THEORETICAL SETTING OF INNER REVERSIBLE
QUANTUM MEASUREMENTS
Paola A. Zizzi
Dipartimento di Matematica Pura ed Applicata
Università di Padova
Via Belzoni, 7
35131 Padova, Italy
zizzi@math.unipd.it
Abstract
We show that, at least formally, any unitary transformation performed on the quantum state of a closed quantum system, is a special case of generalized quantum measurement. More specifically, any unitary transformation describes an inner, reversible, generalized quantum measurement.
We also show that under some specific conditions it is possible to perform a unitary transformation on the state of the closed quantum system by means of a collection of generalized measurement operators. In particular, given a complete set of orthogonal projectors, it is possible to implement a reversible quantum measurement that preserves the probabilities (mirror measurement).
In this context, we introduce the concept of “Truth-Observable”, which is the physical counterpart of an inner logical truth. The Truth-Observable is related to a modification of the usual cut rule of sequent calculus in inner quantum logic, which reflects the identification of the quantum system with a quantum space background.
1. Introduction
The original measurement postulate of quantum mechanics, introduced by von Neumann [1], considered only projective measurements, where a “standard” quantum observable A has a spectral resolution in terms of orthogonal projection operators. The postulate states that during a measurement of A, the state vector of the quantum system reduces to the eigenvector of A corresponding to the measurement result. More recently, the notion of quantum measurement has been extended to generalized measurements [2] for which the concept of “generalized” quantum observable has been introduced, where the positive resolution of the identity replaces the spectral decomposition. The concept of a generalized quantum measurement is necessary to describe the quantum interaction between a quantum system and a measuring device. Moreover, the generalized measurement formalism can deal with phenomena not captured by projective measurements; in particular, it is quite useful for describing joint measurements of incompatible “standard” observables.
Finally, a generalized formalism appears to be more suitable for quantum computing (for a review of quantum computing see ref. [2]).
However, although generalized measurements can be implemented by the use of projectors augmented with unitary evolution, and ancillary system, one does not really overcome the measurement problem.
In the case of quantum computers, the above problem becomes even worse, as the irreversibility of a quantum measurement is dramatically incompatible with the reversibility of the whole computational process.
Thus, one should find a way to bind quantum measurement and quantum evolution/computation in a single mathematical formulation.
We believe that this unification is possible only when the "observer" is conceived internal to the original quantum system to be measured. To do so, the "observer" should enter a quantum space background whose quantum states are in one-to-one correspondence with the computational states of the quantum computer.
In some sense, this idea is the analogous of Feynman's idea [3] that the most efficient way to simulate a quantum system is to use another quantum system (a quantum computer).
In our case, the most adequate way to simulate a reversible measurement is to use another quantum system, which is not the apparatus, but the quantum space background of the quantum system itself.
In a previous paper [4] we looked at the quantum space background of the quantum computer as the space associated (by the non-commutative version of the Gelfand-Naimark's theorem [5]) with the algebra of quantum logic gates, that is the algebra of unitary matrices U(n). More specifically, in [4] we considered a quantum computer with N qubits, where the quantum logic gates are n
n unitary matrices where: N
. We found that the quantum space background of the quantum computer is the n2
fuzzy sphere [6] with N
elementary cells.
n2
The inner quantum logic of the quantum computer, based on this geometrical setting, was investigated in [7]. The main features of that logic are paraconsistency and symmetry, which are also present in basic logic [8].
Also, some consequences of [4] were exploited in quantum gravity [9] and in quantum computability [10].
The present paper is conceived manly to support the ideas and results of [4] and [7] by formalizing the notion of internal reversible measurement in the framework of the generalized measurement formalism.
In fact we show that any unitary transformation is formally a generalized quantum measurement.
Moreover, we prove that, once it is given a collection of generalized measurement operators which satisfy some particular requirements, it is possible to implement a reversible measurement. Such a result might be quite useful in quantum computing,meaning that, at least in principle, one might be able to concatenate quantum
measurements in such a way to preserve the reversibility of the whole computational process.
Finally, we implement the internal logical structure of a quantum isolated system discussed in [7] by introducing the new concept of Truth-Observable, which exhibits a dual nature between physics and logic.This paper is organized as follows:
In Sect. 2, we briefly review generalized measurements, projective measurements and POVM (Positive Operator-Valued Measure).
In Sect.3, we formally define inner reversible measurements as a special case of generalized measurements.
In Sect.4, we review the "mirror measurement", introduced in [4], which is a special case of reversible generalized measurement.
In Sect.5, we introduce the new concept of Truth-Observable, and its logical and philosophical implications.
Sect. 6 is devoted to the conclusions.
2. Generalized Quantum Measurements
2.1 Postulate of generalized quantum measurement
A generalized quantum measurement (of a closed quantum system S in the finite dimensional space of states) is described by a collection m M of measurement operators on the Hilbert space H of S, where the index m refers to the possible
outcomes of the measurement. The measurement operators satisfy the completeness relation:
m
m m I M M (1)
Where: M is the adjoint of M and I is the identity operator on H .
If the state of the system S is just before the measurement, the probability of getting the outcome m is:
m m M M m p )(. (2)After the measurement, the system S is left in the normalized state:
)
('m p M m
. (3)The completeness relation (1) ensures that the probabilities sum up to 1:
1)( I M M M M m p m
m m m m m m (4)
A generalized quantum observable, which will be formally introduced in 2.4,corresponds to a non-negative, hermitian operator of the form m m M M .
2.2. Projective measurements
Let us consider a projective measurement of a “standard” quantum observable A of the system S, which corresponds to a hermitian operator A A on the Hilbert space H of the system S.
The observable has spectral decomposition:
m
m m P A , (5)
Where m P is the projector onto the eigenspace of A with eigenvalue m . The set m P is a complete set of orthogonal projection operators with respect to the observable A,that is, the projectors m P are Hermitian operators:
m m P P , (6)satisfying the following two relations:
I P m
m (7)m mm m m P P P '' , (8)Where (7) is the completeness relation, and (8) is the requirement for the m P operators to be orthogonal and idempotent.
The possible outcomes of a projective measurement correspond to the eigenvalue m of the observable.
Upon measuring the system in state , the probability of getting the outcome m is: m P m p )(. (9)After the measurement, the system is left in the normalized state:
)('m p P m
. (10)2.3. Projective measurement as a special case of generalized measurements As we have seen in 2.1, the (generalized) measurement operators m M satisfy the completeness relation (1).
If the m M also satisfy the two additional relations:
m m M M (11)m mm m m M M M '' (12)They reduce to projection operators.
Thus, a projective measurement is a special case of generalized measurement.2.4. POVM: Positive Operator-Valued Measure
The postulate 2.1 of generalized measurement specifies both the probabilities of the different possible outcomes of the measurement, in (2), and the post-measurement state, in (3). In some cases, however, there is no necessity for knowing the post-measurement state, and interest focuses mainly on measurement statistics. Those cases are best analyzed by using the POVM formalism.A POVM operator is defined as:
m m m M M E (13)Where the m M , are (generalized) measurement operators introduced in 2.1.The POVM operators satisfy the following properties:i) The m E form the positive-definite partition of unity
m
m
m m m
I M M E
(14)
ii) The set m E is sufficient to determine the probabilities of the different measurement outcomes:
)()( m m E tr E m p (15)Where is the density matrix of the quantum system under consideration.iii) The m E , are positive operators (hence in particular Hermitian):02
m m m m M M M E (16)
For any H .
The m E as defined in (13) are the “generalized” quantum observables.
Notice that the spectral decomposition of a “standard” observable in (5) is replaced, in the generalized case, by the resolution of the identity operator I in (14).From i) it follows that the probabilities sum up to one:1
)( I E E m p m
m m m
m
From iii) it follows that the probabilities are positive:0
)(2
m m M E m p In case that the measurement operators m M reduce to projectors m P , then all the POVM elements m E coincide with the measurement operators m m P E , in fact:
m
m m m m P P P P E 2
2.5 Example of generalized measurement in quantum computing
Let us consider the most general two qubit state vector of 4C , in the computational basis:
111001003210a a a a Q (17)Where: C a i (i =0, 1, 2, 3) , 12
i
i
a .
Notice that the state in (17) is in general an entangled state.
If we measure the first bit of Q , there are two possible outcomes (m = 0, 1): either the first bit is zero (m = 0) or it is one (m =1).
In the first case, the corresponding generalized measurement operator is:
010100000 M (18)In the second case, the corresponding generalized measurement operator is:
111110101 M (19)The probability that the first bit of Q is zero is:
2
120000a a Q M M Q p (20)The post measurement state is:
2
1
20100000100'a a a a Q
M M Q Q
M Q
(21)
The probability that the first bit of Q is one is:
2
32
2111a a Q M M Q p (22)The post measurement state is:
2
3
223211111
10''a a a a Q M M Q Q M Q (23)
Notice that 01000P P M , 11101P P M , where 11100100,,,P P P P are the four projectors of 4C :
000000000000000100P , 000000000010000001P , 000001000000000010P ,
100000000000
000011P Where )4(11100100I P P P P , and )4(I is the identity operator of 4C .
0M ,1M are two bi-dimensional projectors in 22C C , in fact, rewritten as block
matrices they are:
000)2(0I M ,
)2(1000I M (24)where )2(I is the identity operator of 2C .
It holds: )4(1100I M M M M (25)In this case, the two POVM operators coincide with the generalized measurement operators:
0000M M M E , 1111M M M E (26) It holds:
)4(10I E E
(27)Analogously, if we want to measure the second bit of Q , there are two other possible
outcomes (m=2, 3): either the second bit is zero, or is one.
In the first case, the corresponding generalized measurement operator is: 101000002 M And, in the second case, it is:11
1110103 M Where 10002P P M ,11103P P M , and we have:
)
4(111001003322I P P P P M M M M But it is clear that these measurements with outcomes (m = 2, 3) are distinct from the previous ones (m = 0, 1).
2.6 Generalized measurement of a Bell state
An interesting example is the generalized measurement of a Bell state.
Bell states are the maximally bipartite entangled state and form the entangled basis of 4C .
The four Bell states are:
)1100(21
)1001(2
1
As an example, let us consider in particular the Bell state:
)1100(2
1
(28)
If we measure the first bit of in (28) there are two possible outcomes (m = 0, 1):either the first bit is zero, or it is one.
To m = 0 it corresponds the generalized measurement operator 0M in (18).
The probability that the first bit of
is 0 is:
2
1
000
M M p (29)The post measurement state is:
2
00
21'000
M M M (30)To m = 1 it corresponds the generalized measurement operator 1M in (19).
The probability that the first bit of
is 1 is:
2
1
111
M M p (31)The post measurement state is:
2
11
21'111
M M M (32)Notice that there are two POVM operators 0E , 1E given in (26) that are the generalized observables, and that Eq. (27) holds.
In Sect. 4.9 we will see how the interpretation of a Bell state changes when its measurement is conceived from the internal point of view.3. Inner Reversible Quantum Measurements
Postulates
i) The observer is considered internal to the closed quantum system if and only if
the space-time background is a quantum space isomorphic to the quantum system.
ii) The internal quantum measurement is described by a unitary operator U.From Postulate i), it follows the lemma:
Lemma 3.1
The quantum system S and the internal observer O do not form a composite system.Their Hilbert spaces, which are isomorphic, O S H H are identified:O S H H and do not form a tensor product, as it is:O S O S H H H ,.
Definition 3.2
A unitary operator is a bounded linear operator U on a Hilbert space, which satisfies the condition:
I UU U U , (33)Where I is the identity operator on H .This property implies the following:
Property 3.3
A unitary operator U preserves the inner product on the Hilbert space H . In fact, if we define: U ', we get:
I U U '', (34)
For all vectors , of the Hilbert space H .From postulate ii), it follows the lemma:
Lemma 3.4
An internal quantum measurement is a reversible quantum operation.In fact, any unitary operator U on a Hilbert space H performs a reversible
transformation on a quantum state of H . In fact, from definition 3.2, for every transformation U, there exists the inverse transformation )(1 U U , such that I U U 1.Let us define:
U '. (35)
The inverse transformation 1U on ' is ' U , which gives back the original state
:
U U U U ''1 (36)Where, in the last step definition 3.2 has been used.
From postulate ii) it also follows the lemma:
Lemma 3.5
In the case the closed quantum system is a quantum computer, the unitary operator U is a quantum logic gate, then an internal quantum measurement coincides with a quantum computational step.
Theorem 3.6
A reversible transformation performed by a unitary operator U, on a closed quantum system, which is in the quantum state , is a generalized quantum measurement.
Proof:
By definition 3.2, a unitary operator U satisfies the completeness equation (1), in the particular case that the collection m M of generalized measurement operators in postulate 2.1 consists of a single operator U M M 1. In this case, the unique outcome m=1 has probability one to occur:
1)1( U U p (37)After the measurement, the state of the system is:
U p U )
1(' (38)
Then, all the properties of a generalized quantum measurement required by postulate 2.1 are fulfilled by a unitary operator U. ?
Theorem 3.7
Given a collection m M (m = 0, 1, … N-1) of measurement operators, which satisfy the additional condition:
0 j i j i M M M M (j i ), N j i ,0 (39)
And a corresponding collection: m of complex numbers satisfying the condition:
12
m (40)Then, the linear superposition:
1
N m m m M M (41)
is a unitary operator and then, by theorem 3.6, it describes a reversible quantum measurement.
Proof:
We must show that M is unitary. To this aim, it is sufficient to show that I M M with M given in (41). In fact, as M is finite, and it is 1det 2
M
,
it follows that M is invertible, as 0det M
.
.
2
''
'*
I M M M M M M M M M M m m
m m m m
m m m m m m m m m m m m m (42)
where in the last three steps we have used equations (39), (40) and (1) respectively.
?
Corollary 3.8
Given a complete set of orthogonal projection operators, that is, a set m P such that the m P satisfy (6), (7) and (8), and a corresponding collection of complex numbers
m such that 12 m , the linear superposition:
1
N m m m P P (43)
is a unitary operator (which is a diagonal matrix with respect to the basis of the eigenvectors of the observable A whose spectral decomposition is given in (5)).P in (43) is the exponential operator: iA e P
, where A is the observable in (5), and the complex coefficients m in (27) are given in terms of the eigenvalues of A:m
i
m e
Then, by theorem 3.6, P
describes an inner, reversible, generalized quantum measurement.
Since the projectors m P are a special case of m M , the proof is the same of theorem 3.7. ?
Corollary 3.9
In the case of a reversible quantum measurement, the POVM consists of a single operator that is the identity operator, and the associated probability is one.
Proof:
As we have seen in Sect. 2, a POVM is a collection m E of positive-definite operators m E given in (13) and the associated probabilities )(m p are given in (15).
In the case that the collection m M consists of a single operator 1M , then, by theorem 3.6, 1M is unitary: U M 1. From the definition of m E it follows:
I U U M M E 111 (44)And the associated probability is one:
1)1(1 I E p . ?(45)
4. The Mirror Measurement
4.1. Theorem
A unitary transformation U on a vector state of a Hilbert space H leaves unchanged the probabilities of , if it commutes with a complete set of orthogonal projectors m P in H .
Proof :
Let us suppose we perform first a unitary transformation U on , given by (35).Thereafter, we perform a projective measurement on :
' U P P m m ' (46)The probability of getting the outcome m is: U P U P m p m m '')'(If it holds:
0, m P U (47)We get:)()'(m p P UP U m p m m . ?(48)
4.2. Corollary Any unitary operator on a Hilbert space H , which is of the kind P
given in (43),preserves the probabilities of any quantum state of H on which it acts.
Proof :
The proof is trivial, as P
commutes with the projector operators m P :
0,,,'
''''
'
m m m m m m m m m P P P P P P . (49)Then, by theorem 4.1, when P
acts on a quantum state , it preserves the
probabilities of . ?
Definition 4.3
A mirror measurement M
is a unitary transformation on a quantum state , which preserves the probabilities of .
Lemma 4.4
By definition 4.3 and from corollary 4.2, it follows that every unitary transformation
of the kind P introduced in 3.8, is a mirror measurement M
.
4.5 Example: mirroring one qubit state
Let us consider a diagonal 22 unitary matrix of the form:
)(1*0P P e U i D (50)
Where 1* , and 0P and 1P are the two orthogonal projection operators on the Hilbert space 2C .
Let us consider the generic one qubit state
10b a (51)With: C b a ,, and 1
2
2
b a The operator D U preserves the probabilities of in (51), as it can be easily shown: 1'0'
10)(1*0b a b a P P e U i
D (52)Where: a e a i
', b e b i
*' , then it is: 22'a a and 2
2'b b .
In [ ] we interpreted D U as a reversible measurement performed inside the quantum
computer and called it "mirror measurement"M
.
As we mentioned in the Introduction, the term "measurement" in [4] and [7] was justified in a geometrical setting but it was not formally defined. In this paper we fill this gap, as it is trivial to prove the following theorem:
Theorem 4.6
Any unitary diagonal matrix of the kind )(1*0P P e U i D on 2C (or its
extension to a higher dimensional Hilbert space) describes a generalized quantum
measurement, and in particular is a mirror measurement M
.
Proof:
Any mirror matrix )(1*0P P e U i
D is an operator P defined in (43),
with: i e 0, *1 i e , 12
1
2
. (53)
Then, by corollary 3.8, it follows that D U is a particular case of generalized quantum measurement.
Also, from lemma 4.4, it follows that D U is a mirror measurement. ?4.7 Example: Mirroring a general two qubit state
We briefly review the extension of mirror measurement in the Hilbert space 4C .Given two mirror- matrices of 2C : *1001 i e M ,
*2002 i e M (54)
The tensor product: 21M M M
, given by:
**0000
00000000 i e M (55)(21 , , * ) is a mirror-matrix of 4C . In fact, when applied to the
two qubit state Q in (17), it gives:
11'10'01'00''3210a a a a Q M Q
(56)Where: 00'a e a i
, 11'a e a i
….. And so on and probabilities are unchanged:
2020'a a , 2
121'a a ,….And so on.Notice that M
can be written as a linear superposition of the four projectors of 4C :)(11*10*0100P P P P e M i
(57)And it holds:)4(I M M
(58)And in this case, differently from the case in 2.5, there is only one POVM operator 1E ,which coincides with the identity:
)4(1I E (59)The difference from this case and the case in 2.5 is completely general; it does not depend on the dimensionality of the Hilbert space, but it is just a consequence of two different measurement attitudes: from the external and the internal points of view, as we will see in more detail in the next section.
4.8 Generalized measurement of one qubit from the outside and from the inside points of view
Let us consider the generic one qubit state vector in the Hilbert space 2C , given in (51).
From the outside point of view, the possible outcomes are two (m = 0, 1): either the measured bit is zero (m = 0), or it is one (m = 1).
The corresponding generalized measurement operators are:
000 M , 111 M (60)In the case of one qubit,0M and 1M then coincide with the two projectors of 2C , 00010P and 10001P respectively.
It holds:
)2(1100I M M M M (61) The two POVM operators also coincide with the two projectors:0000P M M E , 1111P M M E And it holds:
)2(1010I P P E E . (62)Then, the generalized measurement of one qubit state forcedly coincides with a
projective measurement. Consequently, there are two generalized observables:21,E E which coincide with the two standard observables, 0P and 1P respectively.This is the external point of view.
From the internal point of view, instead, there is a unique outcome, as to “measure” a qubit from inside, it is sufficient a unitary operator U of 2C . In fact, by theorem 3.6, a unitary transformation is a special case of generalized measurement.
In the particular case that U is a mirror measurement, as in 4.5, it “mimics” the
outside measurement, but it remakes it in parallel, in the sense that the two projectors are still present, but they are linked together by a linear superposition. And in this case there is only one POVM operator, which is the identity. The identity, in this case is a generalized observable.
Let us see the above in more detail.
Let it be U M 1. It is: I U U M M E 111If, in particular, it is:
*100 i e M (63)
With: 1* , we have:
1*0*11100P P M (64))2(102
111)(I P P M M E (65)
Algebraically, the difference between the outside and the inside points of view in the measurement of one qubit, is that in the former there are two distinct POVM
operators, or generalized observables, which coincide with the two projectors, while in the latter, there is only one POVM operator, which is the identity.
Geometrically, the outcomes of the measurement of one qubit can be interpreted, from
the outside point of view, as one single point 0x
(or 1x ) in the Euclidean space 3R ,corresponding to the projection of the North pole 0 (or South pole 1) of the Bloch sphere. Instead, the outcomes of the (mirror) measurement of one qubit are, from the inside point of view, the elements of a two point lattice, which is a subspace of the
fuzzy sphere [6] with n =2. In the case that the internal measurement was a general unitary operator of 2C , and not specifically a mirror measurement, the outcomes would be geometrically described as the two elementary cells of the n =2 fuzzy sphere.
Now, one might argue that two external observers A and B could perform the
measurement of the same qubit by acting together at the same time but this would be hopeless. In fact, at the very moment that A measures bit 0, for example, by the
projector operator 0P , the qubit is destroyed, but still observer B is measuring bit 1 by the projector 1P , and in fact he is destroying the qubit, leaving no chance to observer A.
Of course this leads to an absurd. The only way out for the external observers A and B would be making a copy of the original qubit, but this is forbidden by the no cloning theorem [11]. Or, they might become internal observers. Now, internal observers are equivalent to observers who inhabit parallel universes. In this case, the two parallel universes would constitute another quantum system isomorphic to the qubit, and the outcomes would be still superposed. In fact these two parallel universes would be centred at the two points lattice of the n =2 fuzzy sphere. Notice, however, that this picture is only similar, but not equivalent to the Many Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics by Everett [12]. In fact, in the latter, the observer is truly
external, and the total Hilbert space is the direct product of the Hilbert spaces of the original quantum system and of the apparatus. Instead, in our case the observers are living in a quantum space, which is isomorphic to the quantum system, thus they must be considered as internal to the system itself, and the dimensionality of the original Hilbert space is unchanged.
4.9 Mirroring a Bell state
Let us consider the Bell state in (28).
As we have seen in Sect. 2.5, the possible outcomes of an (external) generalized measurement of the first bit of are two: either the first bit is zero (m = 0) or is
one (m = 1).
Instead, from the internal point of view, there is only one outcome corresponding to a
unitary transformation U. If in particular, U is a Mirror-matrix M
of 4C , given in Sect. 4.7, we have:
)1100(
2
1'* i
e M (66)
Hence, a Bell state behaves as a single particle in the mirroring since ' has the
same structure of the “cat state” )10(2
1 after the mirroring, namely:
)10(2
1
'*
i
e (67)
The inner quantum logic of Bell states was investigated in [13].
The single particle behaviour of the mirrored Bell state is a feature arising from the internal measurement point of view. Instead, this feature is absent in the external
measurement point of view, as we have seen in 2.5. This discrepancy between the two points of view might be at the origin of paradoxes of EPR, in particular non-locality.
In fact, an internal observer does not attribute non-locality merely to the presence of Bell states, but to his own space-time background, which, being a non-commutative geometry, is non-local by definition.
In fact, the quantum system of a generic N = 2 qubit state is isomorphic to a fuzzy sphere with n = 4 elementary cells, each one encoding one of the four two-bits strings in the computational basis. In the case of a maximally entangled state (a Bell state),the fuzzy sphere has two cells, each one with doubled surface area, and encoding one of the two-bits strings 00 and 11 (or 01 and 10).
Algebraically, the difference between the internal and the external points of view (concerning a Bell state), stands in the fact that, while in the latter we have two generalized observables, which sum up to the identity:a) )
4(10I E E In the former, there is only one generalized observable:
b) )
4(1I M M E
From a) we can get only a partial knowledge (information) about the Bell state, while from b), we obtain the whole information at once. In this case, we will say that the single generalized observable is the Truth-Observable that is the topic of next section.
5. The Truth-Observable
The very word “truth” usually means “logical truth” (while for a physical truth one uses mostly “physical reality”), thus “truth” is in general a logical concept. On the other side, the word “observable” is a major physical concept. But in an inner
quantum world, the “truth” is a logical concept, as well as a physical observable, as it is the truth one “observes” from inside.
5.1 The inner quantum truth is a generalized observable
Let us consider the spectral decomposition in terms of projectors m P of the “standard”observable A in (5). The observable A reduces to the identity operator I in the n-dimensional Hilbert space H when all the eigenvalues of A are equal to 1, that is the eigenvalue 1 is n-degenerate. In this case Eq. (5) is identified with Eq. (7), which is the completeness relation for projectors m P .
More generally, the POVM m E realize the positive-definite partition of unity given in (14). The POVM elements m E are Hermitian operators, and are generalized observables (they do not satisfy the orthogonal relation (8) differently from
projectors). In the case that the family of generalized measurement operators m M consists of only one element 1M the latter is a unitary operator U, and the unique
associated generalized observable 1E is the identity operator )(n I in the n-dimensional Hilbert space:
)(111n I U U M M E . (68)Once U is given the meaning of a generalized measurement operator, as in Sect. 3, the identity operator acquires the status of generalized observable, which we will call Truth-Observable.
The Truth-Observable is measured when a quantum operation U is performed on a state of the system followed by the inverse operation:
1
'U U
(69)
In particular, if is a N-qubits state, Eq. (69) means that has been computed by a quantum logic gate U, which is a n n unitary matrix (where N n 2 ) and then un-computed by 1U .
Notice that (7) and (14) reflect the “interpretation” of the measurement of the truth-observable by an external observer, in terms of projectors and POVM respectively.However, in (7) and (14) the “truth” as a whole can be affirmed only in principle, as the external observer cannot perform all the m P (or m E ) measurements at the same time. Instead, in (68) the “truth” can be affirmed at once as a whole, as the Truth-Observable is measured in a single step (1E ) by the internal observer.
5.2 Logical and philosophical implications of the Truth-Observable
The Truth-Observable is a concept of a very weak logic, namely paraconsistent,
symmetric logic, which turns to be the inner logic of a closed quantum system, like a quantum computer.
The “inner-quantum logic” [7] is like basic logic [8] as it is paraconsistent [14] [15]and symmetric, but differently from basic logic, it has not the (usual) cut rule.
Paraconsistency, which implies (in addition to the invalidation of the excluded middle principle as in intuitionist logic: A A ) also the invalidation of the non contradiction principle:
A A & (70)Eq. (70), which we take as an axiom, as it follows from a mirror measurement, allows superposed states:
A A & (71)The absence of the rule of weakening:!
"!
"A , (72)
Is equivalent to “no erase” in quantum computing .Also, the absence of the contraction rule:!
"!
"A A A ,,, (73)
Means: “no cloning”.
Finally, the absence of the (usual) cut rule:B
B
A A !" ! ",, (74)
Means that projectors are not allowed.
Thus, by this logic, superposition of states can never be destroyed.
It is straightforward to show that the usual cut rule would destroy the superposed state in (71). In fact, by replacing A by A A &, B by A, and putting " ?, we would have:
)()(&&&cut A
L A
A A A
A A
A (75)
We introduce then the “branched” cut rule:
)(&&)
()
(&&&)()(&&&R A
A cut A
L A
A A A
A A A cut A L A A A A A A A (76)
This “branched” cut rule” does not destroy superposed states, as it corresponds to the linear superposition of two projectors, and, as we showed in Sect. 4.5, this is a
unitary, reversible measurement (in particular, it is a mirror measurement:M
)associated with the Truth-Observable )2(1I E .
We see now the relation between the paradigm of the Truth-Observable, and this new “branched” cut rule.
We believe then that the sequent calculus of the inner logic of a quantum computer should be performed in branches (work in progress).
The Truth-Observable can be considered as the inner, absolute truth. This is a novel Platonist approach to absolute truth conceived from an internal point of view.
Instead, the Platonist external view of absolute truth is a concept of a stronger logic,namely classical logic.
There is a main difference between the outsider and the insider Platonist views of absolute truth. While in the outsider view the absolute truth is an abstract concept, and an “act of faith”, in the insider view it can be proven, as it is a generalized observable,and can be measured. In a sense, and quite surprisingly, the inner Platonist view of absolute truth is an extreme product of constructive mathematics!
Notice that a weaker logic means a logic that has fewer structural rules and/or absence of some active contexts. For example, in our inner quantum logic there are not the weakening and the contraction rules, and there are no active contexts. In a very weak logic, there are many “constraints” in the logical derivation of theorems.
Now, we will discuss about the lack of (usual) sequent calculus in our extremely weak logic.
The external observer cannot recover the quantum “proof” of a theorem step by step.In fact, from a quantum computer, we can only know (by performing an external
measurement) whether a theorem is true or false but the proof will be never accessible to us, as it is lost when quantum parallelism is destroyed by the external measurement.To be more explicit, let us suppose that theorem “X” can be proven true by both a classical computer and a quantum computer. Also, suppose that an external observer wants to reproduce the proof by a sequent calculus in both cases. In the classical case he succeeds, while in the quantum case he does not, by previous arguments. So, there is not a usual sequent calculus which can reproduce a quantum proof from outside.Moreover, we think that a usual sequent calculus just cannot exist in inner quantum logic: it should be much more limited than usually, and structured in parallel branches.
A reasonable conclusion might be that usual sequent calculus is just an external logical procedure, that is, the logical reasoning of an observer external to the system about which he is giving judgements.
In particular, if one supposes that theorem “X” can be efficiently proved to be true only by a quantum computer, the fact that the external observer cannot reproduce the proof sounds like a quantum version of Goedel’s incompleteness theorem, as was pointed out in [10].
We think that a weaker logic would describe a physical reality with fewer degrees of freedom, as we will illustrate in the following.
One defines active contexts those which are close to the formula and passive context those which are separated from the formula by the sequent.
In our case, one might figure out passive contexts as those which belong to the computational state while active contexts will be those which do not, like external observers, measurement apparatus, the environment, in summary the external classical world.
Let us consider the reflection rule for & in basic logic, (valid also in our inner quantum logic):)(&&&L A B A A B B !
!
! ! (77)
And the same rule in Intuitionist logic, which has full context on the left only:)(&&,,&,,L B A B B A A !
"!
"! "! " (78)
Now, if we replace B with A in both of them, we get respectively:)(&&&L A A A A A A ! !
! ! (79)
And:
)(&&,,&,,L A A A A A A !
"!
"! "! " (80)
In (80) there is a chance that the superposed state A A & gets entangled with the environment ", instead in (79) there is not such a possibility. Then, logical “visibility”of formula as in basic logic (or absence of active contexts) would mean that by no means a superposed state can be entangled with the environment, unless a quantum measurement is performed. As we have seen, in fact, the usual cut rule (74) is admissible in basic logic, and corresponds to a projective measurement. Also, it should be noticed that, in basic logic, there is the possibility of having an active
context in the cut rule, as in (74) (of course this context can be considered empty, but in principle it is admissible). We will show now that in inner quantum logic this possibility is not always allowed.
For example, an active context in the branched cut rule is not allowed in the case of one qubit state, and in the case of Bell states.
Let us consider the example of a generic one qubit state, given by the superposition (71). Let us suppose that we can apply the branched cut rule (76) in presence of the active context !as in (71). We would get:
)(&&,)
(,&,&)(,&,&R A A cut A
A A A A A cut A A A A A A
!" !" ! " !" ! " (81)
But we cannot have the same active context !in the two separated branches, as those
branches correspond to two parallel worlds 1W ,2W , which cannot share any common information like !.
The same holds for the Bell state, since it behaves like a single “big cat state” after a mirror measurement, as in (66), and the corresponding cut rule would also get
branched in two parts as in (81). Instead, for not maximally entangled bipartite states,
the cut rule branches generically in four parts, and the two contexts H, K, will be different for the two pairs of parallel worlds:
H for00, K for 11
K for01, H for 10
So, in this case parallel worlds will have different contexts, and will not share any common information.
Instead, common information will be shared by pairs of communicating worlds:
H for both 00and 10
K for both01 and 11
Thus, in the case of non maximal entanglement, an active context would be allowed in a branched cut rule. The presence of an active context even in a branched cut rule can be regarded as a residual of classicality in the quantum computational state, and consequently in the associated quantum space. In fact, a true inner quantum space, is not simply a quantum space (non-commutative geometry), but a non-commutative geometry, which also reflects the actual computational state. When the quantum computational state (for more than one qubit) is not maximally entangled, the quantum space does not resemble a complete set of parallel universes, but a mixture of parallel and communicating universes.
Instead, in the case of one qubit state, or in the case of a (bipartite) maximally entangled state, the inner quantum space is given by a complete set of parallel universes, encoding quantum information. (This is the case of a n = 4 fuzzy sphere having two big entangled cells encoding 00 and11 (or01,10), in place of four smaller cells encoding all four computational states).
Thus, the two main novelties of the cut rule in inner quantum logic are the following: i) The cut rule is performed in branches.
ii) The active context is absent in the branched cut rule whenever the branches reflect a complete set of parallel universes.
Notice that quantum parallelism is always reflected also in the branching of the cut rule, which however does not always coincide with a complete set of parallel universes.
In summary, we argue then, that the total absence of any active context would correspond to the complete removal of the classicality (separability of quantum states or locality in the associated quantum space).
Our inner quantum logic describes a collapse of space-time inside the quantum computer. We like to interpret this as a kind of logical black hole: all the quantum information is “trapped” in the Truth-Observable.
6. Conclusions
We wish to conclude with the following remarks:
i) As we have seen, our approach to quantum measurement, finds its natural setting in the generalized formalism. However, the inner reversible measurement is conceptually very different from all kinds of measurements considered since now in the literature. In fact, it is the only kind of measurement which requires an isomorphism between the observed system and its space-time background. This isomorphism was illustrated geometrically in [4], logically in [7], and algebraically in the present paper. ii) It should be noticed that, while a generalized measurement deals with a composite system (original system plus apparatus) in a higher dimensional
Hilbert space, an internal reversible measurement only deals with a single isolated quantum system.
iii) In the case of the quantum computer, at least, we formally demonstrated the validity of Landauer's principle [16] stating that computation and measurement are fundamentally the same process. In fact, we showed that a quantum logic gate is a (generalized) measurement operator. This result might be of interest for the foundations of both quantum computation and quantum mechanics.
Landauer also raised the question whether the very concept of measurement necessarily requires an interaction between the system and the apparatus. In the case of the quantum computer, the "apparatus", made of quantum logic gates, interacts with the system, but it is itself part of the system. Quantum computation is then a kind of meta-measurement, in the sense that a quantum computer “measures” itself by its own computational process.
iv) The Truth-Observable is a new logical concept, by which truth judgements coincide with inner reversible measurements. Thus, not only "information is physical" (as Landauer said) but also "inner quantum logic is physical".
v) We showed that only an internal observer could assert the objective reality of a quantum state.
vi) In our view, the holistic cognitive attitude appears as a peculiarity of the internal observer. In fact, the inner quantum truth (the Truth-Observable) is a global truth. vii) With respect to the "measurement problem" the philosophical approach of this paper stands between Bohr and Einstein's views. In fact, Einstein's realist position relies on the belief that, under ideal conditions, measurements behave like mirrors [17] in the sense that they reflect an independently existing reality. To us, those ideal conditions are realized only in an inner reversible measurement. On the other hand, Bohr's position, which is neo-Kantian relationalism, stands on the assumption that the dependence of properties upon experimental conditions is relational, not causal. To Bohr, it is not meaningless to assign a value to a quantity in a quantum system unless it is measured (this was Heisenberg’s position). To us, Bohr's view means that the value of a certain quantity is reflected by an imperfect mirror, the imperfection of the resulting image depending on which kind of measurement is performed,. In the case of the inner reversible measurement, and only in that case, Einstein and Bohr views coincide, as the mirroring is perfect.
Acknowledgements
I am very grateful to Pieralberto Marchetti for many enlightening discussions and useful comments.
I also I wish to thank Giulia Battilotti and Dario Maguolo for useful discussions.
外美史名词解释 1、意大利学院派： 1590年，意大利画家卡拉契兄弟创办了著名的波伦亚学院，旨在传承文艺复兴大师的传统，总结前人经验，培养年轻的美术家，并制定艺术法规，强调绘画标准, 避免样式主义和卡拉瓦乔的影响。由于这种办学原则明显缺乏创新精神，带有折衷主义的特点。故而题材较狭窄，多描绘宗教与神话，在技法上重素描轻色彩。可是对以后的古典主义美术的发展奠定了基础。 2、折衷主义： 这是17世纪意大利学院派美术的基本特色。主张绘画应有的最高标准是：米开朗基罗的人体、拉斐尔的素描、格累乔的典雅与风韵、威尼斯画派的色彩等等。这种企图培养新的艺术人才的办学思路与模式明显是综合了各家之长的折衷主义。 3、卡拉瓦乔主义： 17世纪由于卡拉瓦乔在当时欧洲画坛的巨大影响，吸引了相当多的敬慕者与追随者，他们的作品深受其艺术感染，无论是题材范围、画面明暗对比、人物写实手法等，多倾向于卡拉瓦乔的现实主义风格，故被称为卡拉瓦乔主义。 4、意大利地方画派： 17世纪意大利的现实主义画坛除了最具影响的卡拉瓦乔之外，还有颇具实力的有现实主义倾向的地方画派和画家：如热那亚画派（代表人物是斯特劳斯）、曼图亚画派（以多菲奇为代表）、那不勒斯画派（萨·洛撒为代表），另外还有威尼斯画派、佛罗伦萨画派和罗马画派等。 5、巴洛克艺术： 17世纪流行的艺术风格之一。这种风格最早产生于意大利的罗马，曾弥漫于欧洲的天主教国家。“巴洛克”这个派生词的由来说法不一：一说来自葡萄牙语或西班牙语，意指不圆的珠子；一说来自意大利语，有任意奇特、怪诞或推论上错误的含义。这个带有贬意的称呼是18世纪的古典主义理论家对这种艺术倾向的蔑视。 6、荷兰小画派： 17世纪的荷兰除了哈尔斯与伦勃朗这样伟大的现实主义绘画大师以外,还涌现了一批出色的画家。他们被称为“荷兰小画派”的原因有二：第一是画幅较小，适宜于市民阶层装饰居室；第二是不表现重大的社会题材，特别注重对生活细节的描绘，迎合了市民阶层的审美趣味。代表画家有：格拉尔德. 特鲍赫、皮特. 德. 霍赫、和加布里尔. 梅蒂绥等。 7、团体肖像画： 17世纪的荷兰美术除了单幅肖像画外还盛行团体肖像（群像）画，订件者往往要求画家对每个人都给以平等的表现机会，这就会使画家不能安排中心人物和一定的情节来统一画面与构图。但是，天才的肖像画家哈尔斯却突破了传统的呆板、平整的布局，尽量将人物安排的错落有致，营造出一种极其热烈的气氛。代表作品如《圣乔治射击手连军官的宴会》等。 8、西班牙“黄金时代”： 17世纪上半叶，西班牙美术人才辈出并出现了一个“黄金时期”（1560-1700）。他的繁荣主要得益于三个条件：一是西班牙文学的有力影响（文学家塞万提斯和戏剧家维加）；二是地方画派中现实主义力量的存在和发展；三是意大利卡拉瓦乔艺术的影响。这个时期西班牙绘画的艺术特点是反映生活、表现时代和民族精神。代表画家有里韦拉、苏巴兰和委拉斯贵支。 9、“波德格涅斯”： 17世纪西班牙的塞维利亚城流行的一种画风（即西班牙的卡拉瓦乔主义）。波德格涅斯这一名词含有小酒店和小饭馆之意，由于古典主义的理论家们瞧不起描绘下层人民生活的风俗画，于是以嘲弄的口吻把这类作品通称为“波德格涅斯”的绘画。委拉斯贵支就曾受到过这种画风的影响。作品有《卖水的人》、《早餐》、《音乐师》等。 10、罗可可： 18世纪上半叶，法国出现的一种新的艺术样式。那种对岩洞、贝壳、钟乳石的模仿手法，被称为罗可可风格。它从巴洛克艺术的背景中演变出来，同时又反对巴洛克的豪华壮观，既繁华纤秀、浮华做作、矫揉妩媚，又愉悦亲切、轻快优雅，可
1、物种：分类基本单位，种是具有一定的形态结构和生理特性以及一定自然分布区的生物种群，种内个体间可以彼此交配和产生后代，不同种之间存在生殖隔离。 2、双名法：对每种生物采用两个拉丁词或拉丁化的词的方法进行命名，第一个词为属名，第二个词为种加词。 7、出芽生殖：在亲体的一定部位长出与自身体形相似的个体，称为芽体。以后芽体可以脱离亲体发育成新个体或不脱离亲体而形成群体的生殖方式。 8、卵生：：由母体产出的是受精卵或未受精卵，未受精卵则需在体外受精（孤雌生殖除外）。子代的胚胎发育在外界环境条件下进行，胚胎发育时所需营养物质由卵内所贮存的卵黄供给。 9、胎生：从母体内产出的是幼体。子代胚胎发育时所需的营养物质由母体供给。 10、卵胎生：从母体内产出的也是幼体。幼体胚胎发育时所需的营养仍由卵内所贮存的卵黄供给，母体的输卵管或孵育室仅提供子代胚胎发育的场所。 11、伸缩泡：原生动物所具有的泡状细胞器，能通过收缩和舒张排出体内多余的水分，也有部分的排泄功能。 12、刺丝泡：草履虫等表膜之下的小杆状结构，有孔开口在表膜上，当动物遇到刺激时，射出其内容物，遇水成为细丝，一般认为有防御功能。 13、变形运动：变形虫在运动时，其体表任何部位都可形成伪足，虫体不断向伪足伸出的方向移动，这种现象叫做变形运动。 14、伪足：肉足动物的足不固定，身体伸出的部分即代表足，有运动和取食功能。 15、接合生殖：草履虫等原生动物特有的一种有性生殖方式。生殖时两个虫体口沟贴合，表膜溶解，通过小核的分裂和部分交换，最终产生8个新个体的复杂过程。 16、裂体生殖：又叫复分裂。既细胞核首先分裂成很多个，称为裂殖体，然后细胞质随着核而分裂，包在每个核的外边，形成很多的小个体，称为裂殖子。是一种高效的分裂生殖方式。 17、寄生：一种生物生活在另一种生物的体内或体表，从中获取营养，并对该生物有害。 18、终末宿主：寄生虫成虫或有性生殖时期所寄生的寄主。 19、中间宿主：寄生虫幼虫或无性生殖时期所寄生的寄主。 20、胚层逆转：在胚胎发育中，大分裂球在外，小分裂球在内，与般多细胞动物相反。 24、生物发生律：生物的个体发育史是系统发展史的简单而迅速的重演。 25、世代交替：在动物的生活史中，无性世代和有性世代有规律地交替出现的现象。 26、辐射对称：通过身体的中轴有多个切面将身体分为大致相等的两部分。 27、消化循环腔：腔肠动物体壁围绕的中央腔既有消化功能又有循环功能。 28、网状神经系统：腔肠动物的神经细胞突起相互交织成网状结构。这是动物界首次出现的神经系统类型。网状神经系统无神经中枢，神经传导不定向，神经传导速度慢。 29、皮肌囊：扁形动物等的体壁，由皮肤和肌肉组成。起保护等作用。 30、两侧对称：通过身体的中央轴只有一个切面将身体分为大致相等的两部分的体制类型。 31、实质组织：在涡虫等动物的表皮、肌肉与内部器官之间填满了由中胚层来的实质，疏松地相互连接在一起，形成网状，可贮存养分。 32、不完全的消化系统：扁形动物等低等动物的消化管只有口，没有肛门，消化效率不高，称为不完全的消化系统。 33、原肾管：扁形动物等的排泄系统类型。在虫体两侧有一对弯曲、多次分支的纵行排泄管，每一小分支细管的末端连着焰细胞。通过焰细胞收集多余的水分和液体废物，经排泄管由体背面的排泄孔排出体外。 34、梯式神经系统：扁形动物的神经系统类型。身体前端有“脑”的雏形，由“脑”发出两条腹神经索，腹神经索发出神经分支彼此连接并分布到身体各部。
外国美术史口诀 Document serial number【KK89K-LLS98YT-SS8CB-SSUT-SST108】
中国美术史试题1 一、填空题（40分） 1、中国美术的起源和萌芽时期是时代的美术。 2、青海大通孙家寨出土的《》，堪称马家窑文化彩陶艺术之杰作。 3、我国迄今发现最古老的壁画墨迹，是辽宁牛河梁遗址出土的壁画残块 4、我国先秦时代的青铜器，分、、、等四类。 5、东汉时代的画像石以山东嘉祥的为代表。 6、中国现存最早的砖塔是河南等封的。 7、刘宋时画家陆探微创造了“”的清秀绘画形象，而张僧繇则因其创造的形象独具风格，被称为“”。 8、唐代画家王维以诗入画创“”山水，书写文人情怀。王洽画松石山水则疯癫狂放，创“”之法。 9、我国着名的四大石窟指的是、、和石窟。 10、唐代工艺品中成就最为卓着的首推，殉葬的和驼、动物是其中的精品。 11、论者评宋初两大山水画家谓：“之画，近视如千里之远，之笔，远望不离坐外。” 12、南宋画家梁揩擅绘洗练放逸的“”，开启了元明清写意人物的先河。 13、元代永乐宫三清殿壁画的作者是民间画工等，而纯阳殿的壁画构图则是采用了 的表现形式。 14、明代“派”的代表画家时和。 15、明末画家陈洪绶19岁时创作的，其中以为最佳。 16、清初“四僧”指的是、、、。 17、“扬州八怪”大致分三类，其中一类是丢官后来扬州的文人，如、等人。 18、清代三大木板年画产地是、、。 19、近代画家任伯年注重文人画与民间美术结合，创造了的新画风。 20、“从来没有一个画家像他这么努力与绘写社会生活……”这是郑振铎对《点石斋画报》的主要执笔人的评价。 二、单项选择题（将正确答案代号填在题后的括号内）（10分） 1、马王堆汉墓帛画描绘的主题思想是（）。 A、天地神话 B、引魂升天 C、墓主生活 D、仙人出行 2、已知最早的纸本绘画《地主庄园图》出土于（）。 A、吐鲁番晋墓 B、昭通霍氏墓 C、安丘冬寿墓 D、酒泉丁家闸墓 3、描绘宫中嫔妃生活哀怨的作品是（） A、虢国夫人游春图 B、捣练图 C、挥扇仕女图 D、簪花仕女图
《法语语言学与符号学理论》教案大纲 一、引论 1.定义：符号学是研究符号及其体系的学科； 2.索绪尔的定义、皮尔斯的定义、巴特的定义； 3.符号学的研究内容：非语言交际手段、社会交际方式、文学与艺术符号； 4.其他符号学：动物交际符号、机械控制符号、生物交流符号、医学病症学； 二、语言学的贡献 1.语言学研究简况 2.索绪尔结构语言学 3.马丁内的二重分节 4.特尼埃的结构句法 5.纪尧姆和鲍梯埃的语言描述 6.哈里斯的分布语法和转换语法 7.乔姆斯基的生成语法 8.结构主义的主要概念 三、符号学理论 1.符号学的基本概念与理论 1)吉罗的符号学 2)莫南的符号学 3)雅－马丁内的符号学 4)巴特的《符号学原理》 2.符号学的研究领域 1)哲学 2)历史学 3)社会学 4)人类学5)心理学 6)文化 7)语言 8)文学艺术等； 9)逻辑符号集、社会符号集、美学符号集； 3.文学与艺术符号 1)小说 2)诗歌 3)戏剧 4)电影 5)广告 6)美术等；
四、叙事作品结构分析 巴特的《叙事作品结构分析导论》 小说结构分析：人物、时间、空间、叙述主体、聚焦与视角等 叙事逻辑 叙事诗学 七、结论：作为方法论的符号学 法语语言学研究生教案大纲 基于法语专业的学生已掌握了法语的语言基础知识，但是对于法语作为一个语言体系尚缺乏完整的整体意识和认识，这门课的教案目的就在于，通过对法语语言现象进行的具体分析，学习，从整体出发进行观察和研究，即把语言看成一个系统。从句法、语义、文体学的角度，还有现行的语篇学的角度对法语语言的内在运行机制进行探讨，通过一年的学习力求明白一般的句法结构以及有别于汉语的特定的句法结构，使学生对法语的语言特性有一定的认识，从而为自由的运用和表达奠定理论基础，做到知其然也知其所以然。 教材选用, , é共同编著的é?内容分五大部分：语言的书写与口语形式，简单句的句法，复合句句法，语法和词汇，语法与交际。在教案中同时以的é和的作为参考教材。 教案方法采用授课与讨论。基本上每次围绕一个主题，一共—个主题 推荐参考中文书：赵振铎《中国语言学史》河北教育出版社；申小龙《汉语与中国文化》复旦大学出版社以及钱冠连老师的《预言全息论》商务印书馆 第一部分： 第一讲：概述（è é） 第二讲：语音学和音位学 第三讲：缀词法和词形学 第四讲：标点符号与连接词 第五讲：句法与简单句 第六讲：动词和动词短语 第七讲：动词时态 第八讲：介词和介词短语 第二部分： 第九讲：句子类型 第十讲：复合句 第十一讲：关系从句
名词解释 1.国际法：国际法是在国际交往中形成的，主要用以调整国家间关系的，具有 法律约束力的各种原则、规则和制度的总称。 2.国际法的渊源国际法的原则和规则第一次出现的地方和使国际法的规范具有合法性的 法律形式。它的渊源有国际条约、国际习惯、一般法律原则以及国际组织的决定和决议。其中国际条约和国际习惯是国际法的主要渊源，一般法律原则是补充渊源。还有司法判例、权威公法学家的学说是辅助性资料。国际组织的决定和决议是重要渊源。3.国际法的编纂是指国际法的法典化，即把国际法的规则以类似法典的形式使之明确化 和系统化。严格来说，是指对现有的国际法原则、规则和制度的明确化和系统化；广义上说，还包括对正在形成中的国际法原则、规则和制度的明确化和系统化，即国际法的逐渐发展。 4.国际法的主体：即国际法律关系的主体，一般指能独立参加国际法律关系并依国际法直 接享受国际法上的权利和承担义务的行为者 5.国际法基本原则国际社会公认，具有普遍意义，适用于国际法各个领域的并构成国际 法的基础的法律原则。 6.国际法基本原则：国际社会公认，具有普遍意义，适用于国际法各个领域并构成国际法 基础的法律原则。 7.和平共处五项原则互相尊重主权和领土完整、互不侵犯、互不干涉内政、平等互利、 和平共处，这是现在国际法的基本原则 8.独立权：是指国家可以按照自己的意志外理本国事务而不受外来控制和干涉的权利。 9.平等权：国家在国际法上的地位平等，而不问其大小强弱，也不问其社会制度的性质和 发展水平如何 10.自卫权：是指国家以武力反击外来武力攻击的权利。 11.管辖权：是指国家国家依据国家，对其领域内一切人、物和所发生的事件，以及对其在 领域外的本国人行使管辖权的权利。 12.单一国：又称单一制国家，是指具有统一主权的国家。单一国拥有统一代表国家处理 对内对外事务的中央机关和在该中央机关领导下行使地方性职权的地方机关。在单一制形式下，国家只有一部宪法，公民有统一的国籍，它在国际交往中是单一的主体。国家整体和部分的关系表现为中央和地方的关系。 13.联邦是由两个以上的成员邦（国或州）组成的国家，即联邦国 14.国家承认：是指一个既存国家确认特定领土范围内居民已组成一个国家并具有国际法上 的人格，同时表示愿意与其交往。 15.国家豁免：又称国家主权豁免、国家管辖豁免或国家司法豁免，通常指国家及其财产不 受他国管辖的特权。 16.国家继承：是指一国丧失其国际法律资格或者丧失一部分领土时，它在国际法上的权利 和义务转移给他国（一国或数国）的情况。 17.政府继承：是指因革命或者政导致政权更迭，旧政府在国际法上的权利、义务由新政 府取代。与国家继承政府承认：只是对既存国家内部通过政变或革命所产生的新政府的承认。 18.对交战团体的承认：是指其他国家将一国内战中反抗政府的一方承认为享有 国际法上交战者资格的叛乱团体的行为。 19.对叛乱团体的承认：是指其他国家将一国内反抗政府的叛乱者承认为叛乱团 体的行为。 20.明示承认：是一种直接的、明文表示的承认。
动物学复习题 注明下列各种动物的分类位置〔注明门和纲〕 例：眼虫—原生动物门，鞭毛纲 团藻疟原虫变形虫利什曼原虫锥虫兔球虫碘泡虫小瓜虫车轮虫草履虫珊瑚水螅海蛰涡虫肝片吸虫钩虫轮虫日本血吸虫猪绦虫人蛔虫猪蛔虫丝虫小麦线虫棘头虫蚯蚓蚂蝗河蚌蜗牛鹦鹉螺钉螺锥实螺圆田螺墨鱼鱿鱼章鱼蜜蜂蝗虫蝎子蜱螨马陆蜈蚣河虾蜘蛛跳蚤水蚤对虾龙虾苍蝇米象蚂蚁螃蟹疥螨海盘车海胆海参柱头虫文昌鱼七鳃鳗鲶黄鳝带鱼鳜鱼中华鲟长江鲟白鲟白鲢鲫鱼草鱼泥鳅鳗鲡蟾蜍棘腹蛙青蛙牛蛙大鲵黑斑蛙鳖眼镜蛇银环蛇壁虎蛇鳄鱼家鸽鸳鸯金腰燕孔雀斑鸠红腹锦鸡猫头鹰麻雀原鸡鹌鹑鸿雁鸳鸯大熊猫牛虎梅花鹿骆驼狼鲸水牛野兔穴兔斑马 中国猿人岩羊野驴松鼠海狮长颈鹿小熊猫 二、名词解释 生物多样性基因多样性物种多样性生态系统多样性物种亚种品种细胞组织器官系统类器官包囊伪足裂体生殖接合生殖口器 个体发育系统发育世代交替水沟系刺丝泡刺细胞假体腔真体腔完全变态外套膜不完全变态原口动物后口动物皮肌囊不完全消化系统完全消化系统神经网梯式神经系统链状神经系统异律分节同律分节外骨骼开管式循环闭管式循环单循环马氏管 不完全双循环完全双循环原肾管后肾管中肾后肾脊索脊柱鳃笼侧线鳍式鳞式齿式韦伯式器肩带腰带副呼吸器官洄游迁徙婚瘤胸廓恒温动物胎盘羊膜卵羊膜动物副膀胱尾综骨愈合荐椎开放式骨盆封闭式骨盆鸣管三重调节留鸟候鸟夏候鸟冬候鸟旅鸟对趾型双子宫单子宫无蜕膜胎盘乳腺侧线器官 咽式呼吸双重呼吸趋同进化适应辐射 三、简述题 1、概述原生动物的主要特征。 2、比较卵裂与一般细胞分裂的异同 3、简述腔肠动物的主要特征 4、试述扁形动物的主要特征 5、简述寄生虫对寄生生活的适应性 6、概述环节动物的主要特征。 7、概述节肢动物的主要特征 8、脊索动物的主要特点有哪些？ 9、简述两栖动物的主要特征。 10、简述哺乳动物的进步性特征。 11、概述脊椎动物的进步性特点 12、简述两侧对称体制和中胚层的出现在动物进化史上的重大意义 13、试述鱼类对水生生活的适应性。 14、试述鸟类对飞翔生活的适应性 15、简述多细胞动物早期胚胎发育主要过程 16、什么是生物多样性？简述保护生物多样性的主要措施。 17、简述物种、亚种和品种的概念，并指出其不同点。 18、简述物种的概念及命名方法。 19、简述爬行动物的主要特征
外国美术史名词解释（42题） 1、拜占庭艺术：欧洲中世纪以东罗马帝国首都拜占庭为中心发展起来的基督教艺术。将西方基督教文化与东方波斯艺术融为一体，在欧洲居统治地位达1000年之久。其建筑运用拱券、穹顶，以彩色琉璃砖做装饰，内部有金色的镶嵌画。其绘画主要是非写实性的抽象艺术式样，如抑制对空间各深度的表现、热衷于线条与色彩的运用等。 2、罗马式建筑：欧洲中世纪中期的基督教建筑样式。罗马式建筑朴素、坚实，广泛采用半圆形拱券，石墙厚重，窗户小且高，内部昏暗，有高大的塔楼。代表建筑有：意大利的比萨大教堂等。 3、哥特式、哥特式建筑：欧洲中世纪后期的基督教艺术，源于法国，遍及全欧洲，代表了中世纪艺术发展的高峰。其建筑具有轻盈、纤细的结构，广泛运用尖券、肋拱，以巨大的彩色玻璃花窗取代墙壁，使得内部空间宽敞、明亮。总体感觉高耸挺拔，充满强烈的向上动感。代表建筑：法国巴黎圣母院。 4、文艺复兴：文艺复兴原意是“在古典规范的影响下，艺术和文学的复兴”。在欧洲的历史上，实际是指14世纪到16世纪欧洲文化思想发展中的一个时期，其实质是以新兴资产阶级的人文主义为出发点的伟大的思想解放运动。最先萌芽于南部的意大利，随后推及北部的尼德兰和中部的德国地区。 5、人文主义：欧洲文艺复兴时期代表新兴资产阶级文化的主要思潮，是与基督教神权及其禁欲主义相对立的，基本内容是他的世俗性。人文主义的思想家和艺术家崇尚科学、颂扬人的力量，高扬人与自然的美。 6、达芬奇：意大利文艺复兴三杰之一，著名的科学家、工程师和画家，他将艺术与科学完美结合，发明了“渐隐法”（用模糊的轮廓与柔和的色彩使一个形状融入另一个形状之中），成功地表现出人物微妙的内心活动，作品含蓄，充满哲理思考。代表作有《最后的晚餐》《蒙娜丽莎》等。 7、米开朗基罗：意大利文艺复兴三杰之一，著名的雕刻家、画家和建筑师，他的作品充满英雄主义、被压抑的力量与悲壮的激情，充分发挥了人体的表现力。雕塑名作有《大卫》《摩西》，绘画有《创世纪》和《最后的审判》，建筑有圣彼得大教堂的穹顶。 8、拉斐尔：意大利文艺复兴三杰之一，其作品优雅、秀美，笔下的人物具有温和、高贵的气质，尤其以描绘圣母的形象著称。他所确立的美的样式成为后来学院派的标准之一，代表作有《雅典学院》《西斯廷圣母》等。 9、威尼斯画派：意大利文艺复兴后期以威尼斯为中心形成的著名画派。十分强调色彩的运用，画面绚丽，宗教题材作品中的人物完全世俗化了，具有享乐主义的情调。代表画家有贝利尼、乔尔乔纳、提香、委罗内塞、丁托列托等人。 10、提香：意大利文艺复兴时期威尼斯画派的巨匠，其作品色彩强烈，笔触奔放，画面响亮，洋溢着生命的活力。他首度挖掘出油画语言的全部可能性，使画布油彩成为以后西方艺术的主要媒介，因此被称为西方油画之父。代表作有《乌尔宾诺的维纳斯》《圣母升天图》等。 12、巴洛克：巴洛克艺术产生于17世纪的意大利，后流行于全欧洲，其主要特征有：1、服务于
考研英语阅读理解“剥洋葱”句法结构分析笔记（印建坤主讲） “剥洋葱”句法结构分析步骤： 第一步：判断句子中有几个“洋葱”，即独立的句子； 判断方法： 1、看句子中有无and或者or，只有当前后句子并列时，才各自成为一个独立的 “洋葱”； 2、看句子中有无but、yet； 3、有无特殊标点符号： ① 冒号：从命题角度看，如果问题设置在冒号前，往往答案在冒号后面，相反， 如果问题设置在冒号后，往往答案在冒号前面；从长难句解析角度看，冒号前后独立，各自成为一个“洋葱”。 ② 破折号：完全等同于冒号； ③ 分号：前后各自独立成为一个“洋葱”；（标点符号用错除外，看分号后面 主谓宾是否齐全） 第二步：对每一个“洋葱”分别剥皮，第一层皮代表整个“洋葱”的核心主谓宾，此后每一个语法现象代表一层皮； 第三步：把每一层皮分别翻译成中文； 第四步：用设问方式，把每一层皮连接起来。 情感态度题解题思路： Ⅰ、全文情感态度题： 1、情感态度题选项分类： ① 永远不可能成为正确答案的中性词： e.g. indifferent / neutral ② 可以成为正确答案的具有褒义色彩的中性词： e.g. objective / impartial / amazed ③ 永远不可能成为正确答案的贬义词： e.g. biased / puzzled / questionable / panicked ④ 可以成为正确答案的褒义词和贬义词： e.g. critical / pessimistic / optimistic 2、全文情感态度题解题方法和步骤： ① 看选项，排除选项中永远不可能成为正确答案的中性词； ② 看选项，排除选项中永远不可能成为正确答案的贬义词； ③ 看选项，排除选项中的相近选项； ④ 看选项，保留选项中可成为正确答案的褒义词、贬义词以及具有褒义色彩的 中性词； ⑤ 看题干，确定情感态度指向的对象； ⑥ 判断该对象的性质： a．如果该对象与伦理道德观念相符合，就应该选褒义词； b．如果该对象与伦理道德观念相违背，就应该选可以成为正确答案的贬义词；c．如果该对象在伦理道德观念中还没有成为定论（例如：安乐死，大学生结婚），就应该选具有褒义色彩的中性词；
国际法名词解释汇总 一、国际公法名词解释 1.Archipelagic sea lane passage群岛海道通过 baseline直线基线 economic zone专署经济区 clause 5.jus cogens强行法 7.neutralized states中立国 p.77/ sector principle扇形原则 9.attaches附属国/添附 10.natural prolongation principles自然延长原则 11.pacta sunt servanda约定必须遵守批 of effectiveness有效原则 13.par in parem non habet jurisdictionem平等者之间无管辖权 14.accretion添附 sanguinis血统主义 sic stantibus 17.retortion报复 18.extra territorial asylum领事庇护、域外庇护 19.a delict jure genetium 20.treaty-contracts 21.international comity国际法院 22.Drago Doctrine 23.trust territories 24.cession割让 26.signature ad referendum暂签 shelf大陆架 Congress维斯特法利亚国会/立法会 29.Diplomatic Corps外交团 legation premises使馆（外交人员的经营场所） 31.nuncios 32.the peaceful co-existence principle和平共处原则 34.Full Power全权证书 35.change's daffaires 36.exequatur 37.letter of Credence国书 ;LiHaopei;ShiJiuyong;He Qizhi;Zhaolihai 39.Caonnally https://www.doczj.com/doc/5a14650342.html,w-making contract造法性条约 41.Super-national Law超国法 42.the right of collective self-defence集体自卫权 43.jus non scriptum 44.the nation's penal obligation国家刑事责任 Usage/ International Custom国际习惯/国际惯例 46.Instant International Customary Law
一、名词解释 1、适应辐射：凡是分类地位很近的动物，由于分别适应各种生活环境，经长期演变终于在形态结构上造成明显差异的现象，称为适应辐射。 2、逆行变态：指动物体经过变态，失去了一些重要的构造，形体变得更为简单，称为逆行变态，又称退化变态。 3、狭心动物：无心脏，心脏的功能由具有搏动能力的腹大动脉代替。 4、脊索:某些动物所特有的原始骨骼称为脊索。它位于这类动物身体的中轴、消化管的背侧，有支撑动物身体的功能。鱼、柱头虫等具有脊索，故称为脊索动物。动物由脊索动物进化到脊椎动物时，脊索被脊柱所替代。 5、咽鳃裂：低等脊索动物在消化管前端的咽部两侧有一系列左右成对排列，数目不等的裂孔，直接开口于体表或以一个共同的开口间接的与外界相通，这些裂孔就是咽鳃裂。 6、尾索动物：最低等的脊索动物，脊索和背神经管仅在动物幼体的尾部出现，生长到成体时退化或消失；体表有被囊，又称被囊动物。分尾海鞘纲、海鞘纲、樽海鞘纲3个纲。 7、单循环：血液循环全身一周，只经过心脏一次。 8、柱：柄海鞘咽腔壁腹侧的中央一沟状结构。 9、韦伯氏器：脊椎体前端有四块从椎骨发出的小型骨，由前向后依次称为闩骨、舟骨、间插骨、三脚骨，其所构成的结构联系鱼鳔的前端与耳，能将鳔所感受的水压传递给耳，称为韦伯氏器。 10、脑颅：指包围脑与视、听、嗅等器官的头骨，其功能是保护脑及视、听、嗅器官。 11、咽颅 : 咽颅位于脑颅下方，围绕消化管道最前端，包括颌弓、鰓弓、舌弓和鳃盖骨。 12、腰带：连接腹鳍的骨结构，构造简单。软骨鱼类为一枚坐耻骨构成；在硬骨鱼类则是一对无名骨构成的三角形骨板。 13、肩带：连接胸鳍的骨结构。硬骨鱼肩带包括肩胛骨、乌喙骨、匙骨、上匙骨和后匙骨；软骨鱼无后 14、膜迷路：膜迷路是套在骨迷路的膜性管和囊。管壁上有前庭器和听觉感受器 15、回游：某些鱼类在生命周期的一定时期会有规律地集群，并沿一定路线作距离不等的迁徙活动，以满足重要生命活动中生殖、索饵、越冬等需要的特殊的适宜条件，并在经过一段时期后又重返原地，这种现象叫做洄游。 16、生殖洄游：当鱼类生殖腺发育成熟时，脑下垂体和性腺分泌的性激素会促使鱼类集合成群而向产卵场所迁移，称为生殖洄游。 17、越冬洄游：冬季将来临时，鱼类常集结成群从索饵的海区或湖泊中转移到越冬海区或江河深处，以寻求水温、地形对自己适宜的区域过冬，称为越冬洄游。 18、索饵洄游：鱼类为了追踪捕食对象或寻觅饵料所进行的集体洄游、 19、管鳔类鱼：鳔是鱼体沉浮的调解器官，有的鱼类的鳔具鳔管至咽，称为管鳔类鱼。 20、闭鳔类鱼：鳔无鳔管的鱼类称闭鳔类鱼。 21、腹鳍胸位：指腹鳍位置前移至胸部。 22、腹鳍喉位：有些鱼类的腹鳍位置不在腹部，而是前移到胸部或喉部，腹鳍位
外国美术史名词解释（ 42 题） 1、拜占庭艺术：欧洲中世纪以东罗马帝国首都拜占庭为中心发展起来的基督教艺术。将西方基督教文化与东方波斯艺术融为一体，在欧洲居统治地位达 1000年之久。其建筑运用拱券、穹顶，以彩色琉璃砖做装饰，内部有金色的镶嵌画。其绘画主要是非写实性的抽象艺术式样，如抑制对空间各深度的表现、热衷于线条与色彩的运用等。 2、罗马式建筑：欧洲中世纪中期的基督教建筑样式。罗马式建筑朴素、坚实，广泛采用半圆形拱券，石墙厚重，窗户小且高，内部昏暗，有高大的塔楼。代表建筑有：意大利的比萨大教堂等。 3、哥特式、哥特式建筑：欧洲中世纪后期的基督教艺术，源于法国，遍及全欧洲，代表了中世纪艺术发展的高峰。其建筑具有轻盈、纤细的结构，广泛运用尖券、肋拱，以巨大的彩色玻璃花窗取代墙壁，使得内部空间宽敞、明亮。总体感觉高耸挺拔，充满强烈的向上动感。代表建筑：法国巴黎圣母院。 4、文艺复兴：文艺复兴原意是“在古典规范的影响下，艺术和文学的复兴”。在欧洲的历史上， 实际是指 14 世纪到 16世纪欧洲文化思想发展中的一个时期，其实质是以新兴资产阶级的人文主义为出发点的伟大的思想解放运动。最先萌芽于南部的意大利，随后推及北部的尼德兰和中部的德国地区。 5、人文主义：欧洲文艺复兴时期代表新兴资产阶级文化的主要思潮，是与基督教神权及其禁欲主义相对立的，基本内容是他的世俗性。人文主义的思想家和艺术家崇尚科学、颂扬人的力量，高扬人与自然的美。 6、达芬奇：意大利文艺复兴三杰之一，著名的科学家、工程师和画家，他将艺术与科学完美结合，发明了“渐隐法” （用模糊的轮廓与柔和的色彩使一个形状融入另一个形状之中），成功地表现出人物微妙的内心活动，作品含蓄，充满哲理思考。代表作有《最后的晚餐》《蒙娜丽莎》等。 7、米开朗基罗：意大利文艺复兴三杰之一，著名的雕刻家、画家和建筑师，他的作品充满英雄主义、被压抑的力量与悲壮的激情，充分发挥了人体的表现力。雕塑名作有《大卫》《摩西》，绘画有《创世纪》和《最后的审判》，建筑有圣彼得大教堂的穹顶。 8、拉斐尔：意大利文艺复兴三杰之一，其作品优雅、秀美，笔下的人物具有温和、高贵的气质，尤其以描绘圣母的形象著称。他所确立的美的样式成为后来学院派的标准之一，代表作有《雅典学院》《西斯廷圣母》等。 9、威尼斯画派：意大利文艺复兴后期以威尼斯为中心形成的著名画派。十分强调色彩的运用，画面绚丽，宗教题材作品中的人物完全世俗化了，具有享乐主义的情调。代表画家有贝利尼、乔尔乔纳、提香、委罗内塞、丁托列托等人。 10、提香：意大利文艺复兴时期威尼斯画派的巨匠，其作品色彩强烈，笔触奔放，画面响亮，洋溢着生命的活力。他首度挖掘出油画语言的全部可能性，使画布油彩成为以后西方艺术的主要媒介，因此被称为西方油画之父。代表作有《乌尔宾诺的维纳斯》《圣母升天图》等。 12、巴洛克：巴洛克艺术产生于 17 世纪的意大利，后流行于全欧洲，其主要特征有： 1、服务于教会上层和宫廷贵族，既有宗教的特色，又有享乐主义的色彩。 2、极力打破和谐与平静，饱含激 情和强烈的运动感。 3、关注作品的空间感和立体感，讲究光线的运用，追求戏剧性效果。4、强
划分句子成分 从句法结构的关系意义出发，对句子作成分功能或作用分析的方法叫句子成分分析法，即用各种方法标出基本成分（主语、谓语、宾语）和次要成分（状语、补语）。 句子成分有六种——主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语、补语。 汉语句子成分口诀： 主谓宾、定状补，主干枝叶分清楚。 定语必居主宾前，谓前为状谓后补。 状语有时位主前，逗号分开心有数。 一、主语多表示人或事物，是句子里被陈述的对象，在句首能回答“谁”或者“什么”等问题。可由名词、代词、数词、名词化的形容词、不定式、动名词和主语从句等来承担。例如： （1）今天晚上特别冷。 （2）明天这个时候，我们‖就可以走出戈壁滩了。 以动作、性状或事情做陈述的对象的主语句。例如： （1）笑是具有多重意义的语言。 （2）公正廉洁是公职人员行为的准则。 二、谓语是用来陈述主语的，能回答主语“怎么样”或“是什么”等问题。谓语可以由动词来担任,一般放在主语的后面。 （1）动词性词语经常做谓语。例如： 他只答应了一声。 南海一中留下许多人的梦。 我最近去了一趟北京。 （2）形容词性词语也经常做谓语。例如： 太阳热烘烘的。 人参这种植物,娇嫩极了。 说话要简洁些。 （3）主谓短语做谓语。例如： 这件事大家都赞成。 任何困难‖她都能克服。 大家的事情大家办。 （4）名词性词语做谓语。这种情况很少见，有一定的条件限制。可参考文言文中的判断句。例如： 鲁迅浙江绍兴人。
明天教师节。 她大眼睛，红脸蛋。 三、宾语往往表示动作支配的对象，并且总是处在动词的后头。可由名词、代词、数词、名词化的形容词、不定式、动名词、宾语从句等来担任。 （1）名词性宾语。例如： 玫瑰花我给你们俩十朵，给你紫红的，给她粉红的。 （2）谓词性宾语。例如： 最有效的防御手段是进攻。 谁说女子不如男？ 早上一起床，大家发现风停了，浪也静了。 四、定语是名词性词语的修饰成分。可以由名词,形容词和起名词和形容词作用的词,短语担任。如果定语是单个词,定语放在被修饰词的前面,如果是词组,定语放在被修饰词的后面。 （1）描写性定语,多由形容词性成分充当。例如： 弯弯曲曲的小河。青春气息。风平浪静的港湾。 （2）限制性定语：给事物分类或划定范围，使语言更加准确严密。例如： 晓风残月中的长城。野生动物。古城大理的湖光山色。 （3）助词“的”：定语和中心语的组合，有的必须加“的”，有的不能加“的”，有的可加可不加。 单音节形容词作定语，通常不加“的”，例如：红花、绿叶、新学校、好主意等。 双音节形容词作定语，常常加上“的”，特别是用描写状态的词，例如：晴朗的天、优良的传统、动听的歌声、粉红的脸等。 五、状语状语是动词性、形容词性词语的修饰成分。可以由副词、短语以及从句来担任。 （1）描写性状语：主要修饰谓词性成分，有的是描写动作状态，有些是限制或描写人物情态。例如： 他突然出现在大家面前。小李很高兴地对我说。 （2）限制性状语：主要表示时间、处所、程度、否定、方式、手段、目的、范围、对象、数量、语气等。例如： 午后，天很闷，风很小。白跑一趟。她的身上净是水。 （3）助词“地”：助词“地”是状语的标志。状语后面加不加“地”的情况很复杂。单音节副词做状语，一定不加，有些双音节副词加不加“地”均可，例如“非常热︰非常地热”。形容词里，单音节形容词做状语比较少，大都也不能加“地”，例如“快跑、苦练、大干”。多音节形容词有相当一部分加不加都可以，例如“热烈讨论︰热烈地讨论/仔细看了半天︰仔细地看了半天”
国际公法名词解释 1、Hugo Grotius 格劳秀斯 A Dutch senolar and diplomat,is known as the “father” of modern international law 2、The peace of Westphalia 《威斯特伐利亚和约》 The peace of Westphalia established a treaty-based system or framework for peace and cooperation in Europe,that endured for more than a hundred years 威斯特伐利亚和约建立了一个以条约为基础的体系，给欧洲带来了100多年的和平与合作 3、the “declaratory theory of recognition”“承认宣告说” P37 A defined territory ,a permanent population , an effective government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states, an entity is ipso facto a state once these conditions are met,regardless of what other states do or say 当这些条件（特定的领土，永久性人口，有效运作的政府，与其他国家建立外交关系的能力）具备时，一个实体就可以依照事实本身成为一个国家，无需取决于其他国家的态度和行为 4、the “constitutive theory of recognition”“承认构成说’ P 37 The theorist contend that only when other states decide that such condition haven been met ,and consequently acknowledge the legal capacity of the new state , is a new state actually constituted . 只有当其他国家认为这些条件都已具备，并最终承认这个新国家的法律地位时，一个新国家才算构成 5、The 1930 Estrada Doctrine 埃斯特拉达主义 P 40 A new government comes to power is wholly a matter if national concern. 一个新政府上台的方式完全属于一个国家的内部事务 6、The General Assembly 联合国大会 P 46 The only U.N. organ in which all member states have the right to be represented and to vote 联合国大会是联合国唯一的所有会员国都具有代表权和投票权的机关 7、The Security Council 安全理事会P 46—47 The Security Council has “primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security.”It consists of fifteen member states,five of them are permanent members. 安理会的职责是维护国际和平及安全。它包含15个理事国和5个常任理事国。 8、double veto双重否决 49 It permits each permanent members to use its first veto to prevent the characterization of a resolution as“procedural”and the second veto to defeat the resolution itself. 双重否决容许一个常任理事国运用其第一次否决权，避免一项决议被定性为“程序性”的决议，然后再动用其第二次否决权去挫败这项决议。 9、U.N specialized agencies联合国专门机构 P 52 They are autonomous international organizations having an institution
脊索：是身体背部起支持作用的棒状结构，位于消化道的背面，背神经管的腹面。 侧线：鱼类侧线是由许多侧线管开口在体表的小孔组成的一条线状结构。侧线管在鳞片上以小孔向外开口，基部与感觉神经相连，能感觉水的低频振动，以此来判断水流的方向、水流动态及周围环境变化。 单循环：鱼类血液在全身循环一周只经过心脏一次的循环方式。从心室压出的缺氧血，经鳃部气体交换后，汇成背大动脉，将多氧血运送到身体各个器官组织中去，离开器官组织的缺氧血最终返回心脏的动脉窦内，然后开始重复一轮的血液循环。 韦伯尔氏器：鲤形目中由一些骨块组成。通过水的声波引起鳔内气体振动，通过韦伯尔氏器传到内耳，产生听觉。 卵生：胚胎发育完全靠自身的卵黄囊中的营养。 卵胎生：胚胎的发育在母体的输卵管内完成，但所需营养完全靠卵黄囊提供。 假胎生：胚胎发育在母体的输卵管内完成，前期发育靠卵黄囊内的营养，后期胚胎卵黄囊壁伸出许多褶皱嵌入母体子宫，形成卵黄囊胎盘，胎儿从此从母体的血液中获得营养，完成最后的发育。 洄游：某些鱼类在生命周期的一定时期会有规律地集群，并沿一定路线作距离不等的迁徙运动，以满足重要的生命活动中生殖、索饵、越冬等需要的特殊的适宜条件，并经过一段时期后又重返原地，这种现象叫做洄游。 口咽式呼吸：两栖纲特殊的呼吸方式。吸气时口底下降，鼻孔张开，空气进入口咽腔。然后鼻孔关闭，口底上升，将空气压入肺内。当口底下降，废气借肺的弹性回收再压回口腔。这个过程可以反复多次，以充分利用吸入的氧气并减少失水，带呼气时借鼻孔张开而排出。 不完全的双循环：以鱼类为例，其心脏分为四个部分组成，即静脉窦、心房、心室、动脉圆锥。左心房接受含有丰富氧气的肺静脉，右心房接受富含二氧化碳的来源于静脉窦的血液。左右心房共同汇入单一的心室，至使心室中的含氧血和缺氧血不能完全分开。这样的循环方式成为不完全的双循环。 休眠：是动物有机体对不利的环境条件的一种适应。当环境恶化时，通过降低新陈代谢进入麻痹状态，待外界条件有利再苏醒活动。 羊膜卵：是有卵壳、羊膜、绒毛膜、尿囊等组成。为羊膜动物的卵，受精卵在胚胎发育过程中产生羊膜和尿囊，羊膜围成一腔，腔中充满羊水，胚胎就在相对稳定、特殊的水环境中发育，尿囊则收容胚胎在卵内排出的废物。卵外包有坚韧的卵膜，以保护胚胎的发育。 羊膜：在胚胎早期发育过程中，胚胎周围的表层膜向上两个地方发生皱褶，这种皱褶不断扩大，向上的皱褶从底部包上去，最后两侧边缘打通，内层保住胚胎称为羊膜。 颞孔：是爬行动物的头颅两侧，眼眶后面的凹陷（借相邻骨块的缩小或者消失而形成），是咬肌的着生部位。可增加咬肌的附着面积，增强咀嚼能力。 胸腹式呼吸：爬行动物借助肋间肌和腹壁肌肉运动升降肋骨而改变胸腔大小，从而使气体进入肺部，完成呼吸。 鳞式：躯干两侧各有一条侧线，由埋在皮肤内的侧线管开口在体表的小孔组成，被侧线孔穿过的鳞片为侧线鳞，分类学上用鳞式表示鳞片的排列方式。鳞式为：侧线鳞数*侧线上鳞数（侧线至背鳍前端的横列鳞）/侧线下鳞数（侧线至臀鳍起点基部的横列鳞） 新脑皮：爬行动物在大脑表层的新皮层开始聚集成神经脑细胞层，即为新脑皮。 迁徙：鸟类的迁徙是对改变着的环境条件的一种积极的适应本能，是每年在繁殖区和越冬区之间的周期性的迁居。这种迁飞的特点是定期、定向而且多集成大群。鸟类的迁徙多发生在南北半球之间，少数在东西半球之间。 愈合荐椎：由最后一枚胸椎，全部的腰椎、荐椎以及前几枚尾椎愈合为鸟类特有愈合荐椎。它与腰带相愈合，使鸟类在地面上不行获得支撑体重的坚实之家。 双重呼吸：在鸟肺中，无论是呼气时或吸气时均有新鲜气体通过微气管并进行气体交换，这种呼气和吸气都能进行气体教皇的现象称为双重呼吸。 双重调节（三重调节）：鸟类不仅能调节眼球晶体的凸度，还能调节角膜的凸度和改变晶状体到视网膜的距离，这种眼球的调节方式成为双重调节。 早成雏：鸟类孵出时即已充分发育，被有密绒羽，眼已张开，腿脚有力，待绒羽干后，即可随亲鸟觅食。
一、填空题 1、人类最早的造型艺术产生于(），即距今三万到一万多年之间。欧洲大陆的旧石器时代美术主要包括和。新石器时代的欧洲主要艺术遗迹是 。 2、世界最着名的两处史前时期的洞窟壁画是法国的和西班牙 的。 其中，出现了人类的形象。原始洞窟壁画常用的色彩是色和色。 3、欧洲中石器岩画以西班牙的岩画最为突出。 4、《受伤的野牛》是（国）的洞窟壁画中最有代表性的作品。 5、被称之为“原始的维纳斯”的着名代表作，是在维也纳附近的出土的女性雕像。它反映了处于母系氏族社会阶段的人类对的关注。 6、原始社会女性小雕像的代表作品有和。是一件刻在牛肩胛骨上的着名史前线刻艺术作品。 7、埃及人相信“灵魂永生”，故对埃及艺术产生了重要影响。 8、20世纪以来西方最有势力的艺术起源的学说是。首创这一理论的是英国人类学家。认为艺术起源于模仿是流行于的学说，、等人都持有这一观点。艺术起源于劳动的主要理论依据来源于俄国的 和、的一些论述。游戏说由德国美学家提出，由所发展。 9、新石器时代是一个以为中心的实用美术的时代。欧洲新石器时代美术的主要成就是。其中最着名的是国南部索尔兹伯里平原上的巨石圈，被称为 。 10、人类文明的初期在东西半球不同的生存环境中，形成了流域、流域、 流域、流域以及墨西哥、玛雅几大文明。 11、埃及艺术是围绕着人死后的生活而展开的，因此有人称埃及的艺术为 “”。 12、埃及早期王国时期表现上埃及战胜下埃及的着名艺术遗物叫做。 7、古埃及雕刻程式在（）时期就已形成，此后被当作典范沿袭下来。 8、古埃及金字塔经历了一个从到，最后到方锥形金字塔这样一个演变过程。 9、古埃及三大金字塔指得是金字塔、金字塔和金字塔。 10、埃及古国王时期写实主义雕刻杰作是《》和《》此时的着名壁画 是梅杜姆墓室壁画的边饰。 11、中王国时期埃及美术中出现了。 12、新王国时期最宏伟的建筑有神庙和神庙。18王朝时期的 神庙在依山而建的陵庙中最富有特色。 13、胸像是新王国时期最优美的雕塑。 11、美术史上最长的历史浮雕场面，是古代两河流域的浮雕。 12、“爱琴文化”在艺术史上又被称为文化。