Typhoid Mary
伤寒带菌者；疾病传播者；坏事传播者
在现代用法中，Typhoid Mary常常用来表示“不受欢迎的意见、不良情绪或态度的传播者”之类的意思。《牛津英语辞典》词条中收录的有关此种喻义的最早用法可追溯至1913年。在此之前，Mallon的用法一直局限在用于永久隔离（permanent quarantine）这一范围内。你可能会读到一些与其喻义相关的句子：“The Declaration of Independence, in respect of spreading the germs of revolution, is the Typhoid Mary of Spanish America”，来自迈尔斯?多布森（Miles Dobson）1914年撰写的书籍《矿井边缘》（At the Edge of the Pit）。
Patient Zero
首例病患；第一感染源
上世纪80年代艾滋病开始流行，这期间patient zero便成为了流行词汇。通常情况下，patient zero的使用不像Typhoid Mary一样蕴含贬义，但有时也用来表示“具有恶意或不良企图”之意。patient zero被用来指“某种传染性疾病爆发时的首位被确认病原携带者”。
虽然论及比喻义的重要性，patient zero不如Typhoid Mary那么有名，但是该短语也有自己的特别之处。莫妮卡?莱温斯基说到她与前总统比尔?克林顿的外遇遭媒体曝光后，就使用了“patient zero”一词来描述了她所遭受的网络欺凌，称自己是第一个在网络上遭到广泛羞辱的人。
Quarantine
检疫；隔离；检疫期；封锁
quarantine的历史渊源非常有趣，它在Typhoid Mary流行时期所发挥的作用也不容小觑。起初，quarantine（从后古典拉丁文quarentena演化而来）一词用来指耶稣被禁食四十天的地方。到了14世纪，该词便用来指代另一种性质的“被隔离”的四十天——如果一位寡妇想得到分配给她的那份亡夫的遗产，她必须在丈夫去世后在亡夫家里待够40天。最后，quarantine一词被用来广泛地表示四十天这一时间段。
quarantine的用法出现转折开始于用来表示“强加在外来人身上的一段时期”，借此防止可能的疾病传播。forced isolation（强制隔离）这种用法很快便成了quarantine的喻义。甚至，在美国总统罗斯福和肯尼迪等人的演讲中，都将quarantine作为blockade（封锁；阻塞）的同义词来使用。
Epidemic与 pandemic
流行的；传染性的与全国流行的；普遍流行的
虽然epidemic与pandemic这两个词汇都起源于古希腊语，但这两个词汇进入英语语言却经历了不同的过程。Epidemic来自法语词汇épidémique，而épidémique是由希腊语epidēmia（“疾病的流行”）演化成为后拉丁语并进入法语词汇。而其最终来源于词汇epidēmios（epi“在…之上”+demos“人们”）。如果你用“epidemic”来形容某样东西，你想表达的便是“突然的、普遍发生的一种特别不受欢迎的现象”，通常用来指传染性疾病。
而另一词汇，pandemic的形成更为明确。Pandemic起源于希腊词汇pandēmos （来自pan“所有的”+demos“人们”），用来指一种“在全国或世界范围内流行”的疾病。这样解释或许能够体会到Epidemic与Pandemic的差别了。
1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （ alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional . A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词 aliens 异形词 translation-loans 译借词 1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly 3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition 4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点 (Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation between notions, words, etc.)
传播学英语专业词汇传播Communication 内向/自我传播Intrapersonal Communication 人际传播Interpersonal Communication 群体传播Group Communication 组织传播Organization Communication 大众传播Mass Communication 单向传播One-Sided Communication 双向传播Two-Sided Communication 互动传播Interactive Communication 媒介Media 大众传播媒介Mass Media 新媒介New Media 新闻洞News Hold 新闻价值News Value 传播者Communicator 主动传播者Active Communicator 受传者/受众/阅听大众Audience 受众兴趣Audience Interest 受众行为Audience Activity 信息Information
信号Signal 讯息Message 信息熵Entropy 冗余/冗余信息Redundancy 传播单位Communication Unit 奥斯古德模式Osgood Model 编码Encode 解码Decode 信源Source 传播的数学理论Mathematical Theory of Communication 传播渠道Communication Channel 有效传播Effective Communication 传播效果Effects 知识沟Knowledge-Gap 使用与满足模式Uses and Gratifications Model 使用与依从模式Uses and Dependencys Model 口传系统System of Oral Communication 地球村Global Village 内爆Implosion 全球化Globalization 本土化Localization
传染病防治工作总结 （五篇） （篇一） **年，**区卫生和计划生育监督所在所领导的带领下，根据年初计划和省市工作要求，按照**年省市传染病监督重点工作安排，全面有序地开展工作，现将今年工作总结如下： **区卫生和计划生育监督所工作重心主要围绕医疗机构的消毒隔离、传染病防治、医疗废物、预防接种门诊及消毒产品生产企业的监督检查。依据《中华人民共和国传染病防治法》、《医疗废物管理条例》、《消毒管理办法》等法律法规，以医疗机构接种门诊、治疗室、供应室、手术室、口腔科、医疗废物暂存点为重点检查对象，通过现场检查、查阅文件资料、现场提问等方法，检查医疗机构预检分诊制度、预防接种是否规范、消毒隔离制度是否建立并落实，是否定期开展消毒与灭菌效果监测；是否建立了消毒产品进货检查验收制度；消毒产品购进使用是否进行了索证；医疗废物处置是否符合；传染病疫情报告制度落实情况等方面,对检查的部分机构按类别开展了传染病综合评价。今年监督五科共出动车辆近180余辆次，执法人员600余人次，检查二级医疗机构8家，一级医疗机构42家，未定等级医疗机构574家，疾控机构1家，采供血机构1家，提出整改意见2000余条，对140家医疗废物、消毒产品、隔离消毒存在违法行为的医疗机构给予了行政处罚，其中简易程序11家，一般程序129家。 此外对我区2家消毒产品生产企业及1家在华责任单位进行了监督检
查，检查企业卫生许可资质、生产工艺流程、原料购进索证、产品安全评价报告及检验、标签说明书等情况，对存在的问题下发了监督意见书，提出整改意见15条。 下一步工作打算： 1、加强医疗机构医院感染的监督检查，特别是口腔医疗机构、医疗美容机构、综合医疗机构的重点科室，加大监督频率，提高医疗机构消毒灭菌管理水平，预防院内感染，确保人民就医安全。 加大医疗机构传染病管理的监督检查，防治传染病公共卫生事件发生。 2、加大预防接种门诊的检查，保证广大群众接种安全。 3、开展医疗废物的监督检查，确保医疗废物处置符合要求。 4、开展消毒产品生产经营企业的监督检查，确保消毒产品生产、经营、使用符合要求。 （篇二） 根据万重传办【**】11号文件《关于报送**年工作总结及**年工作要点的通知》要求，我乡积极开展总结自查，现将长坝乡**年重大传染病防治工作总结及**年主要工作打算报告如下： 一、**年主要工作 （一）建立健全工作机构。建立重大传染病专项工作领导小组，由乡人大主席任组长，卫生院、学校、各村（社区）主要负责人为成员，由乡计生办专职负责此项工作，主持日常事务工作。 （二）建立健全各项规章制度。制定《长坝乡疫情管理制度》、《长坝乡突发公共卫生事件应急处理方案》等一系列制度，年初与各村（社
传播学专业英语词汇表第一部分：基本传播学理论词汇 传播Communication 内向/自我传播Intrapersonal Communication 人际传播Interpersonal Communication 群体传播Group Communication 组织传播Organization Communication 大众传播Mass Communication 单向传播One-Sided Communication 双向传播Two-Sided Communication 互动传播Interactive Communication 媒介Media 大众传播媒介Mass Media 新媒介New Media 新闻洞News Hold 新闻价值News Value 传播者Communicator 主动传播者Active Communicator 受传者/受众/阅听大众Audience 受众兴坤Audience Interest 受众行为Audience Activity 信息Information
信号Signal 讯息Message 信息熵Entropy 冗余/冗余信息Redundancy 传播单位Communication Unit 奥斯古德模式Osgood Model 编码Encoding 解码Decoding 信源Source 传播的数学理论Mathematical Theory of Communication 传播渠道Communication Channel 有效传播Effective Communication 传播效果Effects 知识沟Knowledge-Gap 使用与满足模式Uses and Gratifications Model 使用与依从模式Uses and Dependencys Model 口传系统System of Oral Communication 地球村Global Village 内爆Implosion 全球化Globalization 本土化Localization 电子空间Cyber Space 数字化Digitalization
考研英语词汇复习笔记 翻硕复习的一大重头戏就是词汇，而词汇量是巨大的，必须要有日常的积累和复习，并且掌握科学的记忆方法，才能最有效地积累词予匚量。下面是关于英语词汇的学习笔记，以供大家参考。(1) 1. bereave :使某人丧失(尤指亲属)bereave Sb Of Sb an accident WhiCh bereaved Him Of his Wife 使他丧失妻子的事古攵the bereaved husband 死了妻子的男人 the bereaved丧失亲人的人 bereavement(n):丧亲之痛，丧失亲人 deprive : take Sth away from sb;PreVent Sb from enjoying Or USing Sth剥夺sb/sth的sth;阻止某人 享有或使用Sth deprive sb/sth Of Sth deprive Of OneS CiVil rights剥夺某人的公民权deprivation(n):剥夺;贫困;被剥夺的事物WideSPreaCl deprivation 普遍贫困 MiSSing the HOIiday WaS a great deprivatiOrL错失假日是极大的损失。 deprived(adj):贫困的，穷苦的deprived ChildhOOd 贫苦的童年
2. abdomen : Part Of the body below the CheSt and CliaPhragm,cOntaining the stomach.腹部 abdominal(adj)腹部的an abdominal OPeratiOn 月复咅8手术belly : (口)front Of the HUman body from the WaiSt to the groin;belly 肚子，胃 With an empty belly 空着肚子 in the belly Of a ShiP 在船腹里 belly OUt(动词用法):鼓涨,凸出The Wind bellied OUt the SaiIS 3. c onSeCrate : devote sth/sb to Or reserve sth/sb for a SPeCial (esp religious) PUrPOSe 扌巴sth/sb 献给 sth/sb 做某种(尤其宗教)用途COnSeCrate sth/sb to Sth COnSeCrate OneS Iife to the SerViCe Of GOd,to the relief Of SUffering献身于为神服务(解除世人痛苦)的事业 devote : give OneS time z energy to sth/sb; dedicate 为某人付出，向某人奉献，献身于devote Oneself/sth to sb/sth devoted(adj):热爱的，非常忠实的Z全心全意的a devoted SOn
pacific a.和平的n.太平洋pack vt.捆扎；挤满n.包package n.包裹，包，捆packet n.小包(裹)，小捆 pad n.垫；本子vt.填塞 page n.页 pail n.桶，提桶 pain n.痛，痛苦悲伤；辛劳painful a.使痛的；费力的paint vt.画；油漆vi.绘画painter n.漆工，画家，绘画者painting n.油画；绘画；着色pair n.一对vi.成对，配对palace n.宫，宫殿 pale a.苍白的；浅的 palm n.手掌，手心；掌状物pan n.平底锅，盘子 panda n.小猫熊；猫熊 pane n.窗格玻璃 panel n.专门小组；面，板pant n.气喘；心跳 paper n.纸；官方文件；文章
parade n.游行；检阅vi.游行paradise n.伊甸乐园；天堂paragraph n.(文章的)段，节parallel a.平行的；相同的parcel n.包裹，小包，邮包pardon n.原谅；赦免vt.原谅parent n.父亲，母亲，双亲 park n.公园；停车场 parliament n.议会，国会 part n.一部分；零件；本份partial a.部分的；不公平的partially ad.部分地 participate vi.参与，参加；分享particle n.粒子，微粒 particular a.特殊的；特定的particularly ad.特别，尤其，格外partly ad.部分地，不完全地partner n.伙伴；搭挡；配偶party n.党，党派；聚会 pass vt.经过；通过；度过passage n.通过；通路，通道passenger n.乘客，旅客，过路人
英语词汇学笔记之“名词解释篇” 2010.1.11济南1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words. 3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root)--- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk. 4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes--- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand". 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion. 7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes. There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks. 8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes--- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y. Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word. Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base) Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective) 11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12.Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove. 13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).
1 1附录 1.1学校传染病预防控制工作相关表格示例
1.1.1晨检记录表 中小学校晨（午）检记录表 说明：（1）缺课：未缺课或缺课不足1课时记为0天，缺勤1-3课时记为0.5天，缺勤4课时及以上记为1天；（2）发热：腋下体温≥37.5℃者直接勾选，并填写具体体温，低于37.5℃者不需注明；（3）皮疹：颜色、表面隆起或发生水疱等皮肤性状发生异常改变，可伴瘙痒或疼痛；（4）腹泻：每日大便次数大于3次（不含3次）；（5）黄疸：皮肤、巩膜等组织的颜色黄染，异常发黄；（6）红眼：眼睛红、肿、热、痛等结膜充血症状；（7）其它症状：直接用文字注明，录入时根据标注文字在系统中勾选相应的症状名称即可；（8）诊断结果：必须根据医院给出的明确诊断填写。 页脚内容2
中小学校晨（午）检工作要点及填表说明 一、每天早自习或第一节课、下午第一节课前各班班主任应对学生的精神状态和健康状况进行晨、午检，保证晨、午检时间专时专用。 二、需要登记在此表上的学生：（1）当日因病缺课1课时以上（含1课时）的学生；（2）带病（或发生症状）上课的学生。 晨午检中发现的带病上课学生，在晨午检后离校或缺课1学时及以上者，应记录缺课天数。连续缺课或发病的学生，每天应连续登记。 三、晨、午检内容包括当日学生出勤状况以及全体学生在上次晨午检后至当天一段时间内的健康状况，重点关注传染病相关 症状的发生情况。教师应通过观察、询问等手段，重点观察、询问学生中有无发热（≥37.5℃）、腹泻、皮疹、结膜充血、皮肤黄疸等症状发生；调查了解学生缺勤原因及因病缺勤所发生的症状和确诊疾病等信息。 四、询问法参考内容：①昨晚是否发烧？是否测量体温，多少度？今早是否测体温，多少度？②身上是否有红点、疙瘩、水 疱？③有无嗓子疼、咳嗽、流鼻涕、腹泻、呕吐、头痛、肚子痛等症状？④去医院看病了吗？医生告诉您得了什么病？ 五、观察法参考内容：①学生的精神面貌：面色苍白或异常发黄、精神不振等，如发现异常情况不能定夺，应及时送校医室、 由校医（保健教师）做出判断和处置；②对疑似患病的学生可摸摸额头，如感觉发烧及时送到校医室、由校医（保健教师）处置； ③询问时反映身上有红疹、水疱症状的，可进一步查看，发现问题或有疑问及时将学生送到校医院、卫生室。 六、主要症状：在相应症状下方的方格内画“√”，发热学生需填写具体体温值。表中未体现的症状如实填写在“其他”栏 中，字迹应清晰可辨。 七、发病日期：是指首次出现症状的日期。 八、就诊信息：包括就诊日期、就诊医院和诊断结果，截止到当日晨检时的就诊信息。如尚未就诊，则不用填写；连续多日 登记的只需填写一次就诊信息。如就诊多次且诊断结果有变化，则应填写最新的诊断结果。 页脚内容3
自动化专业英语词汇大全 acceleration transducer加速度传感器base coordinate system基座坐标系 acceptance testing验收测试Bayes classifier贝叶斯分类器 accessibility可及性bearing alignment方位对准 accumulated error累积误差bellows pressure gauge波纹管压力表 AC-DC-AC frequency converter交 - 直 -交变频器benefit-cost analysis收益成本分析 AC (alternating current) electric drive交流电子传bilinear system双线性系统 动biocybernetics生物控制论 active attitude stabilization主动姿态稳定biological feedback system生物反馈系统 actuator驱动器，执行机构black box testing approach黑箱测试法 adaline 线性适应元blind search盲目搜索 adaptation layer适应层block diagonalization块对角化 adaptive telemeter system适应遥测系统Boltzman machine玻耳兹曼机 adjoint operator伴随算子bottom-up development自下而上开发 admissible error容许误差boundary value analysis边界值分析 aggregation matrix集结矩阵brainstorming method头脑风暴法 AHP (analytic hierarchy process)层次分析法breadth-first search广度优先搜索 amplifying element放大环节butterfly valve蝶阀 analog-digital conversion模数转换CAE (computer aided engineering)计算机辅助工annunciator信号器程 antenna pointing control天线指向控制CAM (computer aided manufacturing)计算机辅助anti-integral windup抗积分饱卷制造 aperiodic decomposition非周期分解Camflex valve偏心旋转阀 a posteriori estimate后验估计canonical state variable规范化状态变量approximate reasoning近似推理capacitive displacem ent transducer电容式位移传a priori estimate先验估计感器 articulated robot关节型机器人capsule pressure gauge膜盒压力表 assignment problem配置问题，分配问题CARD 计算机辅助研究开发 associative memory model联想记忆模型Cartesian robot直角坐标型机器人 associatron联想机cascade compensation串联补偿 asymptotic stability渐进稳定性catastrophe theory突变论 attained pose drift实际位姿漂移centrality集中性 attitude acquisition姿态捕获chained aggregation链式集结 AOCS (attritude and orbit control system)姿态轨chaos 混沌 道控制系统characteristic locus特征轨迹 attitude angular velocity姿态角速度chemical propulsion化学推进 attitude disturbance姿态扰动calrity 清晰性 attitude maneuver姿态机动classical information pattern经典信息模式attractor吸引子classifier分类器 augment ability可扩充性clinical control system临床控制系统 augmented system增广系统closed loop pole闭环极点 automatic manual station自动 - 手动操作器closed loop transfer function闭环传递函数automaton自动机cluster analysis聚类分析 autonomous system自治系统coarse-fine control粗 -精控制 backlash characteristics间隙特性cobweb model蛛网模型
病名病原体流行病学特征症状实验室检查治疗 乙脑病毒经蚊传播，夏秋季多见，隐性感染 多为主，脑脊液或血清中不易分离 病毒急性起病，高热，意识障碍，惊 厥，强制性痉挛，脑膜刺激征， 瞳孔对光反射迟钝、消失、 散大，病理征，可有后遗症。 确诊有赖于血清学和病原 学检查，脑脊液不易分离病 毒。 激素、脱水 流脑脑膜炎双球菌 G- 人为本病唯一传染源，通过飞沫传 染，细菌在体外生活力极弱，6个 月至2岁婴儿发病最高 突起高热，头痛，呕吐，伴神志 改变，皮肤、粘膜有瘀点瘀 斑，脑膜刺激征阳性 确诊有赖于脑脊液检查及 病原菌发现。 普通流脑：首选磺胺类， 次选青霉素及氯霉素。 爆发型：青霉素抗菌，甘 露醇脱水 细菌性痢疾G-兼性杆菌病人和带菌者是传染源，通过消化 道传播。均能产生内毒素、细胞毒 素、肠毒素。病后获得短暂不稳定 免疫力，可重复感染。全身中毒症状，腹痛、腹泻、 里急后重、排脓血便为主。 大便涂片镜检、细菌培养有 助于诊断 成人首选喹诺酮类，次选 庆大霉素 中毒性菌痢同上病初即可出现高热、精神萎靡， 面色青灰，四肢厥冷，呼吸 微弱，反复惊厥、神志不清、 皮肤花纹。直肠拭子或生理盐水灌肠 镜检 采用庆大霉素或阿米卡 星与氨苄西林静脉注射 伤寒沙门菌，G-，短 杆状，有鞭毛、 不产生芽孢，无 荚膜病人和带菌者是传染源，通过粪便 尿污染解除，苍蝇和蟑螂以媒介传 播。人群普遍易感，病后可获得持 久性免疫。 持续，腹部不适，肝脾肿大， 低下，嗜酸粒细胞消失，玫 瑰疹，相对。 主要系病原播散至全身全，而非 局部病变所引起 从血，骨髓，尿，粪便，玫 瑰疹刮取物中，到伤寒杆 菌。肥达试验阳性。 血培养在第二周检出率最 高，粪培养潜伏期可阳性 首选喹诺酮类，头孢、氯 霉素次之。 疟疾寄生虫按蚊传播，不直接人传人。普遍易 感。 预防措施有：蚊媒防制，预防或预 防为性的、发热和退热三个连续阶 段。常见并发症：贫血、脾肿大、 凶险型疟疾、疟疾性等。 从受检者或指尖作薄血膜 和厚血膜涂片，以姬氏染液 或瑞氏染液染色后镜检。 1、杀灭外期裂殖体及子，伯喹 2、杀灭红细胞内裂体增殖期，如氯 喹，、咯萘啶、喹派，青及等，用 以控制临床发作。 3、杀灭配子体，如伯喹，用于切断
语言学考研笔记整理 一、语言和语言学 1．语言的本质 （1）自然属性：语言从本质上来说是一套符号系统。 （2）社会属性：是人类最重要的交际工具。 （3）心理属性：是人类进行思维的工具。 语言的自然属性从本质上来说是一套符号系统。 2．什么是符号？语言符号和其它符号的不同特点。 符号：用甲事物指代乙事物，甲即乙的符号。 语言符号的特点：①有声的；②成系统的；③分层次的装置，语音→音素→音节→语素→词；④音义结合是任意的，是约定俗成的（不可论证，无理据）；⑤线条性：语言符号在输出时是一个接一个的，不能全盘端出。 语言符号与客观事物的关系。 3．语言最基本的社会功能：交际功能。 文字：是在语言的基础上产生的，是记录语言的书写符号。 符号：是形式和内容（意义）的统一体。 （1）语言符号的形式：声音（语音）是语言的物质外壳，听觉可感知。 （2）语言符号的内容：意义（语义）是人们对现实现象的概括反映。 （99年填空） 4．语言符号的特点：①任意性和强制性；②线条性；③系统性。 人的语言和动物语言有何不同？ 简要说明语言符号的任意性和强制性。 答：①任意性：语言符号的音与义之间没有必然的、本质的联系，它们的结合是由社会“约定俗成”的。表现：某种具体语言的音义结合关系；形成人类语言多样性的一个重要原因。②强制性：符号的任意性知识是就创制符号时的情形说的。符号一旦进入交际，也就是某一语音形式与某一意义结合起来，表示某一特定的现实现象以后，它对使用它的社会成员来说就具有了强制性。任何人不能借口任意性而随意改变音义之间的结合关系。符号的音义结合是社会约定俗成的，它们之间的关系改变也要由社会来决定。
1.What is polysemy? Having multiple meanings that are related. 2.What are the two different ways of organising polysemous words? Explain them 1)The diachronic approach begins with the primary meaning and then arrange the other meanings (derived meanings) in the order in which they developed. 2)The synchronic approach begins with the most popular meaning (central meaning) and then arrange the other meanings (marginal meanings) in order of popularity. 3.What are the two different ways in which polysemy develops? Explain them 1)Radiation. Secondary meanings are independent from one another and are derived directly from the primary meaning. 2)Concatenation. Secondary meanings are connected and derive from primary meaning through successive shifts of meaning from one secondary meaning to another. 4.What is homonymy? Homonyms are works different in meaning but either identical both in sound or spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. 5.Give an example of a perfect homonym, a homophone and a homograph 1)perfect homonym 同音同形date日期/date红枣 2)homophone 同音异形Knew/new, meet/meat 3)homograph 异音同形record(v.)/record(n.) 6.Give an example of the rhetorical use of homonymy Hi Jack （你好杰克）– hijack（打劫） 7.What is the difference between polysemy and homonymy? Give an example to illustrate the difference 1)Polysemy is about connection of meanings. Book can mean a book as in “I read a book”, and “I book a hotel room”. The second meaning is related to the first one because in the past hotel staff will write the customers’ information on a book when reserving a room. 2)homonymy is about form. Lie can mean not being honest or being in a horizontal position. These two meanings have the same form but no connection. 8.Classify the following pairs of antonyms into complementaries (binaries), contraries (gradable) or converses (relational). Explain why 1)Good/bad, contraries 2)odd/even, complementaries 3)above/below, converses 4)clean/dirty, contraries 5)remember/forget, complementaries? 6)old/young, contraries 7)before/after, converses 9.What is hyponymy? Give an example The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of a more general word.
acceptance policy 核保政策 accounting period 结算期 aggregate limit 累积限额 aggregated loss 累积损失 antiselection 逆选择 ART (Alternative Risk Transfer 新型风险转移balance 所欠款项 barrages 堰坝 captive pools 自保组合 catastrophe risk 巨灾风险 ceiding company 分出公司 cession limit 分保限额 claim-prone 容易出险 claims assistance 理赔协助 clean cut 结清方式 coinsurance 共保 commencement and termination 起讫 cover 承保 cover 责任额 deposit premium 预付保费 destroyed 毁坏 earth caves 土坏房屋 EPA event limit 事件限额 ex gratia payments 通融赔款 excess loss 超额赔款 exclusion 除外责任 exposed areas 风险承受区域 facultative reinsurance 临时分保 fault zone 断层区 finite risk 有限制的风险 flash floods 骤发洪水 flooding of rivers 洪水泛滥 frame structure 框架结构 full coverage 全额承保 full insurance value 足额保险价值 full liability 全部责任 Geophysics Institute 地球物理研究所health insurance 疾病保险，健康保险sickness insurance 疾病保险 insurance during a period of illness 疾病保险insurance for medical care 医疗保险 "major medical" insurance policy 巨额医药费保险 life insurance 人寿保险 endowment insurance 养老保险 insurance on last survivor 长寿保险 social insurance 社会保险 personal property insurance 个人财产保险insurance of contents 家庭财产保险 险别 Free from Particular AverageF.P.A. 平安险With Particular Average W.P.A. 水渍险 All Risks 一切险 risk of breakage 破碎险 risk of clashing 碰损险 risk of rust 生锈险 risk of hook damage 钩损险 risk of contamination (tainting 污染险insurance against total loss only (TLO 全损险risk of deterioration 变质险 risk of packing breakage 包装破裂险 risk of inherent vice 内在缺陷险 risk of normal loss (natural loss 途耗或自然损耗险 risk of spontaneous combustion 自然险 risk of contingent import duty 进口关税险insurance against war risk 战争险 Air Transportation Cargo War Risk 航空运输战争险 overland Transportation Insurance War Risk 陆上运输战争险 insurance against strike, riot and civil commotion (SRCC 罢工，暴动，民变险insurance against extraneous risks, insurance against additional risks 附加险
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary 重点知识锦集： 1. According to semanticists（意义学家）, a word is a unit of meaning. 2. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is …no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself?. 3. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency. 4. Words may fall into content words and functional words by notion. 5. Words may fall into native words and borrowed words by origin. 6. The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. 7. ‘all national character’（全民性）is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others. 8. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals. 9. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. 9. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings. 10. According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words under four classes: Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic-loans. 11. The differences between sound and form are due to innovations made by linguists. 12. Of all the five characteristics listed for the basic word stock, the most important is all national character.（全民性） 13. Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are stable. 14. In Old English there was more agreement between sound and form. 15. A word is a symbol that represents something else in the world. 16. Some words in the basic words stock are said to be stable because they refer to the commonest things in life. 17. In different language, the same concept can be represented by different sounds and the same sound can show different meanings. 18. The internal reason for the difference between sound and form is the fact of more phonemes than letters in English. 19. Native words are neutral in style and frequent in use. 20. The expression of “long time no see”is translation-loan among the four classes of borrowings. 名词解释： 1. word(词): A word is a minimal free form of a Language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. 2. vocabulary（词汇）: The term ‘vocabulary’is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given disicipline and the words possessed by an individual person. 3. Jargon（专门术语）: It refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular