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DC-DC变换器学习手册

DC-DC变换器学习手册
DC-DC变换器学习手册

Maxim > Design Support > Technical Documents > Tutorials > Power-Supply Circuits > APP 2031

Keywords: DC to DC, buck, boost, flyback, inverter, PWM, quick-PWM, voltage mode, current mode skip, synchronous rectifier, switching regulator, linear regulator

TUTORIAL 2031

DC-DC Converter Tutorial

Nov 29, 2001

Abstract:Switching power supplies offer higher efficiency than traditional linear power supplies. They can step-up, step-down, and invert. Some designs can isolate output voltage from the input. This article outlines the different types of switching regulators used in DC-DC conversion. It also reviews and compares the various control techniques for these converters.

Introduction

The power switch was the key to practical switching regulators. Prior to the invention of the Vertical Metal Oxide Semiconductor (VMOS) power switch, switching supplies were generally not practical.

The inductor's main function is to limit the current slew rate through the power switch. This action limits the otherwise high-peak current that would be limited by the switch resistance alone. The key advantage for using an inductor in switching regulators is that an inductor stores energy. This energy can be expressed in Joules as a function of the current by:

E = ? × L × I2

A linear regulator uses a resistive voltage drop to regulate the voltage, losing power (voltage drop times the current) in the form of heat. A switching regulator's inductor does have a voltage drop and an associated current but the current is 90 degrees out of phase with the voltage. Because of this, the energy is stored and can be recovered in the discharge phase of the switching cycle. This results in a much higher efficiency and much less heat.

What is a Switching Regulator?

A switching regulator is a circuit that uses a power switch, an inductor, and a diode to transfer energy from input to output.

The basic components of the switching circuit can be rearranged to form a step-down (buck)converter, a step-up (boost) converter, or an inverter (flyback). These designs are shown in Figures 1,2,3, and 4 respectively, where Figures 3 and 4 are the same except for the transformer and the diode polarity. Feedback and control circuitry can be carefully nested around these circuits to regulate the energy transfer and maintain a constant output within normal operating conditions.

Figure 1. Buck converter topology.

Figure 2. Simple boost converter.

Figure 3. Inverting topology.

Figure 4. Transformer flyback topology.

Why Use a Switching Regulator?

Switching regulators offer three main advantages compared to linear regulators. First, switching efficiency can be much better. Second, because less energy is lost in the transfer, smaller components and less thermal management are required. Third, the energy stored by an inductor in a switching regulator can be transformed to output voltages that can be greater than the input (boost), negative (inverter), or can even be transferred through a transformer to provide electrical isolation with respect to the input (Figure 4).

Given the advantages of switching regulators, one might wonder where can linear regulators be used? Linear regulators provide lower noise and higher bandwidth; their simplicity can sometimes offer a less expensive solution.

There are, admittedly, disadvantages with switching regulators. They can be noisy and require energy

management in the form of a control loop. Fortunately, the solution to these control problems is integrated in modern switching-mode controller chips.

Charge Phase

A basic boost configuration is depicted in Figure 5. Assuming that the switch has been open for a long time and that the voltage drop across the diode is negative, the voltage across the capacitor is equal to the input voltage. When the switch closes, the input voltage, +V IN, is impressed across the inductor and the diode prevents the capacitor from discharging +V OUT to ground. Because the input voltage is DC, current through the inductor rises linearly with time at a rate proportional to the input voltage divided by the inductance.

Figure 5. Charging phase: when the switch closes, current ramps up through the inductor.

Discharge Phase

Figure 6 shows the discharge phase. When the switch opens again, the inductor current continues to flow into the rectification diode to charge the output. As the output voltage rises, the slope of the current, di/dt, though the inductor reverses. The output voltage rises until equilibrium is reached or:

V L = L × di/dt

In other words, the higher the inductor voltage, the faster the inductor current drops.

Figure 6. Discharge phase: when the switch opens, current flows to the load through the rectifying diode.

In a steady-state operating condition, the average voltage across the inductor over the entire switching cycle is zero. This implies that the average current through the inductor is also in steady state. This is an important rule governing all inductor-based switching topologies. Taking this one step further, we can establish that for a given charge time, t ON, and a given input voltage and with the circuit in equilibrium, there is a specific discharge time, t OFF, for an output voltage. Because the average inductor voltage in steady state must equal zero, we can calculate for the boost circuit:

V IN × t ON = t OFF × V L

And because:

V OUT = V IN + V L

We can then establish the relationship:

V OUT = V IN × (1 + t ON/t OFF)

Using the relationship for duty cycle (D):

t ON/(t ON + t OFF) = D

Then for the boost circuit:

V OUT = V IN/(1-D)

Similar derivations can be made for the buck circuit:

V OUT = V IN × D

And for the inverter circuit (flyback):

V OUT = V IN × D/(1-D)

Control Techniques

From the derivations for the boost, buck, and inverter (flyback), it can be seen that changing the duty cycle controls the steady-state output with respect to the input voltage. This is a key concept governing all inductor-based switching circuits.

The most common control method, shown in Figure 7, is pulse-width modulation (PWM). This method takes a sample of the output voltage and subtracts this from a reference voltage to establish a small error signal (V ERROR). This error signal is compared to an oscillator ramp signal. The comparator outputs a digital output (PWM) that operates the power switch. When the circuit output voltage changes, V ERROR also changes and thus causes the comparator threshold to change. Consequently, the output pulse width (PWM) also changes. This duty cycle change then moves the output voltage to reduce the error signal to zero, thus completing the control loop.

Figure 7. Varying error signal generates a pulse-width-modulated switch signal.

Figure 8 shows a practical circuit using the boost topology formed with the MAX1932. This IC is an integrated controller with an onboard programmable digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The DAC sets the output voltage digitally through a serial link. R5 and R8 form a divider that meters the output voltage. R6 is effectively out of circuit when the DAC voltage is the same as the reference voltage (1.25V). This is because there are zero volts across R6 and so zero current. When the DAC output is zero (ground), R6 is effectively in parallel with R8. These two conditions correspond to the minimum and maximum output adjustment range of 40V and 90V, respectively.

Figure 8. The MAX1932 provides an integrated boost circuit with voltage-mode control.

Next, the divider signal is subtracted from the internal 1.25V reference and then amplified. This error signal is then output on pin 8 as a current source. This, in conjunction with the differential input pair, forms a transconductance amplifier. This arrangement is used because the output at the error amp is high impedance (current source), allowing the circuit's gain to be adjusted by changing R7 and C4. This arrangement also provides the ability to trim the loop gain for acceptable stability margins. The error signal on pin 8 is then forwarded to the comparator and output to drive the power switch. R1 is a current-sense resistor that meters the output current. When the current is unacceptably high, the PWM circuit shuts down, thereby protecting the circuit.

The type of switching (topology) in Figures 7 and 8 is classified as a voltage-mode controller (VMC) because the feedback regulates the output voltage. For analysis we can assume that if the loop gain is infinite, the output impedance for an ideal voltage source is zero. Another commonly used type of control is current-mode control (CMC). This method regulates the output current and, with infinite loop gain, the output is a high-impedance source. In CMC, the current loop is nested with a slower voltage loop, as shown in Figure 9; a ramp is generated by the slope of the inductor current and compared with the error signal. So, when the output voltage sags, the CMC supplies more current to the load. The advantage of CMC is its ability to manage the inductor current. In VMC the inductor current is not metered. This becomes a problem because the inductor, in conjunction with the output filter capacitor, forms a resonant tank that can ring and even cause oscillations. Current mode control senses the inductor current to correct for inconsistencies. Although difficult to accomplish, carefully selected compensation components can effectively cancel out this resonance in VCM.

Figure 9. Current-mode pulse-width modulation.

The circuit in Figure 10 uses CMC with the MAX668 controller. This boost circuit is similar to Figures 7 and 8 except that R1 senses the inductor current for CMC. R1 and some internal comparators provide a current limit. R5 in conjunction with C9 filters the switching noise on the sense resistor to prevent false triggering of the current limit. The MAX668's internal current-limit threshold is fixed; changing resistor R1 adjusts the current-limit setting. Resistor R2 sets the operating frequency. The MAX668 is a versatile integrated circuit that can provide a wide range of DC-DC conversions.

The external components of the MAX668 can have high-voltage ratings that provide greater flexibility for high-power applications. For portable applications that require less power, the MAX1760 and the

MAX8627 are recommended. These latter devices use internal FETs, and sense the current by using the FETs' resistance to measure inductor current (no sense resistor required).

Figure 10. The MAX668 for current-mode-controlled boost circuit.

Figure 11 shows a simplified version of Maxim's Quick-PWM? architecture. To analyze this buck circuit, we start with the feedback signal below the regulating threshold defined by the reference. If there are no forward current faults, then the t ON one-shot timer that calculates the on-time for DH is turned on immediately along with DH. This t ON calculation is based on the output voltage divided by the input, which approximates the on-time required to maintain a fixed switching frequency defined by the constant K. Once the t ON one-shot timer has expired, DH is turned off and DL is turned on. Then if the voltage is still below the regulating threshold, the DH immediately turns back on. This allows the inductor current to rapidly ramp up to meet the load requirements. Once equilibrium with the load has been met, the average inductor voltage must be zero. Therefore we calculate:

Figure 11. Simplified block diagram of Maxim's Quick-PWM control.

t ON × (V IN - V OUT) = t OFF × V OUT

Rearranging:

V OUT/(V IN - V OUT) = t ON/t OFF

Adding 1 to both side and collecting terms:

V OUT/V IN = t ON/(t ON + t OFF)

Because the duty factor is D:

t ON/(t ON + t OFF) = D

For the buck circuit:

D = V OUT/V IN

Maxim's proprietary Quick-PWM control method offers some advantages over PWM. Quick-PWM control generates a new cycle when the output voltage falls below the regulation threshold. Consequently, heavy

transients force the output to fall, immediately firing a new on-cycle. This action results in a 100ns load-step response. It is also important to note that unlike the buck circuit in Figure 1, Figure 11 uses a MOSFET (Q2) instead of a diode for the discharge path. This design reduces the losses associated with the diode drop; the on-resistance of the MOSFET channel doubles as a current sense. Because output-voltage ripple is required to stimulate the circuit to switch, an output filter capacitor with some ESR is required to maintain stability. The Quick-PWM architecture can also respond quickly to line input changes by directly feeding the input voltage signal to the on-time calculator. Other methods must wait for the output voltage to sag or soar before action is taken, and this is often too late.

A practical application of Quick-PWM is found in Figure 12. The MAX8632 is an integrated DDR memory power supply. Along with a Quick-PWM buck circuit (VDDQ), the MAX8632 integrates a high-speed linear regulator (VTT) to manage bus transients found in DDR memory systems. The linear regulator offers specific advantages over switchers: linear regulators do not have an inductor to limit current slew-rate, so a very fast current slew rate can service load transients. Slower circuits would require large capacitors to provide load current until the power supply can ramp up the current to service the load.

More detailed image (PDF, 76kB)

Figure 12. The MAX8632 uses Maxim's Quick-PWM architecture and a linear regulator to provide a complete DDR power-supply system. The device can be used as a main GPU or as a standard core-logic power supply.

Efficiency

One of the largest power-loss factors for switchers is the rectifying diode. The power dissipated is simply the forward voltage drop multiplied by the current going through it. The reverse recovery for silicon diodes can also create loss. These power losses reduce overall efficiency and require thermal management in the form of a heat sink or fan.

To minimize this loss, switching regulators can use Schottky diodes that have a relatively low forward-voltage drop and good reverse recovery. For maximum efficiency, however, you can use a MOSFET switch instead of the diode. This design is known as a "synchronous rectifier" (see Figures 11, 12 and 13). The synchronous rectifier switch is open when the main switch is closed, and the same is true conversely. To prevent cross-conduction (both top and bottom switches are on simultaneously), the switching scheme must be break-before-make. Because of this, a diode is still required to conduct during the interval between the opening of the main switch and the closing of the synchronous-rectifier switch

(dead time). When a MOSFET is used as a synchronous switch, the current normally flows in reverse (source to drain), and this allows the integrated body diode to conduct current during the dead time. When the synchronous rectifier switch closes, the current flows through the MOSFET channel. Because of the very low-channel resistance for power MOSFETs, the standard forward drop of the rectifying diode can be reduced to a few millivolts. Synchronous rectification can provide efficiencies well above 90%.

Figure 13. Synchronous rectification for the buck circuit. Notice the integrated MOSFET body diode.

Skip Mode Improves Light Load Efficiency

A feature offered in many modern switching controllers is skip mode. Skip mode allows the regulator to skip cycles when they are not needed, which greatly improves efficiency at light loads. For the standard buck circuit (Figure 1) with a rectifying diode, not initiating a new cycle simply allows the inductor current or inductor energy to discharge to zero. At this point, the diode blocks any reverse-inductor current flow and the voltage across the inductor goes to zero. This is called "discontinuous mode" and is shown in Figure 14. In skip mode, a new cycle is initiated when the output voltage drops below the regulating threshold. While in skip mode and discontinuous operation, the switching frequency is proportional to the load current. The situation with a synchronous rectifier is, unfortunately, somewhat more complicated. This is because the inductor current can reverse in the MOSFET switch if the gate is left on. The

MAX8632 integrates a comparator that senses when the current through the inductor has reversed and opens the switch, allowing the MOSFET's body diode to block the reverse current.

Figure 14. In discontinuous mode the inductor fully discharges and then the inductor voltage rests at zero.

Figure 15 shows that skip mode offers improved light-load efficiencies but at the expense of noise,

because the switching frequency is not fixed. The forced-PWM control technique maintains a constant switching frequency, and varies the ratio of charge cycle to discharge cycle as the operating parameters vary. Because the switching frequency is fixed, the noise spectrum is relatively narrow, thereby allowing simple lowpass or notch filter techniques to greatly reduce the peak-to-peak ripple voltage. Because the noise can be placed in a less-sensitive frequency band, PWM is popular with telecom and other applications where noise interference is a concern.

Figure 15. Efficiency with and without skip mode.

Summary

Although switching techniques are more difficult to implement, switching circuits have almost completely replaced linear power supplies in a wide range of portable and stationary designs. This is because switching circuits offer better efficiency, smaller components, and fewer thermal management issues. MOSFET power switches are now integrated with controllers to form single-chip solutions, like the

MAX1945 circuit shown in Figure 16. This chip has a metallic slug on the underside that removes heat from the die so the 28-pin TSSOP package can dissipate over 1W, allowing the circuit to supply over 10W to its load. With a 1MHz switching frequency, the output inductor and filter capacitors can be reduced in size, further saving valuable space and component count. As MOSFET power-switch technologies continue to improve, so will switch-mode performance, further reducing cost, size, and thermal management problems.

Figure 16. The MAX1945 is a 6A internal switch device with a reduced part count and small footprint to save board space.

Part Selection Links

Step-Up/Boost Converters

Step-Down/Buck Converters

Switching Regulators for Driving LEDs

Switching Regulators for Battery-Powered Applications

Switching Regulators for Industrial (High Voltage) Applications

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MAX668 1.8V to 28V Input, PWM Step-Up Controllers in μMAX Free Samples

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RCD复位正激变换器 有源钳位正激变换器 双管正激

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电力电子与电源课程设计组内自评表

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DC-DC变换器学习手册

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DCDC变换器的发展与应用.

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上,图1右上部绿线为斩波后的输出波形,方波的周期为T,在V导通时输出电压等于Ud,导通时间为ton,在V关断时输出电压等于0,关断时间为toff,占空比D=ton/T,方波电压的平均值与占空比成正比。图1下部绿线为连续输出波形,其平均电压如红线所示。改变脉冲宽度即可改变输出电压,在时间t1 前脉冲较宽、间隔窄,平均电压(UR1)较高;在时间t1 后脉冲变窄,平均电压(UR2)降低。固定方波周期T不变,改变占空比调节输出电压就是(PWM)法,也称为定频调宽法。由于输出电压比输入电压低,称之为降压斩波电路或Buck变换器。

移相全桥ZVS变换器的原理与设计

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移相全桥为主电路的软开关电源设计详解

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当开关管VT1、VT4或VT2、VT3同时导通时,电路工作情况与全桥变换器的硬开关工作模式情况一样,主变压器原边向负载提供能量。通过移相控制,在关断VT1时并不马上关断VT4,而是根据输出反馈信号决定移相角,经过一定时间后再关断VT4,在关断VT1之前,由于VT1导通,其并联电容C1上电压等于VT1的导通压降,理想状况下其值为零,当关断VT1时刻,C1开始充电,由于电容电压不能突变,因此,VT1即是零电压关断。 由于变压器漏感L1k以及副边整流滤波电感的作用,VT1关断后,原边电流不能突变,继续给Cb充电,同时C2也通过原边放电,当C2电压降到零后,VD2自然导通,这时开通VT2,则VT2即是零电压开通。 当C1充满电、C2放电完毕后,由于VD2是导通的,此时加在变压器原边绕组和漏感上的电压为阻断电容Cb两端电压,原边电流开始减小,但继续给Cb 充电,直到原边电流为零,这时由于VD4的阻断作用,电容Cb不能通过VT2、VT4、VD4进行放电,Cb两端电压维持不变,这时流过VT4电流为零,关断VT4即是零电流关断。 关断VT4以后,经过预先设置的死区时间后开通VT3,由于电压器漏感的存在,原边电流不能突变,因此VT3即是零电流开通。 VT2、VT3同时导通后原边向负载提供能量,一定时间后关断VT2。由于C2的存在,VT2是零电压关断,如同前面分析,原边电流这时不能突变,C1经过VD3、VT3。Cb放电完毕后,VD1自然导通,此时开通VT1即是零电压开通,由于VD3的阻断,原边电流降为零以后,关断VT3,则VT3即是零电流关断,经过预

DC-DC变换器总结

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SPWM全桥逆变器主功率电路设计说明

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PWM(Pulse Width Modulation)控制就是对脉冲的宽度进行调制的技术。即通过对一系列脉冲的宽度进行调制,来等效地获得所需要波形(含形状和幅值)。当采用正弦波作为调制信号来控制输出PWM脉冲的宽度,使其按照正弦波的规律变化,这种脉冲宽度调制控制策略就称为正弦脉冲宽度调制(Sine pulse width modulation,SPWM),产生SPWM脉冲,采用最多的载波是等腰三角波;因为等腰三角波上任一点的水平宽度和高度成线性关系且左右对称,当它与任何一个平缓变化的调制信号波相交时,如果在交点时刻对电路中开关器件的通断进行控制,就可以得到宽度正比于信号波幅值的脉冲。在调制信号波为正弦波时,所得到的就是SPWM波形。 SPWM波形的产生(如图2) 图2 SPWM波形的产生 1).全桥倍增SPWM控制 主电路和其他全桥逆变电路完全一致,控制脉冲的发生类似双极性SPWM 的模式,所不同的是,其桥臂之一所使用的互补控制脉冲由正弦调制波和三角载波比较产生,而另一个桥臂脉冲由同一正弦波和反相的三角载波比较产生(或者是反相三角载波和同一正弦波比较产生)。这种调制输出谐波性能等效于2倍载

关于DCDC变换器的工作原理

改进型四开关DC-DC变换器控制方式 传统的四开关BUCK/B00ST变换器功率损耗较大。这里对传统变换器的控制方法进行了改进。通过输入输出电压的不同关系采用不同的工作模式以减少同时工作的开关数量。 (l)当输入远远小于输出时,开关A恒定导通,开关B恒定断开。开关C、D 通过脉宽调制进行控制,此时四开关结构简化为Boost拓扑结构。 (2)当输入输出电压基本相等时,使用上面介绍的四开关工作的拓扑结构。 (3)当输入远远大于输出时,开关D恒定导通,开关C恒定断开。开关A、B 通过脉宽调制进行控制,此时四开关结构简化为Buck拓扑结构。改进的结构实际上是改变四个开关的控制逻辑,通过输入电压的不同选用不同的结构,这样在Boost或者Buck区域同时工作的开关数量减半。虽然在过渡区同样是采用四开关控制,四个开关都是处于工作状态,但是该区域是非常小的。总的来说可以大大减小开关的驱动功耗。

如图2-11所示,当Vin

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