Contrastive Study of the First Person Deixis in English and Chinese
Abstract: Person deixis concerns the encoding of the role of participants in the speech Event in which the utterance in question is delivered. And they are widely used in English and Chinese. This thesis through the contrastive study on the pragmatic function of the first person in English and Chinese, similarities and differences in the first person deixis use between the two language can be analyzed. Key words: person deixis, the first person deixis, pragmatic meaning, contrastive analysis
摘要: 人称指示是指说话者在言语活动中解码言语信息. 人称指示在英汉两种语言中都有着较高的使用频率.本文通过对英汉第一人称指示语的语用功能对比分析, 发掘英汉两种语言第一人称指示方面的异同点.
关键词: 人称指示语第一人称指示语语用意义英汉对比
1.Induction
Deixis are those words in a language that entirely depend on text(Fromkin et.al.1991). Deixis is the earliest research object of pragmatic, because it directly links to language structure and context. Therefore, people think deixis plays a crucial role in language expression and understanding. Traditionally, deixis were divided into three categories-referring to people, place and time. By the 1980?s, two more categories had been added-discourse and social deixis (Levinson,1983). In addition to discourse deixis, the different types of deixis can express interpersonal meaning, and actualize a certain communicative function. Both time and place deixis can transfer deictic center to the addressee, which express the respect to the hearer. Social deixis attach great importance on the function of interpersonal meaning.
This thesis focuses on the social and Pragmatic meanings of English and Chinese deixis.Through the contrastive study on the Pragmatic functions of Person deixis in English and Chinese, similarities and differenees in the Person deixis use Between the two languages can be analyzed.
2.Person Deixis in English
Person deixis is an important component of pragmatics. With reference to the addresser, the addressee and the third party involved in a conversation, person deixis indicate the social status, interpersonal relationship and other factors of the conversation parties.
2.1 The first Person deixis
The first person is an item that is used to refer to the addresser of an utterance or the sender of the message. The first Person deictic items have both the singular and Plural forms, i.e.I and we, and eaeh form has variations in case, i.e.me vs. us for the objective case and my vs.our for the Possessive case.
2.1.1 The first Person singular form I
The first Person singular, which will be used in both formal and informal Linguistic styles, refers to the sender of a message. The reference of the first Person Singular is clear and specified.
Firstly, I is used to refer to the addresser himself/herself and to emphasize that the opinion expressed is the addresser?s own opinion.Secondly, I is often used when one tells good and Pleasant news.Thirdly, when I is used with other person deietic items in one sentence，different positions of I will imply the addresser?s different intentions. For example,
a. I and She do the same wrong.
b.She and I have got the teac her?s praise.
In the first sentence, it shows the addresser intends to bear the consequences of the mistake made by both, However, in the second sentence, I put at a secondary position to show the modesty of the addresser while when it comes to honor.
Another example:
a.I do not believe Mr. John will do such thing.
b.I am glad to hear that you pass do it by yourself.
In a, I expresses the addresser? own opini on according to his konwledge about Mr.
John. He don not think Mr. John will do such thing. The addresser takes the responsibility for his attitude. And it same as b, the spearker satified with the hearer? action, so he use I to show the praise comes out spontaneously. The praise is the speaker?s own attitude other than anyone else?s.
2.1.2 The first Person Plural form we
There are two major uses of we: inclusive and exclusive. Inclusive we is also called we-inclusive-of-addressee, and we- exclusive-of-addressee. “Inclusive we is a powerful emotional force, bringing addresser and hearer together as one, united and sharing common interest.”(Lakeoff,1990:190) If the speaker use inclusive, he intends to shorten the distance between himself and the hearer or create a friendly atmosphere. Inclusive we is commonly used when the speaker gives some suggestions, for example,
Shall we go swimming?
The addressee puts forward a suggestion by using an interrogative sentence with inclusive we, which makes the speaker?s attitude more friendly, and the hearer will think that his/her response is very important to the speaker. So the communication will be more effective and smooth.
We-exclusive-of addressee can often be found in the report or newspaper, which shows the modest attitude of addressee. Some uses of we and our have been associated with the assertive or direetive force of utterances, which they serve to soften or mitigate(Marmaridou，2000:76)
In communication, both inclusive and exclusive can be used. Lakeoff used a speech of president Reagan an example to demostrate it. “By beginning to rebuild our defense , we have restored credible deterrence and can confidently seek a secure and lasting peace, as well as a reduction of arms. As I said Wednesday night, American is back and standing tall. we?ve begun to restore great American values: the dignity of work, the warmth of family, the strength of neighborhood and the nourishment of human freedom. But our work is not finished.”In the speech, if the hearer do not consider the context, they do not know what “we” and “our” refer to. In fact, “we” and “our” refer to American government or American or both. Reagan use “we” and
“our” in his speech in order to let American make an agreement wirh America government.
3.Person Deixis in Chinese
The first person deixis in Chinese includes wo(我)，wo-men(我们)，zan(咱)and Zan-men(咱们). wo/zan are the singular forms referring to the addresser himself/herself; wo-men/zan- men are the plural forms referring to an entity of a plural number inclusive of the addresser.wo/wo- men are used in both written and oral forms; while zan/zan- men are more frequently used in oral communieation, especially in northem dialeets, but is rarely used in southem dialeets. “Zan is far more colloquial, and is most commonly used in northern Chinese dialects”(Wei,2002). Wei also points out that “Zan has a specific pragmatic function, and is normally used between friends. Used to show trust, it can therefore reduce social distance between the addresser and the addressee”.
3.1 The first person singular form wo
According to Tian Hailong(2001), when a addresser uses wo in self-reference, he is self-confident and ready to take the responsibility for his utterance or behavior. Sometimes wo is used in place of wo-men. This use usually appears in slogan(Xiao Chaohong, Liu Luying, Li Tianmei,2003). By using wo, the structure of the sentence becomes more concise, and the tone becomes more forceful. For example:
a.你大国敢不仁，我小国也敢不义！
b.还我河山
3.2 The first person singular form zan
Compared with wo, the use of zan has more pragmatic meaning. Zan can refer to both the addresser and the addressee, but the addresser tends to use zan to indicate himself. When zan is used, the addresser intends to show an intimate relationship with the addressee. For instance:
a.要说当经理，咱哥们儿也行。
（If say be manager, my brother also OK!）
In sentence a, zan does not include the listener. However, it does display a relationship
between the addresser and addressee. “The speaker, by using this form of person deixis hopes that the listener will feel complimented and accept his/her opinion, which in this case is that his/her brother would be a good manager”(Wei,2002). In chinese culture, comprehensive psychology is one of the codes of lucutionary act. People will try to establish a kind of affinity by communication.
Zan is also used to express modesty, as in b
b.咱哪能和你比呀。
(How could I possibly be compared to you？)
“The speaker may believe he is actually better than the addressee, however, out of modesty and politeness, this form is used.”(Wei, 2002) This use of zan also corresponds to Leech?s Modest y Maxim in his politeness priniciple: Minimize the expression of praise of self.
3.3 The first person plural form wo-men
In modern Chinese, plural personal deixis are formed by the addition of the bound grammatical morpheme –men onto the singular personal pronouns (Li and Thompson, 1981), so there are also two translations for wo-men and zan-men. “Zanmen is considered more colloquial, however, the main difference is that it is inclusive of the speaker and the listener, where as wo-men may or may not include the addressee”(Xiong,2001)
Therefore, we can know about from the above that wo-men also have inclusive and exclusive uses. Inclusive refers to both the addresser and addressee while exclusive can refer to the addresser, the addressee, or the addressee with a third party respectively.
The pragmatic and social meanings of inclusive use are simple. One major function is to inspire the addressee. For instance,
我们是主张自力更生的。我们希望有外援，但是我们不能依赖它，我们依靠自己的努力，依靠全体军民的创造力。（Mao Zedong, 1945.1.10）( We stand for self-reliance. We hope for foreign aid but cannot be dependent on it; we depend on our own efforts, on the creative power of the whole army and the entire people.)
Here, wo-men refers to both the party members and all the people. By using we-men, the distance between leader and the multitude is shortened, and people will feel an imitate relationship with the Party and the great leader.
Exclusive-of-addressee wo-men can be used to refer to the addresser himself/herself.
Firstly, in formal writings, the writer usually tends to use wo-men in self-reference to be modest or less subjective. Because Chinese culture values modesty, wo-men is more often used to refer to the addresser in mentioning his opinion or his achievement. For example,
在这本书中，我们力图达到以下目的。
（In this book, I aim to achieve the following targets.）
Wei(2002) believes that this accepted practice is also a result of modesty in Chinese culture, taking the focus away from the individual.
Secondly, when the addresser is afraid that his opinion can not be convinced by the public, he will adopt wo-men to strengthen the power of wording. Moreover, when a addresser makes a mistake, he/she tends to use wo-men to shift off his/her own responsibility and attribute the mistake to the group that he/she belongs to. When leaders are dealing with some intractable issues, they are inclined to use wo-men to mitigate the possible responsibility (Li Yunzheng, 2004). Finally, Chinese addressers from low social classes tend to use wo-men for wo in the conversation with those from higher social class to indicate their low class status. The following sentence as an example takes from A Dream of Mansions.
周瑞家的认了半天，方笑到：“刘姥姥，你好？你说么，这几年不见，我就忘了，请家里坐”。
刘姥姥一面走一面笑着说：“你老是…贵人多忘事? 了，哪里还记得我们？”
In the above example, Liu uses wo-men in self-reference which indicates her lowliness in social status in comparison with the addressee. She regards herself as a member of a low social class and not worthy of mentioning wo which emphasis on personal identity.(Lee, 1999:368)
The exclusive-of-addresser wo-men is often applied by the addresser in making a
request or putting forward a suggestion. In the case, such a addresser has some power over the addressee. The powerful side is entitled to bring closer the psychological distance between the two sides. For example,
a.我们同学们想一想，怎样做？
This sentence is taken from a dialogue between a teacher and a class of students. “The teacher here uses wo-men to only refer to the listeners, in Chinese this shows that the speaker is being passionate and considerate” (Wei, 2002)
3.4 The first person plural zan-men in Chinese
Usually, the addresser use zan-men to establish an amicable conversational environment to ensure the following conversation will go on smoothly. It also has inclusive and exclusive form.
In the inclusive form, the addresser use zan-men to exhibits a polite and cooperative attitude. Besides, the use of zan-men can soften the tone of the addresser, and imply the imitate relationship with the addresser. And in exclusive-of-addresser zan-men refers to the addressee alone. It makes the speaker and the hearer together and exhibits a stronger emotional force than wo-men does. The following are some example:
a.同志, 咱们这儿有美的牌电冰箱卖吗? (customer to shop assistant)
b.咱们家今年过得这么样呢? (a leader visit a people?s home)
In a. zan-men serves a polite and indirect way of making an inquiry. Although the speaker and the shop assistant are strangers before, the use of zan-men bring about an appealing effect on the addressee?s feelings and sounds psychologically closer. In b. the speaker uses zan-men to pass the information that he is on your side and he is one of the members of your family.
Exclusive-of-addressee zan-men indicates the addresser himself, the same usage of zan.
4. A contrastive of the social and pragmatic meaning in English and Chinese person
deixis
In the above, the social and pragmatic meanings conveyed by the English and
Chinese person deixis have been described in details. Therefore, here is a contrastive study of the two languages.
4.1 The first person singular form: Ivs.wo
English is similar to Chinese in that a speaker tends to use I/wo to take responsibility for his/her own opinion. However, the English first person singular is more frequently used than its Chinese counterpart. This is mainly because the human-oriented ideology is deeply rooted in English culture, and individualism is highly valued, which encourages the speaker to pay more attention to the free expression of one?s own thoughts, thus the boundary between oneself and others is strengthened. (王莉青, 2005)
Compared to English, Chinese shows a tendency towards using the first person plural form in mentioning one?s own thoughts in many cases. Because Chinese culture focuses on collectivism, the addresser pays more attention to maintain a friendly interpersonal relationship other than anything else.
4.2The first person plural: we vs.wo-men
In the plural form, Chinese has two forms: wo-men and zan-men, while English has only one form we. However, both of them have inclusive and exclusive uses.
4.2.1Comparison and contrast of inclusive use
In the two languages, the inclusive use refers to both the addresser and addressee, which is often used in putting forward a suggestion. However, there is a key point of inclusive use is that we can refer to people and things together in English, while in Chinese, we refers to people. For instance,
May we come in?
Here we can refer to a person and his pet, such as a cat, a dog or some other animals.
4.2.2Comparison and contrast of exclusive use
The first person plural form is used to express the speaker?s personal opinion.
The pragmatic function is to show modesty and avoid being arrogant.
However, the difference uses of the two languages are also noticeable. In English, we is used by Kings, queens or other royal members in self-reference
to indicate their power and majesty. While in Chinese, the emperor in China always used special first person singular form to show his power or regard himself as an individual. For example,
秦王以十五城请易寡人之璧,可予否?(Quoted from biographies of Lian Po and Lin Xiangru)
The literal meaning of 寡人(gua-ren) is a lonely person. The ancient Chinese emperors use it to indicate their outstanding positions.
5.Conclusion
In the previous analysis and contrastive studies have been made on the pragmatic meanings of person deixis in English and Chinese, we can see, as for the first person singular, that it has a higher frequency of occurrence in English than in Chinese. While Chinese usually uses the first person plural form in self-reference.
In the two languages, the first person plural form can be divided into exclusive-of-addresser and exclusive-of-addressee. However, a big difference between English and Chinese is that Chinese has wo-men and zan-men contrast while English has only one form “we”. Another difference is that a Chinese addresser of lower social class tends to use wo-men to refer to himself to show humbleness while in English “we”is used by a addresser, especially a royal member, to show power.
语用学肖蓉芳 莫里斯：1938年《符号理论基础》提出符号学包括三个部分：句法学，语义学，语用学 美国语言哲学家：格赖斯会话含义推理合作原则：量准则质准则关系准则方式准则 1977《语用学杂志》在荷兰的阿姆斯特丹出版发行是语用学成为语言学一门独立的新学科得到承认的标志列文森《语用学》堪称第一本比较系统、完整的语用学教科书 利奇《语用学原则》勾画了语用学的研究范畴，指明了语义学与语用学的联系与区别 尤其礼貌原则合作原则 语用学定义：语用学研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰当地表达和准确的理解，寻找并确立使话语意义得以恰当地表达和准确地理解的基本原则和准则 语用学的研究方法：纯语用学描写语用学应用语用学 弗思接受马林诺夫斯基（文化语境，情景语境观点）创立了比较完整的语境理论 韩礼德1964提出语域（话语的范围，话语的方式，话语的风格）术语，即语境 陈望道提出的“情境”显然就是弗思提出的情景语境，在《修辞学发凡》中提出“六何说” 何故，是说写说的目的：如为劝话人的还是但想使人了解自己意见或是同人辩论的 何事，是说写说的事项：是日常的琐事还是学术的讨论等等 何人，是说认清是谁对谁说的，就是写说者和读听者的关系 何地，是说认清说者当时在什么地方：在城市还是乡村之类 何时，是说写说的当时是什么时候：小之年月，大之时代 何如，是说怎样的写说：如怎样的裁剪，怎样配置之类 语境：上下文语境情景语境民族文化传统语境 指示词语就是表示指示信息的词语指示词语：指示用法：身势用法象征用法（菲尔默） 非指示用法：照应用法非照应用法 会话含义（N解）：1、当说话人违反了这些准则或次准则的时候，听话人就迫使自己超越话语的表面意义去设法领悟说话人所说话语的隐含意义，这种话语的隐含意义，即会话含义。 它关注的不是说话人说了些什么，而是说话人这句话可能意味着什么。 2、美国语言哲学家格赖斯首先提出来的，把会话含义分为两类：一般性会话含义和特殊性会话含义，它是语用学的核心内容，在言语交际中起着非常重要的作用。 格赖斯合作原则：在交谈时，要使你说的话符合你所参与的交谈的公认目的或方向 四条准则及相关次准则： 1、量的准则：指所提供的信息的量 A所说的话应包含为当前交谈目的所需要的信息B所说的话不应包含多于需要的信息 2、质的准则：所说的话力求真实，尤其是： A不要说自知是虚假的话B不要说缺乏足够证据的话 3、相关准则：在关系范畴下，只提出一个准则，即所说的话是相关的 4、方式准则：清楚明白的说出要说的话，尤其要： A避免晦涩B避免歧义C简炼D有条理 得体原则：1、礼貌准则（类似于利奇的礼貌原则）：得体准则宽宏、、赞誉、、谦虚、、一致、、同情、、 2、幽默准则幽默的基本功能：增添欢乐消除隔阂缓解矛盾显出超群才智摆脱困境回敬挑衅 3、克制准则：讽刺挖苦指桑骂槐说反话
1. The study of language development over a period of time is generally termed as _____linguistics. D A. applied B. diachronic C. comparative D. synchronic 2. The sentence that has a NP and a VP can be shown in a __C__ formula "S→NP VP". A. hierarchical B. linear C. tree diagram D. vertical 3. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop? A A. [p] B.[m] C.[b] D.[t] 4. The words ―make‖ and ―bus‖ are called _____D____because they can occur unattached. A. derivational morphemes B .inflectional morphemes C. bound morphemes D. free morphemes 5. The pair of words ―lend‖ and ―borrow‖ are____B______. A. gradable antonymy B. relational (converse) antonymy C. synonyms D. co-hyponyms 6. The semantic components of the word ―man‖ can be expressed as ____C___. A.＋animate,＋human,＋male,－adult; B.＋animate,＋human,－male,－adult; C.＋animate,＋human,＋male,＋adult D.—animate,＋human,－male,－adult 7. What kind of function does the sentence ―How do you do?‖ have? B A. Directive B. Phatic C. Informative D. Evocative 8. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as_______A____. A. lexical words B. grammatical words C. function words D. form words 9. Which of the following best states the behaviorist view of child language acquisition?______A_. A. Language acquisition is a process of habit formation B. Language acquisition is the species-specific property of human beings C. Children are born with an innate ability to acquire language D. Humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use 10. The branch of linguistics that studies meaning of language in context is called __C? A. morphology B. sociolinguistics C. pragmatics D. psycholinguistics 11、Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.
2017年10月现代汉语真题—、单项选择题：本大题共20小题，每小题1分，共20分。在每小题列出的备选项中只有一项是最符合题目要求的，请将其选出。 1.【题干】汉语没有丰富的形态变化，属于（）。 【选项】 A．屈折语 B．黏着语 C．孤立语 D．混合语 【答案】C 【解析】C：孤立语：没有丰富的形态变化。 A：屈折语：句子中某些词本身有丰富的形态变化。如“德语” B：黏着语：句子中某些词的形态变化表现为在词的前后附有词缀。如“日语”。D：混合语：在一定社会条件下形成的两种或多种语言的混合体。 【考点】语法方面的主要特点 2.【题干】决定语音与其他声音之不同的属性是（）。 【选项】 A．社会性质 B．生理性质 C．物理性质 D．个体性质
【解析】语音作为语言必不可少的要素之一，必须表达一定的意义，什么样的语音表达什么样的意义，是使用该语言的全体社会成员约定俗成的。因此语音具有物理、生理、社会三方面的性质，其中社会属性是语音的本质属性。 【考点】语音的性质 3.【题干】下列各词，两个音节声母不同的是（）。 【选项】 A．意义 B．字纸 C．历来 D．扭捏 【答案】B 【解析】A：“意义”为零声母；C：“历来”声母均为“L”；D:“扭捏”声母均为“n”；B：“字”声母为“z”，“纸”声母为“zh” 【考点】声母的发音 4.【题干】下列各词，两个音节都属于撮口呼韵母的是（）。 【选项】 A．需求 B．温度 C．学院 D．鱼嘴 【答案】C
【解析】撮口呼：有韵头ü的，或韵腹是ü的韵母。A：“需”为撮口呼，“求”为齐齿呼；B：“温”“度”均为合口呼，D：“鱼”为撮口呼，“嘴”合口呼。 【考点】韵母的分类 5.【题干】下列音节，调值为51的是（）。 【选项】 A．前 B．春 C．比 D．去 【答案】D 【解析】调值51为“去声”，A调值为35；B调值为55，C调值为214 【考点】调值和调类 6.【题干】“不”的读法与其余三项不同的是（）。 【选项】 A．不是 B．决不 C．不好 D．不多 【答案】A 【解析】“不”在词尾或非去声前，读本调“去声”，在去声前读阳平。 【考点】变调
Model 1 I. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration if it is necessary. 1. macrolinguistics::_______________________ 2. compound:_____________________________ 3. Reference: _____________________________ 4. Idiolect:________________________________ 5. Minimal pair:___________________________ 6. Competence:___________________________ 7. Diglossia: _____________________________ 8. Sound assimilation:______________________ 9. Arbitrariness:___________________________ 10. Semantic shift:_________________________ II. Indicate the following statements true or false. 1. Language use is both systematic and non-systematic, subject to external as well as to internal variation. 2. Corpus is a collection of texts input into a computer. Language corpora make it possible for material developers to select authentic, natural and typical language. 3. Mistakes often occur when learners fail to perform their competence. 4. Root is understood in terms of meanings while syem is understood with emphasis on affix. Sometimes a linguistic element is both a root and stem. 5. All instances of NP--movement are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. 6. Word lays in the central position in language comprehension because of its extremely important role in transmitting the meaning.
从语用学角度学习意义 摘要：语用学和语义学是相互关联而又不尽相同的两个学科。语用学的诞生使得以往人们不能解释的一些语言现象得到解决，也使人们对语言意义的了解进入了一个新的层次。 关键词：意义；言语行为理论；会话合作原则；语义学；语用学意义是我们研究交际活动的中心。从语言学角度来说，语义学可被定义为意义的学习。语用学是语言学领域里的一个相对来说比较新的分支。一般说来，语用学是研究说话人如何运用语言达到成功交流的目的的学科。区分语用学和语义学的标准就是是否考虑语境。一般来说，语境由说话者和听话者共同拥有的知识构成。没有这种知识，语言交流就不可能。本文旨在阐述语用学和语义学的相互关系与相异之处，并解释语用学是怎样影响我们学习意义的。 一、词汇的意义 词义是客观对象在人们头脑中的抽象概括的反应。然而在实际的交际过程中，我们不能根据这个概念来简单的理解交流过程中的词汇的意义。即便我们从概念意义的角度来理解一个词汇的意义，也还是有不同的方法来解释它的。在日常会话中，至少可以用以下的四种方法来理解一个词汇的意义。假设你不知道英语词汇”desk”的意义，他人可以指着此词汇所表示的物体，并告诉你”这就是desk”；也可以向你描述”desk”就是”一件有一个平面和四条腿的家具，可以用在阅读和书写的时候”；或者向你这样解释，说”desk”就是”桌子的一种，带有抽屉”；如果对方是一名英语
教师，他通常会告诉你”desk”的中文含义就是”书桌”。但是在实际的交际过程中，仅凭这样的定义是不能理解词汇的真正意义的，必须把语境的作用充分考虑进来。例如，”dog”一词，大多数人都会将它定义为”一种家养的驯服的动物”，但是在下面的这个例子中，”dog”显然不是这个意思。 father：there is a dog! mother: oh! call the kids back! 在这个例子中，可以看到”dog”的意思是父亲要提醒母亲有狗，让她把孩子们叫回来以防被狗伤到的意思。 二、句子意义和话语意义 句子的意义通常被认为是句子本身的、抽象的、内在的性质。但是如果我们把句子看成是人们在实际交流过程中所说的话，句子就转化成了话语。话语则是指具有一定交流功能的最小语言单位。它可能恰好是一个完整的句子，也可能不是一个完整的句子，比如英语中用来打招呼的”hello”。我们在研究句子的意义时，就应该将它所在的语境考虑在内。所以想要明确界定”狗在叫”是句子还是话语是不可能的，因为这既可以是一个句子也可以是一个话语，对于它的界定完全决定于我们是如何看待和分析它的。如果我们把它看成是一个语法单位，是脱离语境而独立存在的，那么我们就认为它是一个句子。但是如果我们把它看成是说话人在某个语境下，带有一定目的而说出的话，我们就认为它是一个话语。例如，”我鼻子上冒汗了”这句话，如果把它当做是一个孤立的句子，那这个
题型：填空题10，20%；选择题10，20%；判断4，20%（3句话解释原因）；简答3，18%（四句话作答）；论述1，22%（1/4页纸作答）。 导论 1、中国、印度和希腊-罗马在传统语言文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。 2、中国传统语言研究主要抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵和训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 3、历史比较语言学标志着语言学不再是其他学科的附庸，已经发展成为一门独立的学科。 4、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出观点，语言学从此成为一门现代学科。 5、理论语言学，也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。 第一章语言的功能 1、语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着紧密联系。 2、语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。 3、如果一个病人大脑左半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出医院的名称、病房、床号，却能找得到。相反，如果大脑右半球受损，尽管能找到医院的名称、病房、床号，却找不到，能说出家的位置却找不到，这说明语言功能存在大脑左边。 4、儿童学习语言的过程是考察语言与思维关系的一条很好途径。 5、儿童语言的习得一定具有先天生理基础，也离不开外界的社会条件。 6、儿童语言能力的开发还有时间的限制，最迟到十二三岁，如果在此之前没有机会学习语言，那么之后其语言习得和心智发展的潜能就失去了。十二三岁是语言习得的关键时期，之一临界期的分工时间也是一致的。 第二章语言是符号系统 1、符号包含形式和意义两个方面。（能指形式，形指意义，符号构成的两个方面，语言学上通常用形式和意义来表述。形式也叫能指，是符号的外壳，是可以被人的感觉器官感知的，因而形式具有物质性。意义也叫所指，是符号形式所代表的内容，也就是现实现象事物。） 2、符号的形式和意义之间是没有本质上、自然属性上的必要联系，在这一点上符号和隐含某种信息的自然的征候不同。 3、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是20世纪初瑞士的语言学家家得·索绪尔作为语言符号的基本性质提出来的。 4、语言符号的语音形式和意义之间没有自然属性上的必然联系，只有社会约定的关系 5、符号和符号组合起来，结构中各个成分的关系称为组合关系，符号在结构中就具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群，彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。 第三章语音和音系 1、语音具有自然属性、社会属性的双重属性，从自然属性出发，针对所有人类语言的语音研究，属于语音学的研究；从社会属性出发，针对语音在某一个具体语言的系统中其什么作用的研究，属于音系学的研究。 2、音系学的出发点在于语音在语言系统中的组织方式，属于语言学的核心部分。 3、以语音的自然属性和人类语言共性为研究对象的语音学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音素。以语音的社会属性和语音在具体语言中的作用为研究对象的音系学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音位。
本次考试共四种题型：填空题、名词解释、简答题、应用题 填空题：（举例如：）（每空1分，共10分） 1.语用学源于哲学家对语言的探索。“语用学”这一术语是由美国哲学家（莫里斯）于1938年首先提出的。 2. 1977年，(《语用学杂志》)在荷兰正式出版发行，“语用学成为语言学的一门独立新兴学科”最终得到认可。 名词解释：（每个4分，共20分） ?语用学：研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰当地表达和准确地理解，寻找并确立使话语意义得以恰当地表达和准确地理解的基本原则和准则。 ?语境：语境是人们运用自然语言进行言语交际的言语环境。语境是人们在语言交际中理解和运用语言所依赖的各种表现为言辞的上下文或不表现为言辞的主观因素。 ?指示词语：指示词语就是表示指示信息的词语。？ ?隐性施为句：人们在言语交际中实际上更经常使用一些不那么明确、不那么特定的语言手段来实施某种行为。 ?优选结构：相邻对中所有可能跟始发语配对的应答语并不具有同等地位，有一组优选结构在起作用，即各种可能的应答语中至少有一类是“合意的”（即听话人的应答能满足说话人发话的期待），有一类是“不合意的”（即听话人的应答不是说话人所期待的）。 ?预示序列：说话人在以言行事之前用以探听虚实的一类话语。说话人使用这类话语的主要动机是考察有无向听话人实施某一言语行为的可能性，即说话人实施某一言语行为能否从听话人那里得到“期待的”反应。 ?会话含义：格赖斯将会话含义分为两类：一般性会话含义和特殊性会话含义。一般性会话含义：不需要特殊语境就能推导出来的含义。特殊性会话含义：需要依赖特殊语境才能推导出来的含义。？ ?直接言语行为：字面意义和说话意图相吻合，也就是句子的结构和功能之间存在着直接的关系。 ?间接言语行为：人们是通过间接的表达方式实现说话的意图，也可以说句子的结构和功能之间存在着间接的关系
语用学 一．语用学（Pragmatics）的定义： 语用学是用以研究语言使用者如何使用句子成功进行交际的学问。语用学（Pragmatics）与语义学（Semantics）虽然都涉及对语言意义的研究，但是语义学（Semantics）只是将语言视作一个独立的系统来研究，而语用学（Pragmatics）则是将语言置于语境（context）之中。所以，语用学（Pragmatics）与语义学（Semantics）本质区别在于是否将语境（context）因素纳入考量范围之内。 二．句子意义与话语意义（Sentence Meaning Vs. Utterance Meaning）： 1) 句子意义（Sentence Meaning）：句子意义指的是独立于语境的句子本身所传达的字面意义。 2）话语意义（Utterance Meaning）：话语意义指的是将句子的意义置于特定语境中以表达言者某种意图的意义。 三．指示现象（Deixis）： 指示现象指的是说话人利用语言形式表达说话内容所涉及的人员、事物、时间、地点等方面。指示现象是连接语言形式及其发生语境的桥梁。指示语主要分为以下三类：1）人称指示语（person deixis）：用于表达言语交际的参与者。 2）空间指示语（spatial deixis）：用于指代言语活动中所涉及的人、物或事的相对位置。 3）时间指示语（temporal deixis）：用于表达言语交际活动中的时间点和时间段。 四．言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）： 1) 约翰·奥斯汀（John Austin）的言语行为模式： 英国哲学家约翰·奥斯汀（John Austin）于20世纪50年代提出的言语行为模式区分了言有所述（constative）和言有所为（performative）。 随后，他又对原先的理论进行了发展，放弃了言有所述（constative）和言有所为（performative）的区分，发展出了新的言语行为模式。该模式认为，言者在说话时可同时执行三个动作：即言内行动（locutionary act），言外行动（illocutionary act）和言后行动（perlocutionary act）。 言内行动（locutionary act）：指言者发出言语，传达字面意义的行为动作。 言外行动（illocutionary act）：指言者通过话语所表达的意图。例如：某人说I promise to give you a surprise时，他是在许下诺言。 言后行动（perlocutionary act）：指言者通过言语表达的而实际实施的行为。 2）舍尔（Searle）的言语行为分类： 美国语言学家舍尔（Searle）在约翰·奥斯汀（John Austin）的言语行为模式的基础上对言外行动（illocutionary act）进行了分类：阐述性言语行为（representatives），指令性言语行为（directives），承诺性言语行为（commissives），表达性言语行为（expressives），宣告性言语行为（declaratives）。 3）直接和间接言语行为（direct and indirect speech act）： 直接言语行为：直接通过话语来实施某一行为。 间接言语行为：句子的意思不能按照其字面意义去理解，需要推导其话语的施为用意。
1. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do nobody language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language 答：On the whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means OK/YES for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying NO. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant. 2. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive What’s your comment on them (1)Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind. (2)colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people. (3)civilized : This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world. 答：They are undoubtedly descriptive, Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way antisexist advocators speak and write. 3.(1)What organs are involved in speech production 答：Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the luns, the trachea, the throat, the nose, and the mouth. (2)Why did George Bernard Shaw say he could spell the word ‘fish’ as ‘ghoti’ 答：This is because gh is pronounced as [f] in ‘enough’, o as [I] in women, and ti as [?] in nation. (3)How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels 答：Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. (4)To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ 答：Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. (5)’Assimilation is often used synonymously with coarticulation’. Discuss. 答：Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation,
英语语言学练习----语用学 一、Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false. 1.The contextual view is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in a pragmatic sense. ( ) 2.Pragmatics is related to and also different from semantics. ( ) 3.The notion of context is not important to the pragmatic study of language. ( ) 4.All utterances take the form of sentences. ( ) 5.Speech act theory was proposed by the British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950s. ( ) 6.Grice made a distinction between what he called “constatives” and “performatives”. () 7.A locutionary act is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. ( ) 8.In their study of language communication, linguists are only interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and pay no attention to how his intention is recognized by the hearer. ( ) 9.Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. ( ) 10.The Cooperative principle was proposed by John Searle. ( ) 11.There are four maxims under the Cooperative principle. ( ) 12.The violations of the maxims make our language indirect. ( ) 13.All the utterances take the form of sentences. ( ) 14.Austin thought that stating was also a kind of act, and that we can perform with language. ( )
语用学 语用学是语言学各分支中一个以语言意义为研究对象的新兴学科领域，在众多的语用学定义中，有两个概念是十分基本的，一个是意义，另一个是语境，是专门研究语言的理解和使用的学问，它研究在特定情景中的特定话语，研究如何通过语境来理解和使用语言。 目录 编辑本
语用学 语用学yǔyòngxué [pragmatics] 符号学的一个分支,研究符号或语言词句与其使用之间的关系。 语用学是语言学各分支中一个以语言意义为研究对象的新兴学科领 域，是专门研究语言的理解和使用的学问，它研究在特定情景中的特定话语，研究如何通过语境来理解和使用语言。语用学因其本身的目的性和价值性而不同于语法研究，它是关于人类语言本身的研究。在语言的使用中，说话人往往并不是单纯地要表达语言成分和符号单位的静态意义，听话人通常要通过一系列心理推断，去理解说话人的实际意图。要做到真正理解和恰当使用一门语言，仅仅懂得构成这门语言的发音、词汇和语法是远远不够的。 语用学的另一核心概念就是意义。何兆熊先生(1987)在他的语用学概要一书中指出:“在众多的语用学定义中，有两个概念是十分基本的，一个是意义，另一个是语境。”从发展的观点看，语用学的崛起是语义研究的发展和延伸的结果，因此可以说语用学是一种对意义的研究。但语用学所研究的意义不同于形式语义学所研究的意义，它所研究的是语言在一定的语境中使用时体现出来的具体意义。由此可知，语境对意义的作用在语用学研究中十分重要。 研究在一定的上下文里语言的使用，包括所产生的字面意义和蕴涵意义，以及可能产生的效果的学科。语用学的概念首先是美国哲学家C.W.莫里斯(1901～1979)和R.卡纳普(1891～1970)在20世纪30年代前后提出的。60年代,英国哲学家J.L.奥斯汀(1912～1960)和J.塞尔勒(1932～)先后发表了“语言行为”的理论; 美国语用学家P.格赖斯提出了“会话中合作原则”的理论。以上三个学者的贡献使语用学从概念发展成为一个独立的学科。越来越多的英语教师已认识到语言与语用学的密切关系，英语教学如果只停留在语音、词汇、语法等语言知识层面上，学生即使掌握了标准的语言、丰富的词汇、正确的语法，也不能很好地理解语言，更不能进行成功而有效的交际。因此，为了准确地理解和使用语言，学习者应在交际中运用语用策略消除歧义，提高跨文化交际的能力。 虽然迄今为止，语言学界对语用学的定义和范畴尚没有统一的见解，但却有一种共识，即“语境是语用学的核心概念之一”。是一门专门研究语境在交际过程中的作用的新学科。人们的正常语言交流总离不开特定的语境，“这里的语境包括交际的场合(时间、地点等)，交际的性质(话题)，交际的参与者(相互间的关系、对客观世界的认识和信念、过去的经验、当时的情绪等)以及上下文。语境直接影响着人们对话语的理解和使用”(金定元，1992:171)。换言之，要判断某些具体的言语行为是否得体须依据其使用的语境，离开了语境就使判断本身失真或失去意义。
一. What is language? 1. Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat. Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen”by any other name is the thing we use to write with. Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare Vocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries. The design/defining /distinctive features of human language: Arbitrariness (任意性） Productivity/Creativity(创造性） Duality （二元性、二层性） Displacement （移位性） Cultural transmission（文化传递性） 2.语言&言语 Langue--- the language system shared by a community of speakers Parole--- the concrete act of speaking in actual situations by an individual speaker. 3. Synchronic vs. diachronic Synchronic (linguistics)---languages are studied at a theoretic point in time: one describes a ‘state’of language, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place. Diachronic----languages are studied from point of view of their historical development –for example, the changes which have taken place between Old and Modern English could be described in phonological, grammatical and semantic terms. 二．语音学（选择题） 三．音位学Phonology 1.音位变体 Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. 同一音位在不同环境中表现出来的两个或多个语音上不同的音段. 例如，在英语里，音位/t/在tin里是送气的[th], 在stand里是不送气的[t]，在eighth里是齿化的[t],在cotton里是鼻除阻的[tn]，在bottle里是边除阻的[tl],在hit里则表现为声门化的[t]. 此外，随着说话人口音的不同，可能还会有其他的语音形式. 这样一套在说话人话语中的语音形式就是音位/t/的音位变体. 把两个音素划归成同一音位的两个音位变体必须满足语音相似性原则，而且它们不能处于对比分布. [p, ph] are two different phones 音子and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution 互补分布because they never occur in the same context: [p] occurs after [s] while [ph] occurs in other places. /p/ [p] / [s] _____
南京大学 2018 年硕士研究生入学考试初试试题 （ A 卷）（三小时） 考目代码：935 科目名称：文学满分：150 分 适用专业：文学各专业 （一）古代汉语部分（40分） 一、请将下面这段古文翻译成现代汉语（40分） 魏其侯竇嬰者，孝文後從兄子也。父世觀津人。喜賓客。孝文時，嬰為吳相，病免。孝景初即位，為詹事。 梁孝王者，孝景弟也，其母竇太后愛之。梁孝王朝。因昆弟燕飲。是時，上未立太子。酒酣，從容言曰：?千秋之後傳梁王。?太后歡。竇嬰引卮酒敬上，曰：?天下者，高祖天下。父子相傳，此漢之約也。上何以得擅傳梁王？?太后由此憎竇嬰。竇嬰亦薄其官，因病免。太后除竇嬰門籍，不得入朝請。 孝景三年，吳、楚反。上察宗室諸竇毋如竇嬰賢，乃召嬰。嬰入見，固辭謝病不足任。太后亦慚。於是上曰：?天下方有急，王孫寧可讓邪？?乃拜嬰為大將軍，賜金千斤。竇嬰乃言袁盎、欒布諸名將賢士在家者進之。所賜金，陳之廊廡下，軍吏過，輒令財取為用，金無入家者。竇嬰守滎陽，監齊、趙兵。七國兵已盡破，封嬰為魏其侯。諸游士賓客爭歸魏其侯。孝景時，每朝議大事，條侯、魏其侯，諸列侯莫敢與亢禮。 孝景四年，立栗太子。使魏其侯為太子傅。孝景七年，栗太子廢，魏其數爭不能得。魏其謝病屏居藍田南山之下數月，諸賓客辯士說之，莫能來。梁人高遂乃說魏其曰：?能富貴將軍者，上也；能親將軍者，太后也。今將軍傅太子，太子廢而不能爭，爭不能得，又弗能死；自引謝病，擁趙女，屏閑處而不朝。相提而論，是自明揚主上之過。有如兩宮螫將軍，則妻子毋類矣。?魏其侯然之，乃遂起，朝請如故。 （二）现代汉语部分（40分） 二、请以下列汉字的普通话读音为例，结合方言中的情况，说明其中蕴含的古今声母演变规律：（15分） 趣精结经修节主秋 丘旋齐旗休权去全 三、分类解释下列词或短语中的“笔”的含义，并以此为依据，尝试为词典编写“笔”这一条目。（10分） 毛笔笔架笔顺代笔笔名笔法工笔 伏笔笔挺随笔一笔钱写得一笔好字 第1页