“可持续发展旅游”。同时，世界各国根据各自的国情开展生态旅游，形成各具特色的生态旅游[3]。 二.生态旅游概述 当今世界经济中，服务业是增长最快的产业，也是提供就业机会最多的产业，美国学者约翰·奈斯比特在他的《2000年大趋势和全球问题》中提出，21世纪世界服务经济的领导产业，主要是电信业，信息技术产业和旅游业三种主要的服务业。1992年里约热内卢会议后，生态旅游在全球得到迅速发展，它作为旅游业中一种宣传主题明确，生命力旺盛的旅游形式，日益深入人心，为了更好的发展生态旅游，先对生态旅游做一回顾。 1生态旅游产生的背景 生态旅游英名为Ecotourism是Ecological Tourism的缩写，由国际自然保护联盟专家H．ceballos Lascurain于1983首次提出的。它不仅被用来表征所有观光景物的旅游，而且强调观光的对象不应受到损害，是在可持续管理的思想指导下开展的旅游活动[4]。它的产生有以下几种原因： (1)有可靠的理论基础。生态学和可持续发展的思想为生态旅游的产生奠定了深厚的基础，现生态学已超过了传统生物生态学的范畴，成为一种人类普遍的思想和原则。在生态利益优先的趋势下，在可持续发展理论指导下，人们开始注重用生态学原理，设计良性运转的旅游系统，实施生态工程，促进了生态旅游的
Dashboard From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about a control panel placed in the front of the car. For other uses, see Dashboard (disambiguation). The dashboard of a Bentley Continental GTC car A dashboard (also called dash, instrument panel (IP), or fascia) is a control panel located directly ahead of a vehicle's driver, displaying instrumentation and controls for the vehicle's operation. Contents 1.Etymology 2.Dashboard features 3.Padding and safety 4.Fashion in instrumentation 5.See also 6.References Etymology Horse-drawn carriage dashboard Originally, the word dashboard applied to a barrier of wood or leather fixed at the front of a horse-drawn carriage or sleigh to protect the driver from mud or other debris "dashed up" (thrown up) by the horses' hooves.[1] Commonly these boards did not perform any additional function other than providing a convenient handhold for ascending into the driver's seat, or a small clip with which to secure the reins when not in use. When the first "horseless carriages" were constructed in the late 19th century, with engines mounted beneath the driver such as the Daimler Stahlradwagen, the simple dashboard was retained to protect occupants from debris thrown up by the cars' front wheels. However, as car design evolved to position the motor in front of the driver, the dashboard became a panel that protected vehicle occupants from the heat and oil of the engine. With gradually increasing mechanical complexity, this panel formed a convenient location for the placement of gauges and minor controls, and from this evolved the modern instrument panel,
一、不定项选择10*1 二、填空10*2 三、作图10*2 四、简答5*3 五、计算10*2 六、论述15*1 第一章 1、什么是旅游经济学 是经济学概念在旅游方面的延伸，即以经济学的一般理论为指导，研究 旅游经济活动中各种经济现象、经济关系、经济规律及其应用的科学。 2、旅游经济学学科特点、属性 学科特点：新兴学科、应用学科、产业经济学科、边缘性学科 学科属性：应用型、部门性、边缘性、基础性 3、与其他学科间关系 4、什么是旅游、旅游活动、旅游经济活动 旅游：非定居者的旅行和暂时逗留而引起的现象和关系的总和。这些人不会导致长期定居且不牵涉任何赚钱活动。 旅游活动：狭义的旅游活动指游人以游览为主要目的所从事的“游览”型活动；广义的旅游既包括游览活动，又包括旅游开发活动、旅游 经营活动、旅游管理活动、旅游教育活动等，即指与旅游直接相关的各 种活动的总称。 旅游经济活动：是旅游活动的一个重要方面，是旅游需求者和旅游供给者之间通过市场交换形式所形成的各种经济现象和经济关系的总 和。 5、旅游经济活动的影响 在国民经济中的地位和作用：增加外汇收入；加快货币回笼；带动相关产业；积累建设资金；促进贫困地区脱贫 对社会的作用及影响：促进人类社会进步；促进接待国或地区社会
环境的改善；促进社会和平 对文化的作用及影响：加速各民族文化的交流和融合；促使民族优秀的文化传统得到发掘、振兴和光大；促使民族文化的个性更加突出； 促进整个人类精神文明的进步 对生态环境的作用及影响：环境是开展旅游活动的重要条件；旅游活动促使人们对环境进行美化和保护；旅游开发促使人们加强对环境的 保护 第二章 ※1、什么是旅游产品（旅游者、生产者、市场三个角度） 从旅游市场角度看：是指旅游者和旅游经营者在市场上交换的、主要用于旅游活动中所消费的各种物质产品和服务的总和。可分为：单项产品、组合产品、整体产品。 从旅游需求角度看：是指旅游者花费一定时间、精力和金钱所得到的一段旅游经历和感受。要求旅游产品具有：内容上的丰富性、组合上的配套性、质量上的均等性。 从旅游供给角度看：是指旅游经营者凭借一定的旅游资源、旅游设施和其他相关媒介，向旅游者提供其在旅游活动中各种需要的诸多产品和服务的总和。要求具有：综合性、有偿性、动态性。 ※2、旅游产品基本特征（区别于一般的工农业产品） 综合性：品种构成复杂、涉及的产业与部门众多、属性的综合性 无形性：取决于服务性 时空同一性：产地消费性 依赖性：旅游产品生产的共有资源依赖性；旅游产品生产的公共物品依赖性；旅游产品生产的社会依赖性 空间固定性 风险性（脆弱性）：旅游产品自身生产出现问题（如结构失衡）；国际经济、政治方面的变化（如贸易壁垒、汇率变化）；各种自然条件与自然环境的变化地区差异性
第五章习题答案 1、与一般产品相比，旅游价格有何不同之处？ 旅游价格是旅游产品价值的货币表现，因此旅游价格应该反映产品的特性。由于旅游产品具有不同于一般产品的特殊性，因而决定了旅游价格也具有其自身的特点，这些特点概括起来有以下三点： （1）旅游价格的综合性 产品的综合性必然使价格也带有综合性的特点。同时由于旅游产品的供给方分属不同的行业和部门，旅游价格的综合性还反映出必须把各种要素有机组合起来，使之相互协调、合理组合成可供销售和消费的旅游产品，这样旅游价格还具有协调和组织各有关部门的产品要素的功能。 （2）旅游价格的季节性 旅游产品与一般商品不同，它的主体内容是旅游服务，旅游产品的“生产”和消费过程无法分离，既不能运输，也无法贮存。由于旅游活动具有较明显的季节性，在不同的旅游季节里，旅游者的消费数量有着较大的差异，存在淡季和旺季的不同。为了提高旅游产品的销售量，旅游经营者往往采取营销的手段来刺激旅游消费，吸引旅游者，价格是最为常用的调节手段。这就导致旅游价格不可避免地带有季节性的特点。 （3）旅游价格的垄断性 由于文物、古迹、名胜、风景、风情、民俗等不同于一般商品，其价值是很难用投入的劳动量的大小来衡量的，不仅不会因为磨损而丧失，相反，随着时间的流逝反而越来越高。这是因为创造这种价值的古代劳动，既不可能再产生，又不可能用现代劳动创造出无法弥补的历史价值，因而在价格上表现为一种垄断。 2、简述旅游价格制定的理论基础。 （1）旅游产品的价值量决定供给价格 （2）旅游产品供求关系决定需求价格 （3）旅游市场竞争状况决定市场成交价格 3、影响旅游产品价格的因素有哪些？ （1）旅游价格形成的可控因素 1）旅游产品成本 2）旅游产品特色 3）旅游产品的定价目标 4）旅游企业的推销能力 （2）旅游价格形成的不可控因素 1）旅游市场供求因素 2）旅游市场竞争因素 3）汇率因素 4）通货膨胀 5）旅游目的地国的政策 6）旅游替代品价格 4、旅游产品的价格体系是怎样构成的？
中南大学CentralSouthUniversity 本科毕业设计英文文献翻译题目 学生姓名 学号 指导教师 学院 专业班级 二○一六年一月八日
Spring 的web MVC 构架模式 Juergen Hoeller 1、介绍：Spring 的应用构架 当你第一次看到并接触Spring框架的时候，你一定会在心里想到；“哦哦，不不，这又是另一种Web构架”。这篇文章将会指出Spring框架不是什么特殊的web框架，而是一个通用的轻量级的应用程序框架，在专用网络支持下的应用程序框架。并且它会告诉你Spring框架明显区别于其他轻量级application framework，它将专注于web的支持，与struts和webwork有着明显的区别。 在和struts和webwork的对比上之中，Spring框架是一个服务于所有层面上的application framework：提供了bean的配置基础，AOP的支持，JDBC的提取框架，抽象事务支持，等等诸如此类。它有一个非常显著的特点：在某个层面上如果你不需要Spring的支持，它有一个非常显著的特点：在某个层面上如果你不需要Spring的支持，你就可以不使用Spring框架的class（类），只使用它的某一部分的功能。从它的设计理念，你可以看到Spring框架帮助你实现了真正的逻辑层和web层的成功分离：例如：一个校验应用将不用依靠controllers，就可以实现。这样的目标是更好的重用和易测：过分依靠不必要的容器和框架将不能实现这一点。 当然，Spring的自己本身的web支持和通常框架模式的细致完整。然而，Spring替换struts，webwork或者其他的web方案非常的容易。这个对于Spring 的web支持或者不同的地方，Spring允许你在web容器里面建立一个中间层，在测试环境或者标准独立的应用里面来设置重用你的商务逻辑。 还有就是在J2EE环境里面，可以让你你的商务逻辑不必依靠容器提供的服务，就比如像JTA，EJB的支持。良好的框架的一个web应用是可以运行在任何
毕业设计文献综述 旅游管理 浅谈国内乡村旅游 一、国外的研究现状 Richard Sharpley在2002年6月的《Tourism Management》中发表了《Rural tourism and the challenge of tourism diversification》一文。通过对诸多权威旅游研究的周刊，例如《International Journal of Tourism Research》、《旅行研究》中刊登的相关文献的归纳总结，作者指出了国外乡村旅游研究的内容，根据其提供的资料，我认为可以集中表现在以下6个方面：一、乡村旅游供给。作为乡村旅游的供给方，乡村旅游的开发者、经营者、目的地居民和地方社区为乡村旅游发展提供了原始的驱动力；二、对乡村旅游者旅游动机及其特点进行剖析作为基础，再根据不同标准进行市场细分，旅游市场将更为合理、精确；三、居民对乡村旅游的理解和态度。旅游地居民是乡村旅游成功与否的重要因素之一。居民对旅游影响的态度和感知会给乡村旅游企业带来直接的影响；四、乡村旅游的经济影响、社会影响以及环境影响，但总体看来，集中于前两者；五、乡村旅游营销。目前，国外研究焦点主要集中在乡村旅游营销主体与营销策略、乡村旅游形象和品牌等方面；六、乡村旅游可持续发展。在国外，人们认为乡村是独特的，因此对其格外关注与保护。实现可持续地开发，是社会经济发展的需要，是保持乡村性的需要。 Suzanne Wilson在《Factors for Success in Rural Tourism Development》一文中介绍了国外乡村旅游发展的背景，认为发达国家乡村旅游的迅速发展离不开一个世纪以来工业化和城市化进程的不断加速。作者将乡村旅游的理论研究从概念内涵、经济、产品、开发、市场营销等方面展开分析总结，认为国外关于乡村旅游，从概念到乡村发展原因，发展方向、模式等都已有了一套相对完整全面的研究体系。除了传统的分析推理等研究方法，访谈法、图表法、综合法等也成为重要的运用手段。国外研究人士注重细节研究，将实际应用情况与理论相结合，将乡村旅游的实践创新推到一个新的层面。 二、国内的研究现状 何景文在2004年第19卷第一期《旅游学刊》中发表的《国内乡村旅游研究：蓬勃发展而有待深入》一文中，提到了近年来中国乡村旅游发展取得的可喜成绩，也对其旅
中等分辨率制备分离的 快速色谱技术 W. Clark Still,* Michael K a h n , and Abhijit Mitra Departm(7nt o/ Chemistry, Columbia Uniuersity,1Veu York, Neu; York 10027 ReceiLied January 26, 1978 我们希望找到一种简单的吸附色谱技术用于有机化合物的常规净化。这种技术是适于传统的有机物大规模制备分离，该技术需使用长柱色谱法。尽管这种技术得到的效果非常好，但是其需要消耗大量的时间，并且由于频带拖尾经常出现低复原率。当分离的样本剂量大于1或者2g时，这些问题显得更加突出。近年来，几种制备系统已经进行了改进，能将分离时间减少到1-3h，并允许各成分的分辨率ΔR f≥（使用薄层色谱分析进行分析）。在这些方法中，在我们的实验室中，媒介压力色谱法1和短柱色谱法2是最成功的。最近，我们发现一种可以将分离速度大幅度提升的技术，可用于反应产物的常规提纯，我们将这种技术称为急骤色谱法。虽然这种技术的分辨率只是中等（ΔR f≥），而且构建这个系统花费非常低，并且能在10-15min内分离重量在的样本。4 急骤色谱法是以空气压力驱动的混合介质压力以及短柱色谱法为基础，专门针对快速分离，介质压力以及短柱色谱已经进行了优化。优化实验是在一组标准条件5下进行的，优化实验使用苯甲醇作为样本，放在一个20mm*5in.的硅胶柱60内，使用Tracor 970紫外检测器监测圆柱的输出。分辨率通过持续时间（r）和峰宽（w,w/2）的比率进行测定的（Figure 1），结果如图2-4所示，图2-4分别放映分辨率随着硅胶颗粒大小、洗脱液流速和样本大小的变化。