英语词汇学精华版
一、选择1-15；二、填空16-20*2；三、四、21-40选择连线；五、41-45名词解
释*2；六、简答46-48*4；七、分析综合49-50*9
针对复习：
一、选择：
二、填空：
三、四、选择连线*****
1、types of morphemes: Free morphemes; bound morphemes; inflectional morphemes.
2、types of bound morphemes：Prefix; Suffix.
3、types of idioms: Idioms Nominal in nature; Idioms Adjectival in nature; Idioms
Verbal in nature; Idioms Adverbal in nature; sentence idioms.
4、types of word meaning: Grammatical meaning and lexical meaning; conceptual
meaning and associative meaning (connotative meaning\stylistic ~\affective
~\collocative ~)
5、idioms stylistic features: colloquialisms; slang; literary expressions.
6、idioms rhetorical features:
phonetic manipulation (alliteration\rhyme); lexical manipulation
(reiteration\repetition\juxtaposition);figures of speech
(simile\metaphor\metonymy\synecdovhe\euphemism\personification)
7、types of word formation: affixation; compounding; conversion; blending; clipping;
acronym; back-formation; word from proper names.
8、changes in wording: extension; narrowing; elevation; degradation; transfer.
9、types of motivation: morphological motivated; semantic ~; etymological ~;
onomatopoeic ~
10、语系划分的标准Estern set : Balto-Slavic(Prussian, Lithuanian , Polish ,Czech, Bulgarian ,Slovenian and Russian.), Indo-Iranian（Persian, Hindi）, Armenian and Albanian；Western set : Celtic(Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton), Italic(Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian , Roumanian) , Hellenic(Greek), Germanic(Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, English, German).
五、41-45名词解释*2；
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.
Morphology : the study of morpheme and their different forms.
Semantics：the study of word meaning.
Etymology: the study of the origin of words, and of their history and changes in
their meaning.
Stylistics : the study of the variation in language which is dependent on the situation in which the language is used and also on the effect the writer or speaker wishes to create on the reader or hearer
Lexicography : the compiling of dictionaries.
Synchronic study : the study of a word or words at one particular point in time.
Diachronic study: a n approach to lexicology which studies how a word (or words)
changes over a period of time.
word: a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and
meaning and syntactic function.
vocabulary：Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period.Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect, given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.
Terminology术语consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and
academic areas as in medicine:
Jargon行话refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in
business.
slang俚语belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone
and in-group words
Argot黑话generally refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups, and outsiders can hardly understand it,
Archaism s古词语are words or forms that were once in common use but are now
restricted only to specialized or limited use.
Neologisms新词语are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken
on new meanings.
denizen s同化词are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated
into the English language.
Alien非同化词are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation
and spelling.
Translation-loans. 借译词Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from
another language.
Semantic-loan s借义词Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the
form. But their meanings are borrowed.
Content word: the basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary ,which accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. It is the most
important part of vocabulary.
Creation : the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affix es and other elements. Semantic change means an old form which takes on a
new meaning to meet the new need.
Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in a language
Allomorph: any of the different forms of a morpheme
Free morpheme: a linguistic form which can be used on its own as a word
Bound morpheme: a form (morpheme) which can not he used alone hut must be used with another morpheme. Bound morphemes include hound roots and affixes
Affixes: forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function
Prefixation(suffixation): is the formation of new words by adding prefixes(suffixes) to stem
Inflectional affixes: affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships
Derivational affixes: affixes added to other morphemes to create new words
Root: a morpheme which is the basic part of a word that can not be further analyzed without total loss of identity
Stem: a form to which affixes of any kind can be added
Bound root: a root that can not stand alone as a word
Monomorphemic words: words that have nothing more than a free morpheme
Affixation: Derivation (also known as affixation) is the process of formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. Affixaton consisits of prefixation and suffixation. Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems; suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to
stems.
Compounding: Compounding or composition is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way tire called compounds.
Conversion：Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Functional shift = conversion Zero-derivation .Adjective to noun :
(1) full conversion (2) partial conversion
Acronymy Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of neames of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms Acronymy包含两类:1) initialisms (不发音)e.g. BBC, VOA, TB2)
acronyms (形成新的发音)e.g. CORE, TEFL
Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a won!
plus a part of another word. Words formed by blending are called blends or
pormanteau.
Clipping is a way of making new words which involves the shortening a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.
Back-formation is a process of forming new words considered to the opposite process of suffixation by the removal of an affix from existing word.
Words from proper names of place, people, trade, book, etc.
Concept,is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective
world in the human mind
Sense : denotes the relationships inside the language.
Reference is the relationship between language and the world.
definite concept. Compare the following；词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升华Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciative sense；词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus, which was once used to make paper. In modern times, paper is made from rags, wood, straw and the like, but the product has retained the same name. There is associated transfer.
There are other kinds of transfer, such as, concrete to abstract, abstract to
concrete and transfer of sensation.
语境的种类:非语言语境。语言语境：词汇语境和语法语境。There are two types of contexts: linguistic context and extra-linguistic (or non-linguistic context). Extra-linguistic context refers to those situations and features which are not directly a part of the language in use but which either contribute in conveying a message or have an influence on language use. Linguistic or Intra-linguistic context is further subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context. By lexical context we mean the words that occur together with the word in question. By grammatical context we mean that the meanings of a word may be influenced by
the structure in which it occurs.
语境的作用：Three major functions of context: elimination of ambiguity, indication of referents, provision of clues for inferring word-meaning. Context an be summed up as follows:1) definition 2) explanation 3) example 4) synonymy 5) Antonymy
6)hyponymy 7) relevant details 8) word structure
英语习语的特点The characteristics of idioms include semantic unity and structural
stability.
英语习语的分类According to the criterion of their grammatical functions, we classify them into idioms nominal in nature, idioms adjectival in nature, idioms verbal in nature, idioms adverbial in nature, and sentence idioms. The stylistic features are characterized with colloquialisms, slang, and literary expressions.
英语习语的使用The use of idioms involves their stylistic features, rhetorical features , and variations of idioms.
英语习语的修辞色彩The rhetorical features of idioms are represented with phonetic manipulation ( alliteration头韵法and rhyme叠韵) , lexical manipulation
( reiteration复用, repetition重复and juxtaposition反义词叠用), figures of speech ( simile明喻, metaphor暗喻, metonymy转喻, synecdoche借代, personification拟人,
euphemism委婉)
英语习语的变异形式In the variations, addition, deletion, replacement, position-shifting and dismembering are involved in the changes in idioms
constituents .
Associative meaning : 1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. 2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminated. 3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture , experience, religion, geographical region, class background,education, etc. 4)Associative meaning comprises four types : connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative.
Metonymy和Synecdoche ,修饰有何区别? Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of names, yet they differ in that the former is a case of using the name of one thing for another closely associated with it and the latter is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa.
词典的种类There are four types of dictionaries with their features mentioned in this parts: (1) monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, (2) linguistic and encyclopedic dictionaries, (3) unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries, (4) specialized dictionaries. A monolingual dictionary is a dictionary which is written in one language. A bilingual dictionary is one in which two languages are involved. A linguistic dictionary is a dictionary which aims at defining words and explaining their usages in the language. An encyclopedic dictionary is one in which encyclopedic information is provided along with the general information as in a linguistic dictionary . An encyclopedia is a dictionary which only provide encyclopedic information concerning each headword. An unabridged dictionary is an unshortened dictionary with at least 200,000 headwords that can supply a great quantity of basic, information about a word. A desk dictionary is a medium-sized dictionary containing words ranging from 50,000 to 150,000. A pocket dictionary is a dictionary which has about 50,000 entries or fewer.
七、分析综合49-50*9
1、对句子进行理论分析，并改进：ambiguous—原因cause—可以如何理解？——如何改进？
improve
2、对单词进行分析：re-collect-ion—归属free morpheme, bound morpheme—解释
3、构词法进行分析：word formation: 例如：VIP=very important person属于aronym
4、分析idiom:属于什么短语—作用
注：重点有1、idioms相关知识；
2、一些名词解释，如术语等；
3、types of meaning；
二. 串讲内容
Introduction部分：
Lexicology这门课算哪一种学科的分支exicology is a branch of linguistics.
Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系:1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4)
Etymology 5) Lexicography
研究lexicology的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学e.g. wife纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman词义的变化算是词义
变化的哪一种模式？
Woman的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization
第一章
What is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。1) A word is a minimal free form of a language;2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释
词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼
写可以分为哪两类词？
1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmail，management可以次划分为manage 和–ment misfortune可以次划分为mis- 和fortune。blackmail次划分为black和mail
What is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is ‘no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be
represented bydifferent sounds.
What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language
is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oralform, such as English language.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English3)With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two.
What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or irregularity between sound and form?1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter tore present each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn farapart.3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English
vocabulary.
要记住以上四句话中的关键词：1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3)
early scribes4) borrowing
你能不能举出外来语对英语发音,拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是
‘sound and form ’不一致。
What is vocabulary?Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period.Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect, given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.
Classification of Words (本课的一个重点, 年年考试都考)
What is the classification of words? How to classify words in linguistics? Three criteria :1) By use of frequency 2) By notion 3) By origin
By use of frequency可划分为：1) The basic word stock 2) Nonbasic word vocabulary
By notion概念可划分为：1) Content word2) Functional word 实词虚词 Content words are also known as notional words . (Content words的别称)Functional words are also known as empty words, or form words. (Functional words的别称)Functional words possesses a characteristic of basic word stock, i.e. stability According to Stuart
Robertson ,et al (1957),* (年年考试必考) the nine functional words , namely ,and , be , have , it , of , the , to , will ,you
What are the characteristics of basic word stock?1) All national character2) Stability3) Productivity4) Polysemy5) Collocability要把握住‘All national character’词,就是和我们日常生活息息相关的，最普通词
稳定性是基本词的一个很大特点，请你举例说明？e.g. man, woman , fire, water …e.g. machine, video, telephone …e.g. bow, chariot , knight Stability is relative, not
absolute.
根据词的use frequency划分出的基本词之外，还有一类词叫作None basic vocabulary, 非基本词有几大特点？或者是几大分类？1) Terminology e.g. sonata, algebra2) Jargon e.g. Bottom line ( Jargon ) 3) Slang e.g. smoky, bear ( Slang ) 4) Argot e.g. persuader5) Dialectal words e.g. station ( AusE = ranch ) bluid ( ScotE= blood)6) Archaisms e.g. wilt (will)7) Neologisms e.g. email ( Neologisms )beaver是girl 的slang表达方式，但是二者之间存在着Stylistic difference
Which constitutes the larger number among English vocabulary, content words or functional words ? Answer : Content words What is native words? Answer : (1) By origin, English words can be classified into native words and borrowed words.(2) Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus know asAnglo-Saxon words. (3) Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number ,amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the
language
什么叫borrowed words?Answer: (1) words taken over from foreign languages are know as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.(2) It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary (3) The English language has vast debts .In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are
borrowed.
什么叫Denizens?Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language. In other words they have come to conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling, such as port from portus (L).‘Denizens’的例子都要记：Port from portus (L), cup from cuppa (L),shift from
skipta (ON), shirt from skyrta (ON), change from changier (F), pork from porc (F).
什么叫Translation-loans ?Translation-loans are words and expressions formed form the existingmaterial in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language, such as ‘ long time no see from haojiumeijian (Ch)
什么叫Semantic-loans ?words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form ,But their meaning are borrowed , in other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language ,such as the word dream ,which originally meant ’joy’ and ‘music ’, and its modern meaning was borrowed later
from the Norse.
第二章：The development of the English vocabulary
The Indo-European Language Family It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000(some put it5,000)languages ,which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar .
(重点：语系划分的标准)What is the criteria to divide language families ?The answer :
1. the basis of similarities in their basic word stock
2. grammar(重点)The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as(选择题内容：)Prussian, Lithuanian , Polish ,Czech, Bulgarian ,Slovenian and Russian.
‘Indo-European’ 两大分支：1.Eastern set 2.Western set Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian Western set : Celtic, Italic , Hellenic, Germanic. In the western Set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.
Celtic ：Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton The five Romance languages, namely ,Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian , Roumanian all belong to the Italic.
The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish ,which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch ,Flemish and English.With Vikings’ invasion, many Scandinavian words came into the English language. It is estimated that at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.
重点句: Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England
古英语最大的模糊性的概念来自于 (scripts )古英语正因为出现印刷术才打破了 ( early scripts)Sound and form真正达到统一是在什么时期？.Sound and form reached their concord in ( Modern English period )如果从词汇变化的角度而言，Modern English又
可以细划分为early period ,modern period.
*现代英语早期阶段属于哪一种文化现象的发展时期（重要的选择或填空内容）Early
modern English appeared in the Renaissance
Modern English period有什么样的外来语的进入？The Latin words swarmed into English in early modern English period现代英语时期，英语词汇大量丰富还有另外一个原因是(colonization)The richness of Modern English in vocabulary also arises from(Colonization )The English language has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language ( 重要选择或填空内容)Growth of Present-day English
Vocabulary
Three main sources of new words :1)The rapid development of modern science and technology 2)Social, economic and political changes;3)The influence of other
cultures and language
2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development1)creation 2) semantic change 3)
borrowing2)Semantic change （还包括外来词的Semantic loans ）Elevation, degradation, extension, narrowing, transfer外来词可以被称作borrowed words , 因此又可以被称作 .重点句：borrowed words are also known as loaned words .恢复古英语的用词是美国英语的一大特色Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant. This is especially
trueof American English.
英语从synthetic language发展到present analytical language是在英语的哪一个阶段
完成的？答案：Modern English period
文艺复兴时期，恰逢英语发展的哪个阶段?答案：Early Modern English period
在英语发展过程在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？French, Latin, English in Middle
English period
easel, port, freight, 出现于英语发展的哪个阶段，属于哪一种外来词的引入？答案：
Middle English , Dutch
在英语发展的某一个阶段，有一种语言进入英语，它一共带来了2500个词汇，这种语言是
什么？答案：Dutch (前年考题)
据现代语言学家的统计，英语中目前所占本族词的数量有多少?答案：50,000 to 60,000他们的来源是(Anglo_Saxon tongue )第二次世界大战以后，大量外来词进入英语中，如：Mao jackets , black belt , kongfu, 这些词属于英语词汇发展的Present - day English Vocabulary注意：第二章出大题的内容无非就是请简述印欧语系的发展与组成。
Old English和Middle English最大的striking distinction存在于哪一个方面?答案：Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled
endings.
文艺复兴时期，哪两种文化得到了复兴，这对英语词汇的丰富具有什么样的影响?答案：
Greek , Roman culture
某些希腊词被引入到了英语是在什么阶段?答案：Modern English
十六世纪，有一种新工业出现对词汇的发展产生重要的影响，这是哪一种industry?答案：Printing这导致sound and form出现concord , 出现standardization.
第三章复习
The smallest unit in the English language refers to (morphemes)
The minimal free form in the English language refers to (word)
In the plural form changing, some of the words will take internal vowel change , this internal vowel change is called (allomorphs)
Deer复数没有变,还是deer, sheep复数没有变,还是sheep, 因此,这种变化被称作(zero
derivation)
名词解释:Morphemes : The minimal meaningful units in a language are known as morphemes. In other words, the morphemes isthe smallest functioning unit in
composition of words
Allomorphs : The alternative morphs are known as allomorphs, e.g.the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats in bags, matches It can be realized by the change of an internal vowel as in
foot-feet, man-men, goose-geese or by zero morphs as in deer-deer, fish-fish 大道若直，上善若水！为英语本科的全部通过而努力！！！
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简答题： what are the types of morphemes ? ( 答简答题时,名词解释)答案：Free morphemes and bound morphemes 。
Free morphemes : 1) Free morphemes are independent of other morphemes and are considered to be free.2) These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. 3) They are identical with root words, as each of them consists of a single free root words ,as each of them consists of a single free root 4) free morphemes are
free roots.
bound morphemes: 1) Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.. 2) They are bound to other morphemes to form words.
3) Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix affix 分为两类: inflectional and derivational affixes. Inflectional affixes : Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. Derivational affixes: 1)derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create now words.2) Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes. root : 1) a root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. 2) the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word 3) a ’root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed’ stem :1) a stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff. 2) It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as inmouthful, underestimate. 3) Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of
any kind can be added.
问题：Stem和root有一个最大的区别在哪里? ( 连着两年没有考过)
答案： a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any
kind can be added.
问题：请加以区别下面两个词的特征: nation , dict请加以理论的分析?Both nation and dict belong to roots, nation is free root, which can function alone in a sentence, Nation as a free root, has complete meaning, when both prefixes and suffixes attached to it are removed, nation as a free root, still remains Dict is a bound root, which can not function alone grammatically , dict carries the fundamental meaning of words, dict has to combine with the other morphemes to create new words , for example , dictionary ,
contradiction .
问题：分析下面一句话: He is much more cleverer than any other one in the village, too heads are better than one.请从构词角度分析以上的例子,c leverer , better cleverer (-er : inflectional affixes ) better ( good , well的特殊变化) It is allomorph of good
and well.
第四章:
问题：在英语中,主要的构词法分为哪几种?答案：有七种:1) Affixation 2) Compounding 3) conversion 4) shortening 5) clipping 6) acronymy 7) blending有三种最常用: affixation , compounding and conversion
问题：由专有名词变为普通名词是词义变化的哪一种?答案：Extension 问题：由普通名词变为专有名词是词义变化的哪一种模式?答案：
Narrowing
问题：Affixation又被称为什么? 它分为哪两类？答案：Affixation is also known as derivation Affixation falls into two subclasses : prefixation and suffixation要点: 有哪些前缀属于什么样的类别:a-, non, ir : negative prefixes de- , dis- ( 既属于negative , 也属于reversative prefixes ) mal-, pseudo-, mis- : pejorative prefixes super , sur-, extra ： prefixes of degree or size anti-,
contra-, counter-, pro- : prefixes of orientation and attitude
trans-, fore- tele- : locative prefixes fore-, post- : prefixes of time and order bi-, uni-, semi- : number prefixes pan-, vice - : miscellaneous prefixessuffixation : 1. Noun suffixes 1) Denominal nouns 2) Deverbal nouns3) De-adjective nouns: ity, -ness, 4) Noun and adjective suffixes注意Compounding,
acoronymy , blending , conversion , clipping的名词解释.
要点: 复合词分为哪三类: 1)solid 2) hyphenated 3) open
简答题: what are the characteristics of compounds ?What are the difference between compounds and free phrases ?答案：1) phonetic features2) Semantic features3) Grammatical features
最常见的三种词性 : 1) Noun compound 2) Adjective compounds 3)
verb compounds
问题：在名词性复合词中有哪几种有多产性, 哪两种不具有多产性?
在形容性复合词当中, 哪三类有多产性?
动词性复合词是靠哪两种方法复合在一起的?
*名词解释:Conversion ( 重点，还没考过)Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one
class to another class. Functional shift = conversion
Zero-derivation ( 选择或填空要点)Adjective to noun : (1) full conversion (2) partial conversion
问题：形容词转为动词分为哪两类？答案：由Adjective to verbs : (1)
Transitive (2) Intransitive
简答题: 形容词变动词的三种类别( 没考过)
问题：请你举出由conjunction变为noun的一个例子?答案： Ifs and buts blending are also called blends or portmanteau words ( 选
择或填空要点)
问题：‘blending’ 分为哪四类合成词？1. head + tail 2. head + head
3. head + word
4. word + tail
问题: 绝大多数blending都是什么词性?答案：nouns，The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns;very few are verbs and
adjectives are even fewer.
问题：截短法clipping分为哪四类？答案：There are four common types of clipping :1) Front clipping2) Back clipping3) Front and back clipping4) Phrase clipping要注意clipping的例子有一个特殊变化：fridge ( refrigerator截短之后在i, g中间加一个d ) , 还有拼写发生变化，比如说：coke ( coca cola)
问题：什么是acronymy？Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of neames of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms Acronymy包含两类:1) initialisms (不发音)e.g. BBC, VOA, TB2) acronyms (形成新的发音)e.g. CORE, TEFL
Words from proper names有四大类:1. Names of people e.g. bobby : Names of people2. Names of places e.g. champagne, rugby 3. Names of books e.g. utopia 4. Tradenames e.g. cabal
问题：以下的词采用哪种构词法？
e.g. diagnosis ---?diagnose : (先有诊断的名词,后有了诊断的动词,这种构词被称作) backformation bloomers (它的构词法满足哪一种词法): 属于Words from proper names中的Names of people VJ-day :(这种构词法是由哪一种构成的)属于Initialisms中的Acronyms Pop: (采用哪一种构词法构成的) : clipping Sitcom : blending FORTRAN : head + head Bath (名词) ----- bathe ( 动词) Bath和bathe存在一种什么关系? ( Conversion )重点句：Conversion is also known as
functional shift.
问题：Noun + v-ing, 这类词构成的词是什么词？答案：compounding
问题：Record-breaking , 它是属于复合法中的哪一种？答案：
Adjectives compounds
问题：请说出Adjectives compounds中多产性强的有几类？答案：有三类1) n + v-ing 2) n + a3) n + v-ed
问题：up-bringing是属于哪一类构词法构成的词？答案：noun
compounds (adv + v-ing )
问题：复合词与自由短语的最大的区别是什么?答案：区别也就是复合词的特点:1) Phonetic features2) Semantic features3) Grammatical
features
问题：red meat, green horn,它们是复合词的哪一个特点构成的词?答案：Semantic features (也就是从构词上推不出它的涵义)
问题：Compounding又被称作什么法？答案：composition
问题：由compounding或composition构成的词被称作什么？答案：
compounds
问题：复合词分为几类？分别举例加以说明？答案：分为三类：solid, hyphenated, opensolid : blackmail , blackmarkethyphenated: brother-in-law, open : green horn , green hand
问题：当形容词转为动词时分为几类：Adjectives to verbs答案：有三类：1) Both transitive and intransitive 2) Only transitive 3)
Only intransitive
问题：由人的行为所造成的结果进行转类之后，转成了什么词性?答案：
verb to noun e.g. catch
问题：形容词可不可以转类，转成名词分为几个类别?答案：分为两类：
1) full conversion e.g. black , white
2) partial conversion e.g. the rich , the poor
问题：名词再变成名词分为几类？分别举例说明？答案：1) Concrete 2) abstract e.g. host : （可加-ess变成具体名词）friend : (加-ship
可变成抽象名词)
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问题：(只作了解) A word is unity of sound and meaning ( true or
false )答案：true ( 可从word 的四个特点看出)
问题：Most loaned words are borrowed from foreign languages without anychange in sound and spelling. （true or false ）.答
案： true
外来词分为四类：1) Denizens e.g. cup from cuppa , port form portus
2) Aliens e.g. garage , décor 3) Translation –loans e.g. long
time no see 4) Semantic- loans.e.g. dream
判断对错题：
1．Conversion means transfer of a word from one class to anther .
(true or false )答案：true
2． The relationship between a word symbol and its meaning is
mostly arbitrary and conventional.(true or false ).答案：true 3.a word used in different contexts may contrast with different
antonyms .(true or false)答案：true
4. an allomorph is any of the variant forms of morphemes. (true
or false )答题： false
重点句：A word which has more than one meaning can have more than
one antonym.
E.g. fast （fast 在不同的语境中对应着不同的概念）选择题： Chinese is our native language, but we can not say the Chinese is our ? .a)mother tongue b) first language c) mother language
d) official language答案：C）mother language ( 不存在的一种说
法)
问题：以下的哪一个词is not an expression used by American? A) tube B) bar C) Mailbox D) Congress答案：tube ( 只有英国人把地铁叫
tube , 美国人把它叫作subway, underground )
问题：‘smog’它是‘smoke , fog’ 合在一起形成的词，它是采用了下面哪一种构词法？A) clipping B ) compounding C) blending D) backformation答案： C ) blending
问题：以下的词哪些属于：A)simple word B) compound word C) derived word D) shortened form.e.g. goldmine (compound word )bike ( shortened form )process (derived word : cess是一个不可分割的bound root，pro它是一个前缀)supermarket ( derived word )language ( simple word )driver ( derived word )dorm ( shortened form, clipping )modernize ( derivation )blackboard ( compound )bus
( shortened form ) (omnibus )
(可能会出现的题)What is the difference between content words and functional words, illustrate your point with examples ? ( 未考过)注意：答题时先答名词解释，再加以例子说明。
(复习要考虑的题) What is the difference between denotative
meaning and connotative meaning?
(论述题) What are the fundamental features of the basic word stock of the English vocabulary? ( 未考过)答题时先答名词解释basic word stock再答五大特点并配以例子加以说明。(关键答好第一个特点: ‘All national character ，它又分为五个特点)
问题：Which of the following words is not formed through clipping?
A) dorm B) Motel C) gent D) zoo答案：Motel: (blending)
问题：Old English has vocabulary of about how many words ? 答
案：50,000 to 60,000
问题：词素分为自由词素和粘着词素，自由词素又被称作自由词根，粘
《英语词汇学教程》（2004 年版）练习答案 Chapter 1 7. Choose the standard meaning from the list on the right to match each of the slang words on the left. a. tart: loose woman b. bloke: fellow c. gat: pistol d. swell: great e. chicken: coward f. blue: fight g. smoky: police h. full: drunk i. dame: woman j. beaver: girl 8. Give the modern equivalents for the following archaic words. haply = perhaps albeit = although methinks = it seems to me eke = also sooth = truth morn = morning troth = pledge ere = before quoth = said hallowed = holy billow = wave / the sea bade = bid 12. Categorize the following borrowed words into denizens, aliens, translation loans, and semantic loans. Denizens: kettle, die, wall, skirt, husband Aliens: confrere, pro patria, Wunderkind, mikado, parvenu Translation loans: chopstick, typhoon, black humour, long time no see Semantic loans: dream Chapter 2 1. Why should students of English lexicology study the Indo-European Language Family? The Indo-European Language Family is one of the most important language families in the world. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East and India. English belongs to this family and the other members of the Indo-European have more or less influence on English vocabulary. Knowledge of the Indo-European Language Family will help us understand English words better and use them more appropriately. 2. Make a tree diagram to show the family relations of the modern languages given below.
英语词汇学 第一部分选择题 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers .Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket（30％） 1. Degradation can be illustrated by the following example[ ] A. lewd → ignorant B. silly → foolish C. last → pleasure D. knave → boy 2. Homophones are often employed to create puns for desired effects of: [ ] A. humour B. sarcasm C. ridicule D. all the above 3. The four major modes of semantic change are _____. [ ] A. extension, narrowing, elevation and degradation B. extension, generalization, elevation and degradation C. extension, narrowing, specialization and degradation D. extension, elevation, amelioration and degradation 4. The use of one name for that of another associated with it is rhetorically called _____. [ ] A. synecdoche B. metonymy C. substitution D. metaphor 5. Idioms adjectival in nature function as _____. [ ] A. adjectives B. attributes C. modifiers D. words 6. Grammatical context refers to _____ in which a word is used. [ ] A. vocabulary B. grammar C. semantic pattern D. syntactic structure 7. In the idiom 'in good feather', we change 'good' into 'high, full' without changing meaning. This change of constituent is known as _____ . [ ] A. addition B. replacement C. position-shifting D. variation 8. The word "laconic" is _____. [ ] A. onomatopoeically motivated B. morphologically motivated C. semantically motivated D. etymologically motivated 9. CCELD is distinctive for its _____. [ ] A. clear grammar codes B. language notes
试题三 第一部分选择题 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket.(30%) 1.According to the degree of similarity, homonyms can be classified into ( ) A. perfect homonyms B. homonyms C. homophones D. all the above 2.Transfer as a mode of semantic change can be illustrated by the example ( ) A. ad for “advertisement” B. dish for “food" C. fond for “affectionate” D. an editorial for “an editorial article" 3.It is a general belief that the meaning does not exist in the word itself, but it rather spreads over ( ) A. the reader’s interpretation B. the neighbouring words C. the writer's intention D. the etymology of the word 4.Which of the following is a prefix of time and order? A. extra- B. pro- C. re- D. semi- 5.Which of the following dictionaries is not a specialized dictionary? A. The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology B. Chamber's Encyclopedic English Dictionary C. Longmont Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs D. Webster's New Dictionary of Synonyms 6.Which of the following statements is Not true? A. Reference is the relationship between language and the world. B. The relationship between a word and its referent is arbitrary. C. Concept is universal to all men alike. D. Sense denotes the relationships outside the language. 7.The words which occur before or after a word and may affect its meaning form ( ) A. physical context B. grammatical context C. lexical context D. linguistic context 8."Smith is an architect. He designed World Trade Center. "The clue provided in the context is ( ) A. definition B. explanation C. example D. hyponym 9.The term "vocabulary" is used in different ways because of all the following reasons EXCEPT that ( ) A. it can refer to the common core of a language B. it can refer to the total number of the words in a language C. it can represent all the words used in a certain historical period D. it can stand for words in given dialect or field 10.The idiom "a dark horse" is a ( ) A. simile B. metaphor
《英语词汇学教程》参考答案 (注：参考答案仅供参考。有些题目的答案并非是唯一的) Chapter 1 1. The three definitions agree that lexicology studies words. Y et, they have different focuses. Definition 1 focuses on the meaning and uses of words, while definition 2 on the overall structure and history. Definition 3 regards lexicology as a branch of linguistics and focuses on the semantic structure of the lexicon. It is interesting to note that the three definitions uses different names for the object of study. For Definition 1, it is words, for Definition 2 the vocabulary of a language, and for Definition 3 the lexicon. 2. (1) They can go into the room, and if they like, shut the door. (2) Y ou boys are required to give in your homework before 10 o‘clock. (3) I watch the football match happily and find it very interesting. 3. (1) when it follows ?-t‘ and ?-d‘, it is pronounced as [id]; (2) when it follows voiceless consonants, it is pronounced as [t]; (3) when it follows voiced consonants and vowels, it is pronounced as [d]. 4. (1)They are words that can be included in a semantic field of ―tree‖. (2)They represent the forms of the verb ―fly‖ and have a common meaning. (3)They belong to a lexical field of ?telephone communication‘.. (4)They are synonyms, related to human visual perception. Specifically, they denote various kinds of ―looking‖. 5. (a) ?blackboard: a board with a dark smooth surface, used in schools for writing with chalk (the primary stress in on black) ; ?blackbird: a particular kind of bird, which may not necessarily be black in colour (the primary stress in on black); ?greyhound: a slender, swift dog with keen sight (the primary stress in on black), ?White House: the residence of the US President in Washington (the primary stress in on black). 0 (b) black ?board: any board which is black in colour (both words receive primary stress); black ?bird: any bird which is black in colour (both words receive primary stress); grey ?hound: any hound that is grey in colour (both words receive primary stress); ?white ?house: any house that is painted white (both words receive primary stress). 6. There are 44 orthographic words, i.e. sequences of letters bounded by space. There are 24 open class words and 20 closed class words. 7. (a) The ?bull‘ is literal, referring to a male bovine animal. (b) ?Take the bull by the horn‘ is an idiom, meaning ?(having the courage to) deal with someone or something directly.
Chapter 1 1.1 What Is a Word 词的概念：A word can be defined as a meaningful group of letters. （一个词可以被定义为一组有意义的字母） 词包含以下几点： ① a minimal free form of a language.一门语言中最小的形式 ② a sound unity.一个声音统一体 ③ a unit of meaning.一个意义单位 ④ a form that can function alone in a sentence.能在句子中起独立作用的一个形式 A word is a free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.词是一门语言中具有一定的声音，意义和句法功能的最小形式 Words can be simple and complex.词可以是简单的也可以是复杂的 1.2 Sound and Meaning 声音与意义之间的关系：This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary,and there is no logical relationship between the sound and the actual thing and idea itself .The relationship between them is conventional. 这种象征性的联系几乎总是任意的，声音与实际的事物和观念本身没有逻辑关系。他们之间的关系是约定俗成的。 1.3 Sound and Form 读音与拼写不一致的原因：①The English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. ②The pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. ③Some of the differences were created by the early scribes. ①英语字母表是从罗马人那里采用的，罗马人没有一个单独的字母来代表语言中的每个 声音。 ②这些年来，发音的变化比拼写的变化更快。 ③有些差异是由早期的抄写员造成的。
《英语词汇学教程》（2004年版）练习答案 【Chapter 1】 7．tart: loose woman bloke: fellow gat: pistol swell: great chicken: coward blue: fight smoky: police full: drunk dame: woman beaver: girl 8. haply = perhaps albeit = although methinks = it seems to me eke = also sooth = truth morn = morning troth = pledge ere = before quoth = said hallowed = holy billow = wave/ the sea bade = bid 【Chapter 2】 Ex.1 The Indo-European Language Family is one of the most important language families in the world. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East and India. English belongs to this family and the other members of the Indo-European have more or less influence on English vocabulary. A knowledge of the Indo-European Language Family will help us understand English words better and use them more appropriately. 2. Indo-European Language Family Balto-Slavic Indo-Iranian Celtic Italian Hellenic Germanic
英语词汇学英语词汇学习题3及答案
试题三 第一部分选择题 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket.(30%) 1.According to the degree of similarity, homonyms can be classified into ( ) A. perfect homonyms B. homonyms C. homophones D. all the above 2.Transfer as a mode of semantic change can be illustrated by the example ( ) A. ad for “advertisement” B. dish for “food" C. fond for “affectionate” D. an editorial for “an editorial article" 3.It is a general belief that the meaning does not exist in the word itself, but it rather spreads over ( ) A. the reader’s interpretation B. the neighbouring words C. the writer's intention D. the etymology of the word 4.Which of the following is a prefix of time and order? A. extra- B. pro- C. re- D. semi- 5.Which of the following dictionaries is not a specialized dictionary? A. The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology B. Chamber's Encyclopedic English Dictionary C. Longmont Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs D. Webster's New Dictionary of Synonyms 6.Which of the following statements is Not true? A. Reference is the relationship between language and the world. B. The relationship between a word and its referent is arbitrary. C. Concept is universal to all men alike. D. Sense denotes the relationships outside the language. 7.The words which occur before or after a word and may affect its meaning form ( ) A. physical context B. grammatical context C. lexical context D. linguistic context 8."Smith is an architect. He designed World Trade Center. "The clue provided in the context is ( ) A. definition B. explanation C. example D. hyponym 9.The term "vocabulary" is used in different ways because of all the following reasons EXCEPT that ( ) A. it can refer to the common core of a language B. it can refer to the total number of the words in a language C. it can represent all the words used in a certain historical period D. it can stand for words in given dialect or field
试题二 第一部分选择题 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket（30％） 1. Degradation can be illustrated by the following example A. lewd → ignoran t B. silly → foolish C. last → pleasure D. knave → boy 2. Homophones are often employed to create puns for desired effects of: A. humour B. sarcasm C. ridicule D. all the above 3. The four major modes of semantic change are _____. A. extension, narrowing, elevation and degradation B. extension, generalization, elevation and degradation C. extension, narrowing, specialization and degradation D. extension, elevation, amelioration and degradation 4. The use of one name for that of another associated with it is rhetorically called _____. A. synecdoche B. metonymy C. substitution D. metaphor 5. Idioms adjectival in nature function as _____. A. adjectives B. attributes C. modifiers D. words 6. Grammatical context refers to _____ in which a word is used. A. vocabulary B. grammar C. semantic pattern D. syntactic structure 7. In the idiom 'in good feather', we change 'good' into 'high, full' without changing meaning. This change of constituent is known as _____ . A. addition B. replacement C. position-shifting D. variation 8. The word "laconic" is _____. A. onomatopoeically motivated B. morphologically motivated
英语单词联系记忆 第一讲 1.act v 行动，扮演 n 行为动作 2.active a 活跃的积极的主动的 act+ive(形容词后缀) actor n 男演员 act+or(名词后缀表人) 扮演角色的男人 actress act+ress((名词后缀表人) 扮演角色的女人 中文串联：活跃的男女演员扮演动作很到位 2.air n.空气 airport n.机场 air+port(港口)[空气的港口是机场] 中文串联：空气的港口是机场 3.any a.任何的所有的 anything pron.任何事，任何东西 any(任何的)+thing（东西，事）---任何事，任何东西 anywhere ad.任何地方 any(任何的)+where（哪儿）----任何地方 中文串联：任何事，任何东西都能在任何地方发生 4.ball n.球 balloon n.气球 ball（球）+o(球的形状)+on(在----上) 气球 volleyball n.排球 volley(空中传)+ball(球)=排球 basketball n.篮球 basket（篮子）+ball（球）=篮球 football n.足球 foot（足）+ball（球）=足球 footballer n.足球运动员 foot（足）+ball（球）+er(人)=足球运动员 5.board n.板木板 boat（船）[他抱船上的木板上了岸] keyboard n.键盘 key(钥匙，关键)+board（木板）[放着钥匙的木板是键盘] 中文串联：把钥匙放在木板上当键盘
6.build v.建立建筑 谐音：必要的[建立社会主义是必要的] building n大楼，建筑物 build+ing(名词后缀) rebuild v。重建 re(前缀再)+build（建立）=重建 中文串联：美国要重建建筑世贸大楼 7.class n.班级 classmate n同班同学 class（班级）+mate(伙伴)=同班同学 classroom n教室 class（班级）+room（房间）=教室 中文串联：同班同学在一个班级的教室里上学 8.cycle n循环，转 V.骑自行车 bicycle N.自行车 bi(前缀两)+cycle（循环）[两个轮子循环是自行车] cylist n 骑自行车的人 cycl（e）+ist(名词后缀的人)=骑自行车的人 motorcycle N.摩托车 motor（发动机）+cycle（循环，转）=摩托车 recycle v n 回收利用 re(前缀再)+cycle(循环)=回收利用 中文串联：骑自行车的人把就摩托车带回家回收利用 9.every a 每一每个的 everybody pron 每人人人 every（每个的）+body（身体）--每个身体是每人人人 everyone pron 每人人人各人 every（每一）+one（一个）--每一个个体是各人 everything pron 每样东西 every（每一）+thing（东西）---每样东西 中文串联：每个人，各人都得到了每样的东西 10.fast a ad 快速的（地） fasten v 拴牢系紧 fast(快速地)+en(动词后缀；是成为)[快速地成为一体---拴牢系紧] breakfast n 早餐 break（bread;面包）+fast（快速）[面包快速地做好是早餐] 中文串联：快速地拴牢系紧早餐骑车上班去 11.friend n 朋友 friendly a 友好的 friend（朋友）+ly=友好的 friendship n 友谊 1. ship ----名词后缀表示关系 [朋友的关系---友谊]
English Lexicology Chapter 1 1.5 Classification of words 词的分类 依据不同的划分标准，可将英语词汇划分为不同的类别。 首先，根据使用频率（use frequency），可将英语词汇划分为： 1.5.1 Basic word stock & nonbasic word stock Basic word stock is the most important part and the foundation of English vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language (语言的共核). 基本词汇是全民族活动共同的和基本的核心词汇，是语言中使用得最多、生活中最必需、意义最明确、生命力最强的词汇。 基本词汇所占比例不大，但在日常交际中使用频率却很高。 基本词汇的六大特征Six characteristics （1）All national character. The most important feature. denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us. （2）stability （3）productivity （4）polysemy （5）collocability 全民性、稳定性、能产性、多义性、可搭配性 但是，数词、代词、助动词、介词、连词等并不具备全部五种特征。 Though numerals and pronouns enjoy nation-wide use, they are semantically monosemous, with low productivity and collocability. 不属于基本词汇的7种词（words do not belong to the common core of the language）（p14）: 1.terminology术语 2.jargon行话 3.slang俚语 4.argot黑话
全国2014年4月高等教育自学考试 英语词汇学试题 课程代码：00832 本试卷满分100分，考试时间150分钟. 考生答题注意事项： 1.本卷所有试题必须在答题卡上作答。答在试卷上无效。试卷空白处和背面均可作草稿纸。 2.第一部分为选择题。必须对应试卷上的题号使用28铅笔将“答题卡”的相应代码涂黑。 3.第二部分为非选择题。必须注明大、小题号，使用0．5毫米黑色字迹签字笔作答。 4.合理安排答题空间。超出答题区域无效。 第一部分选择题 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that best completes the statement and blacken the corresponding letter A,B, C or D on the ANSWER SHEET.(30%) 1.“Woman”becomes “Frau”in German, “femme”in French and “fùnǔ”in Chinese. This example shows that in different languages the same concept can be represented by different ______． A. sounds B．forms C. unities D．meanings 2.The following words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us EXCEPT ______． A. fire B．hot C. photoscanning D．sister 3.Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. Which of the following words comes from Chinese? A. Bazaar. B．Kowtow. C. Rajah. D．Blitzkrieg. 4.The Indo-European language family is made up of the languages of the following EXCEPT ______． A. Europe B．the Far East C. India D．the Near East 5. Which of the following is NOT one of the main sources of new words in the present-day English vocabulary? A. The rapid development of modern science and technology. B．Social, economic and political changes. C. The invasion of foreign countries. D．The influence of other cultures and languages. 6. Modern English vocabulary develops through the following channels EXCEPT ______. A. creation B．borrowing
1. 将下列矛盾修饰语译成汉语 Old news 旧新闻 student teacher 实习教师 light heavyweight 轻重量级 Peace offensive 和平攻势 growing small 越变越小 negative growth 负增长 Half naked 半裸 open secret 公开的秘密 loose tights宽松的紧身裤 Tight slacks 紧身的宽松裤 awful good极好的 same difference同样的区别 Sight unseen 看不见的景象 darkness visible看得见的黑暗 2. Point out the rhetorical devices of the following sentences 1) A hundred bayonets were marching down the street.----metonymy借代 2) She borrowed his wheel for a spin out to town. ----synecdoche 提喻
3) Laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon overtakes him.---personification 拟人 4) The scent of the rose rang like a bell through the garden.----simile 明喻 5) Constant dropping wears the stone.----metaphor 隐喻 6) His voice sounded like a thunder in the hall.—simile明喻 7) When industry comes in at the window, poverty goes out of the door.----personification.拟人 8) We are creating a nation once again vibrant, robust and alive. But there are many mountains yet to climb. ----mataphor隐喻9) You can not change his mind any more than you can change the orbit of the moon. ----simile明喻 10) That fut coat would be beyond his miserable pocket. ----metonymy借代 11) There are hundreds of sails in the harbour. ----synecdoche提喻 12) He was such an auful teacher that whenever he recognized a spark of genius you could be sure he’d water it. ---metaphor隐喻 13) Sharp words may occasionally be spoken by unguarded or ignorant tongues.