(i)Creativity\productivity
Creativity is the first and foremost striking feature of human language. It refers to the fact that language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages. The grammatical rules and the words of a language are finite, but the sentences are infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively. Even a child acquiring his\her mother tongue can put speech sound and words into novel combinations to express meanings. This feature is not found in animal communication systems. Talking birds such as parrots can imitate human utterances, but they cannot segment the sounds and words in the phrases they imitate and put them in a different sequence.
（i）创造性
创造性是人类语言第一、最显著的特征。它涉及了语言为传送以前从来没有传送过的信息和理解新信息提供了机会。一种语言的语法规则和单词是有限的，但是句子是无限的。每个演说者创造性地使用语言。甚至一个学到他（她）母语的小孩也能把语音和单词放在一起，形成新的组合去表达意思。这个特征在动物交际系统里是找不到的。就拿鸟类来说，如鹦鹉能模仿人类的言语，但是它们不能分割它们所模仿的短语的语音部分和单词部分，然后把它们放进一个不同的次序里。
Results of experiments shows that even animals closet in kin to human beings cannot match children in learning and using language. In the 1930s, Winthrop and Luella Kellogg raised their infant son together with an infant chimpanzee named Gua. When the boy could understand I say what I mean and I mean what I say, Gua could understand neither, although it understood some words. Several decades later, another chimpanzee, named Nim Chimsky(after the famous American linguist Noam Chomsky, who states that language is unique to human beings)was taughtSign Language under careful experimentalcondition
实验的结果表明了尽管是和人类关系最亲密的动物，在学习和使用语言上，也赶不上小孩子。在十九世纪三十年代，Winthrop和Luella Kellogg把他们的男婴儿和一个叫Dua的幼儿猩猩一起抚养。当这个小男孩能够理解I say what I mean 和I mean what I say两个句子的含义时，而Gua却一个都不懂，尽管它知道一些单词。几十年后，又一个叫Nim Chimsky的大猩猩（在著名的美国语言学家Noam Chomsky叙述了“语言是人类特有的”论述后）在细心照顾的实验环境下，包括保持记录和录像，被传授美国标记语言。在分析Nim的语言录音后，研究者发现，在Nim的言语中，只有12%是自发的，在剩下的88%老师传授的标记中，一半Nim的反应是模仿老师的言语。随着小孩们长得越大，他们进行对话交流越来频繁。孩子们在对话中，几乎不模仿。孩子们在语言使用中变得更加创新。但是，在类似的实验里，Nim和其他猩猩表明了几乎没有这种创新的趋势。（Frokin 和Rodman，1998）这些事实似乎表明了创新性是区分人类语言和其他动物交际系统的一个特征。
(ii)Duality二元性
Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meanings. If you are given the four English speech sounds,[p][l][i][d] and asked to combine them into sequences that sound like English words, you will find [plid][pild]are permissible ,while
*[pdli]*[dpli]*[lipd]*[idlp], etc. are not. The permissible sequences sound like English words, and yet they are not, because they do not stand foe anything. On the other hand, meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequences of speech sounds. In English, [DEAD BODY OF A PERSON] is expressed by the word corpse. In this case, we say the concept or the meaning is lexicalized. In English there is no word to stand for the concept [DEAD PLANT]. When certain speech sounds correspond to a certain meaning, a unit of language arises. The same sounds can be recombined to mean something else. In some cases, the same sequence od sounds can mean different things (such ashomophones, and polysemes). This shows that meanings and sounds make up two subsystems of language. No systems of animal communication possess this feature. The barks of a dog are not analyzable.Animal communic ation systems cannot be cut into segments and then be reorganizes into meaningful sequences. In other words, human languages are discrete while animal communication systems are non-discrete.
（ii）二元性
语言包括两个子系统：一个是语音系统，一个是语义系统。假如给你四个语音[p]、[l]、[i]、[d]，并叫你把它们组合成听起来像英语单词的次序，你会发现[plid]和[pild]是行得通的，而其他的却行不通。行得通的次序听起来像英语，否则就不是，因为它们不代表任何东西。从另一方面来手，语义是通过一定的语音或者是语音的次序来传达的。在英语里，（DEAD BODY OF A PERSON）用来表达单词corpse（尸体），在这种情况下，我们说这个概念或语义被编进了词汇。在英语里，没有一个单词代表（DEAD PLANT）的概念。当特定的语音和特定的意思一致时，一个语言的单位产生了。相同的语音能够重组来表达其他的事物。在某些情况下，相同语音的次序能表达不同的事物（比如同音字和多音词），这表明了语音和语义构成了语言的两个子系统。动物交际系统里就没有这个特征，狗的犬叫声是不可被分析的。动物的交际系统不能被分割为几部分，也不能把它们重新组成有意义的次序。换句话来说，人类语言是离散的，而动物交际系统是连续的。
(iii)Arbitrariness
The relationship between speech sounds and the meanings they represent in the languages of the world is , for the most part, an arbitrary one, The Swiss linguist de Saussure regarded the linguistic sign as composed of signifier(sound image)and signified(referent). In his view, there is no inherent relation between the two. A building we live in with our family is called house in English, maison in French, dom in Russian, casa in Spanish. If the relationship between speech sounds and meanings were motivated (i.e. not arbitrary), the words in these languages that stand for the same thing would sound the same or similar, then people would not need to learn foreign languages. Admittedly, there are a few words in most languages that are onomatopoetic ---words od which the sounds supposedly imitate the sounds of nature. This seems to contradict arbitrariness. Nevertheless, when these words of different languages are compares, it is found that they still sound different. The English word tick tock is equivalent to Chinese word dida, buzz to wengweng. In English, cockadoodledoo represents the rooster’crow, but in Russian, kukareku, both are differert from the Chinese expression. Based on these observations,
we can say that for example, rather directly represents its subject matter, because a direct connection exists between the number and direction of the gyrations and the sources of nectar.
（iii）任意性
在语言世界里，它们所代表的语音和语义之间的关系，从大部分来讲，是任意的。瑞士语言学家de Saussure认为语言是有所指部分（语音）和受指部分（上面提到的语义）组成。在他的观点里，两者是没有固定关系的。我们和家人住的建筑物在英语被叫house，法语叫maison，俄罗斯叫dom，西班牙叫casa。如果语音和语义的关系被激发了，代表相同事物的这些语言将会发相同或相似的音，那么人们就没有必要学习外语了。
无可否认地，在大部分语言中，有些单词是声喻的——按推测，发音是模仿大自然声音的单词。这似乎和任意性矛盾。然而，当不同语言的单词被比较时，人们会发现它们发音是不同的。英语单词ticktock 等同于汉字dida，buzz 等同于wengweng。在英语里，cockadooledoo 代表公鸡的叫声，但在俄罗斯语里，却是kukareku，两者和中文表达不同。根据这些观察，我们可以说，所有人类语言都是传统的，大部分动物交际系统是图标性的。例如：蜜蜂飞舞，非常直接地表达了它的主要问题，因为一个直接的结合点存在于旋转的次数和方向和花蜜的来源之间。
(iv)Displacement
Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present, or future. When we listen to news broadcast, we know What can be spoken is not limited by time and space, while animals can merely communication about what happens here and now. The cleverest dog cannot bark to tell others how badly its parents were treated by their owner. This feature of language id due to the fact that the human brain is specially structures for language and that the brains of other species are not comparable in terms of the capacities of memory and abstraction.
（iv）超时空性/移位性
语言可以用于涉及真实的或者想象的、过去的、现在的或将来的失去。当我们听新闻广播的时候，我们知道这个世界上遥远地方发生了什么事。至于谈什么，则不受时间和空间的限制，而动物却只能交流这里及现在发生了什么。连最聪明的狗也不能犬叫告诉别人它的父母亲被主任虐待。语言的这个特征是因为从记忆力和信息提取量的角度来看，人脑是专门为语言组织的，和其他物种头脑是无法比较的事实。
(V)Culture transmission
Language is not merely genetically transmitted from generation to generation. Children pick up their mother tongue in the process of socialization. Animal communication systems are genetically transmitted. Admittedly, the capacity for language has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person acquires or learns is a cultural fact, not a biological fact. As lang
uage is arbitrary and conventional , a child can only acquires his mother tongue through interacting with people around him.
（v）文化传递性
语言不仅仅是遗传地从一代传递给下一代。儿童在他们社会化的过程中学会了母语。动物交际系统是遗传传递的。无可否认，语言的容量有一个基因原理，但一个人掌握或学习是一个文化的事实，而不是生物事实。由于语言是任意的、传统的，所以一个小孩只能通过和他周围的人们相互作用学习母语
1. Sequential Rules [s?'kwen?(?)l] 序列规则Sequential Rules are rules that govern the combination of sounds in particular language. e.g. If a word begins with a /l/ or /r/, then the next sound must be a vowel（元音）. 2. Prototype ['pr??t?ta?p]原型 What members of a particular community think of as the typical instance of a lexical category. e.g. F or some English speakers “cabbage”(rather than say carrot) might be the prototypical vegetable. 3. Presuppositional Trigger 预设触发语 A presupposition trigger is a construction or item that signals the existence of a presupposition in an utterance. e.g.” Jane had another date with John.” It presupposes the fact that Jane has had one date with John before. Apparently, the use of “another” called a presupposition trigger. 4. Possessor [p?'zes?] 所有人 Refers to one who has something e.g. Jane’s doll. The first noun is the possessor. 5. Positive Face 积极面子 The positive consistent self-image or “personality”(including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of)claimed by interactants. e.g.: You are excellent. 6. Phoneme ['f??ni?m] 音位The smallest unit in the sound system of a language e.g. the two words peak and speak, we are aware that the sound /p/ is pronounced differently 7. Performative Utterance 言有所为 It is a sentence which is not true or false but instead 'happy' or 'unhappy', and which is uttered in the performance of an illocutionary (语内表现行为的) act rather than used to state something. e.g. "I swear to do that", "I promise to be there" 8. Negative Face 消极面子 The basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction. i.e. to freedom of action and freedom from imposition. e.g.: You’d better not smoke here. 9. Morpheme ['m?:fi:m] 词素 The smallest meaningful unit of language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning. e.g. the English word unkindness consists of three morphemes: the S TEM1 kind, the negative prefix un-, and the noun-forming suffix -ness. 10. Metonymic Reasoning [,met?'nimik] 转喻推理 Metonymic Reasoning is a figure of speech used in rhetoric(修辞) in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by the name of something intimately(密切地) associated with that thing or concept.
现代语言学 一绪论 1 Linguisitics: 语言学Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: 语音学The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants 元音、辅音、声调、重音以及节奏、音变 3 Phonology: 音韵学The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. For example, phone, phoneme, and allophone. 4 Morphology: 形态学The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. For example, boy and “ish”---boyish, teach---teacher. 5 Syntax: 句法学The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. For example, ”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: 语义学The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example: “The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried. The seal could not be found, The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 同义词、反义词，同音词 7 Pragmatics: 语用学The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. For example, “I do” The word do means different context.在特定情景中的特定话语，研究如何通过语境来理解和使用语言。 8 Sociolinguistics: 社会语言The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. For example:regional dialects, social variation in language.
英汉语言学词汇对照表 abbreviation ablative abrupt accent accusative acoustic phonetics acquisition action verb active active chart parser active knowledge active verb actor-action-goal actualization acute address adequacy adjacency pair adjective adjunct adjunction adverb adverbial idiom affective affirmative affix affixation affricate agent agentive-action verb agglutinative agreement AI (artificial intelligence) AI language Algebraic Linguistics algorithm alienable alignment allo- allomorph allophone alpha notation alphabetic writing alternation 缩写[省略语 ] 夺格 (的) 突发音 口音 /{Phonetics} 重音 受格（的） 声学语音学 习得 动作动词 主动语态 活动图句法剖析程序 主动知识 主动动词 施事 (者)-动作 -目标 实现 (化) 锐音 地址 { 信息科学 }/ 称呼（语） { 语言学 } 妥善性 邻对 形容词 附加语[ 附加修饰语 ] 加接 副词 副词词组 影响的 肯定（的；式） 词缀 加缀 塞擦音 施事 施事动作动词 胶着（性） 对谐 人工智能[人工智能 ] 人工智能语言[人工智能语言 ] 代数语言学 算法[算法 ] 可分割的 对照 [多国语言文章词；词组；句子翻译的 ] 同位 - 同位语素 同位音位 alpha 标记 拼音文字 交替
一、认知语言学的起源 二、主要内容 19 世纪末20 世纪初,当心理学从哲学中分离出来成为一门独立的实验学科之时,语言的认知研究便已开始。1987年是认知语言学正式的诞生年,虽然此前已有一些零星的文章预示着一种新的语言学理论即将诞生。但是一般认为,这一年出版的Lakoff“Women, Fire ,and Dangerous Things”和Langacker“Foundations of Cognitive Grammar”标志着认知语言学作为一种独立语言学理论的诞生。认知语言学研究的主要代表人物是Langacker，Lakoff，Jackendoff, Taylor 和Talmy等人。 认知语言学包括认知音系学、认知语义学、认知语用学等分支，研究内容广，覆盖面大，概括起来主要有以下几点：一、范畴化与典型理论 语言学在方法论和本质上都与范畴化(categorization)紧密相关。范畴化能力是人类最重要的认知能力之一,是“判断一个特定的事物是或不是某一具体范畴的事例”(Jackendoff , 1983∶77) 。 Labov和Rosch对范畴的研究，打破了范畴的“经典理论”或称“亚里士多德理论”一统天下的局面。“经典理论”认为:范畴是由必要和充分特征联合定义的;特征是二分的;范畴有明确的边界;范畴内的所有成员地位相等。这一理论却
受到了认知科学的有力挑战。Rosch 还提出了“典型理论”(prototype theory) ,认为大多数自然范畴不可能制定出必要和充分的标准,可以公认为必要的标准往往不是充分的;一个范畴的成员之间的地位并不相同,典型成员具有特殊的地位,被视为该范畴的正式成员,非典型成员则根据其与典型成员的相似程度被赋予不同程度的非正式成员地位。例如,在“鸟”范畴内“知更,鸟”常被视为典型成员,而“企鹅”、“驼鸟”等则为非典型成员。当然，一个范畴的典型成员会因不同的人、文化、地理位置而有所不同,但一个范畴中总有典型的。 典型理论对认知科学最有价值的贡献在于它把注意力集中在内部结构上,集中在范畴具有“核心”和“边缘”这个事实上。目前,它已用于语音、句法、词义、语用、语言习得、失语症等方面的研究,并取得了可喜的成绩。 二、概念隐喻 隐喻的认知研究可追溯到18 世纪。约在1725 年,意大利哲学家和修辞学家G. Vico就发现了隐喻的认知功能,后在其《新科学》一书中阐述了其认知观点。然而,把隐喻的研究纳入认知语言学领域的重要标志却是Lakoff &Johnson （1980）。认知语言学家认为,比喻性语言与非比喻性语言本质上无甚差别;日常语言中充满了隐喻,完全不带隐喻的句子大概只占极少数。隐喻是“我们对抽象范畴进行概念化的有
Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain 1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludes research into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use Ian guage. 2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion. 3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cog nitive fun cti on. 5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage. 6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies. 7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on. 8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is called non-flue nt aphasia. 9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results in a type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia. 10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte n causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia. 11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems to have lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules. 12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un able to recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so und rules. 13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips. 14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ng of letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word. 15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used words tha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.
胡壮麟语言学术语英汉对照翻译表 1. 语言的普遍特征： 任意性arbitrariness 双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构 多产性productivity 移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西 文化传播性cultural transmission 2。语言的功能： 传达信息功能informative 人济功能：interpersonal 行事功能：Performative 表情功能：Emotive 寒暄功能：Phatic 娱乐功能recreatinal 元语言功能metalingual 3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支 语音学Phonetics 音位学phonology 形态学Morphology 句法学syntax 语义学semantics 语用学pragmatics 4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure 提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语 5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky 提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance 1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language: a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain language b. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing. c. we can u se language to refer to something not present d. we can produce sentences that have never been heard befor e. 2.What is the most important function of language? a. interpersonal b. phatic c. informative d.metallingual 3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __ a informative b. phatic c. directive d. performative
Morphology 形态学，研究词的内部结构和构造规则 如colorful,由color和-ful两部分构成，由此概括出一条规则：名词词尾加上-ful可构成形容词 Morpheme, 语素，不能再简化的有意义的语言单位。如boys,由boy和-s构成 Morph 语素的具体形态 Allomorph 语素变体 英文单词illogical,imbalance,irregular和inactive有着共同的语素in-。换句话说，im-,ir-是语素in-的变体。 Free morphemes 能单独出现，独立构词的语素称为自由语素。如work,boy Bound morphemes 不能独立出现，必须附着在其他语素后才能构词的语素。如distempered中，dis-和-ed是黏着语素，temper是自由语素 Bound roots 不能独立出现，只能被词缀附着后出现 如refer中的-fer,consist中的-sist Content morphemes 包含语义内容的语素（包含简单词和能改变词根意义的词缀），如名词、动词、形容词、副词。如work Function morphemes 通过联系一个句子中的其他词提供语法功能的语素 如介词、连词、冠词 at，for，a,but Inflectional 曲折，生成同一语素的不同形式 -s,-‘s,-ing,-en,-er,-est，-s Derivational 派生，生成新词，通常可以改变词汇意义 Cat,caty Compounding合成 如Girlfriend Reduplication 重复 Abbreviation or shortening 简写 Blending 混合 Motor+hotel=motel Breakfast+lunch=brunch Alternation Man men Suppletion不规则 Go went Syntax句法
语言学术语（英-汉对照）表 Glossary and Index (备注：因教材改版，部分章节标注等内容有出入。) A abbreviation 缩写词，略语3.3.1 Abercrombie 10.3.2 ablative 夺格，离格4.1.1 abstractness 抽象性1.3.2 accent 重音（符）2.4.4；2.4.5 accuracy 正确性11.6.4 accusative 宾格4.1.1 achievement test 成绩测试11.6.3 acoustic phonetics 声学语音学1.7.1；2.1 acquisition 习得6.1.2 acronym 缩略语3.3.1 action process 动作过程12.2.3 actor 动作者4.4.2；12.2.3 addition 添加3.3.2 address form 称呼形式7.2.3 addressee 受话人1.4；9.4.1 addresser 发话人1.4；9.4.1 adjective 形容词3.1.2；4.1.1；5.5.2 adjunct 修饰成分；附加语12.2.3 adverb 副词3.1.2 affix 词缀3.2.1 affix hopping 词缀跳跃4.3.1 affixation词缀附加法7.1.4 affricate 塞擦音2.4.3；2.4.5；2.9.1 agreement 一致关系4.1.3 airstream 气流2 alliteration 头韵9.3.2；9.3.6 allomorph 词/语素变体3.2.4；4.3.1 allophone 音位变体2.8
认知语言学
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近年来,认知语言学已经成为国内外学者研究语言学的重点，认知语言学能很好地解释一些其他语言学理论无法解释的语言现象。认知语言学反映了人类认知过程。英语倒装句作为复杂的语言学现象引起很多语言学家的关注。各种不同的语法学派,语言学家和学者在不同的方面做出了很多贡献，但是由于这一复杂的句法特征,很多研究不能系统地解释倒装句。本文以象似性理论为认知原理,对英语倒装句中全部倒装,部分倒装及修辞性倒装进行解释,认为象似性尤其是接近象似性原则和顺序原则是形成倒装的主要原因。 关键字:象似性；倒装句；象似性原则
倒装句作为一种语法形式,是当今语言学研究的一个重要内容。传统理论对倒装的研究忽视了语言外部的因素，未重视认知对语序的制约作用，研究不够全面。 本文以认知理论为基础,对英语倒装句进行分析研究，以象似性原理为理论为依据,对英语中的不同倒装现象进行了分析和解释。在对句首倒装成分做出解释的基础上,本文对倒装句中动词全部活部分出现于主语之前的情况进行了解释，认为邻近象似性是英语倒装句中动词或全部或部分地随着突显成分提到主语之前的原因。 2 文献综述 国内外学者对认知语言学的研究做出了很多贡献，如王寅著的《认知语言学》,赵艳芳的《认知语言学概论》,Ｌackoff. G& M. Ｊｏhnｓon’s MetaphorｓWe Lｉｖｅby等等。所以，以期刊、论文方式讨论倒装句的研究出了许多成果。传统研究主要是从修辞、句法、语用和语篇的角度进行的。徐盛桓，以语料统计为依据,研究英语倒装句，认为倒装是为实现句中各种成分的信息状态合理分布的调节装置,通过调节，使语句的成分有恰当的错位,达到全息的语用目的。余笑,从Ｖerschuｅｒn提出的语用综观说出发，探讨英语和汉语中倒装语序的语用功能。发现英汉倒装语序均具有焦点分离突出和情景设定的功能。 而从认知语言学角度研究英语倒装句日益增多。杨壮春,用射体（tｒaｊｅctory)－界标(landmarｋ)理论从认知的角度对倒装句的焦点突显功能作出解释，认为倒装句是该理论在语言学中的现实化,它把“射体-界标”转化为“界标－射体”结构形成句末焦点,以使人们注意的焦点落在新信息上，从而达到英语倒装句的凸显效果。更多的是以图形与背景理论为视角,对英语倒装句的焦点凸显功能进行重新阐释，认为英语倒装句符合图形-背景理论中的凸显原则,如王冰营，吕娜;刘先清；王海欧等。 用传统的修辞、句法、语用和语篇的角度进行的分析有其自身的缺陷,仅仅将倒装句认为是一种表示强调手段的句子。而用图形与背景理论分析可以解决为什么句子应该倒装即英语倒装句起始部分的问题,但是却解决不了为什么动词或者功能词应该放在主语前面这样的问题。象似性作为认知语言学中重要的概念，可以进一步研究英语倒装句中的问题。 3倒装句 英语句子的正常语序是主语位于谓语之前,然后是宾语或表语或其他句子成分。如果将全部谓语或谓语的一部分,或将宾语、表语、宾语补足语提到主语之前，就称为倒装语序（Inｖertｅd Ｏrｄer)。
序论部分 语言学：是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；从方法上分为历史语言学、比较语言学、历史比较语言学、描写语言学；从研究对象上可分为个别语言学和普通语言学；19C 初的历史比较语言学标志着语言学的诞生。 历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学。 比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的 语言学。表层结构、深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音 形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 语言的社会功能语言的依存性（强制性）：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，但一经社会约 定俗成后,音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。 语言层级性：语言是一种分层装置。语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。语言可分为二层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的 音节，为语言符号准备了形式部分；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料'；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。 语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创 造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。 语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的 发展速度是不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。 组合关系：构成线性序列的语言成分之间前后相继的关系。语言单位顺着时间的线条前后相继，好像一根链条，一环扣着一环，处于这个组合链中的两个符号或符号序列之间的关系就 叫组合关系。如：主谓、动宾等都是具体的组合关系类型。 聚合关系：在线性序列的某一结构位置上语言成分之间相互替换的关系。在同一位置上能够相互替换的语言单位具有相同的语法功能。在这个线性序列中，每一个语言单位都占有一个 特定的位置，在这个位置上它可以被其他语言单位替换下来，犹如一根链条，某一环可以被另一环替换下来，从而形成一根新的链条。 语言习得性：是指虽然人类先天就具有潜在的语言能力，但要掌握一门语言，必须通过后天的学习，没有现实的语言环境，不能掌握任何一种语言。 语言能力：抽象思维能力和发音能力的结合，即，掌握语言需要有发达的大脑和灵活的发音 器官。征候：是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。如：炊烟 代表人家。语音部分语音：即语言的声音，由人的发音器官发出，负载一定的意义，是语 言的物质外壳，语言依靠语音来实现其社会交际功能。 音素：从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位，分为元音和辅音。 国际音标：由国际语音学会于1888年制定的一套记音符号，它根据“一个音素只用一个音标 表示，一个音标只表示一个音素”的原则，主要使用拉丁字母和各种变形符号，是国际上通 用的记音符号。语音的生理属性：指语音的动力、发音体和发音方法。 语音的物理属性：是指物体受到外力作用而发生振动，从而使周围的空气也发生振动，形成音波，音波传入人耳，使鼓膜发生振动，刺激听觉神经，于是人们产生了声音的感觉。语音 的物理属性包括音高、音长、音重、音质。 语音的社会属性：指同一个音素在不同的语言或方言中具有不同的作用，执行不同的交际功能，是语音的本质属性。 音高：指声音的高低，取决于发音体振动的频率，具有区别意义的作用。如汉语的声调。 音重：指声音的强弱，取决于振幅，具有区别意义的作用。语音的强弱与气流量的大小和发
100个最常用的语言学术语（“欧美语言学”课） 1.语言language 2.语言学linguistics 3.语言学家linguist；philologist 4.语法grammar 5.语法单位grammatical unit 6.语法形式grammatical form 7.语法意义grammatical meaning 8.语法手段grammatical device 9.语法范畴grammatical category 10.元音vowel 11.辅音consonant 12.语文学philology 13.传统语法traditional grammar 14.历史比较语言学historical comparative linguistics 15.转换生成语法transformational generative grammar 16.结构主义语言学structural linguistics 17.应用语言学applied linguistic 18.方言dialect 19.语言教学language teaching 20.语言规划language planning 21.语言政策language policy 22.语言学习策略language learning strategy 23.发现程序discovery procedure 24.语境context；language environment 25.中介语interlanguage 26.音位phoneme 27.音节syllable 28.语素morpheme 29.词法morphology 30.句法syntax 31.交际法communicative approach 32.认知cognition 33.习得acquisition 34.第二语言second language 35.第二语言习得second language acquisition （SLA） 36.自由语素free morpheme 37.黏着语素bound morpheme 38.复合词compound word 39.普遍语法universal grammar，UG 40.词类part of speech
认知语言学不是什么和是什么 浏览了“北大中文论坛- 汉语语言学- 认知、心理与逻辑” （https://www.doczj.com/doc/508051354.html,/bbs/forum.php?fid=83）的一些关于认知语言学的贴子，觉得 “认知语言学”这个名称算得上个难以躲避的陷阱了，太容易引人望文生义了。认知语言学不是什么和是什么，还是个问题。这个问题，我每次教认知语言学，都要碰到。例如这个学期开的课，是“汉语认知语言学”。第一次课的一个重点，就是讲认知语言学不是什么和是什么。第二次课一开始，我就问了一个问题：认知语言学是不是类似于心理语言学的语言学分支学科？每个学生的回答都是：是的，是从认知角度研究语言的学科。这样的回答，让我悲伤地想到：第一次课对此问题的唠叨毫无效果，跟他人的思维定势搏斗，何其吃力。没有办法，只好变本加厉地唠叨。 简而言之，正确答案是：认知语言学不是语言学的分支学科，而是当代语言学的一个学派。它是功能主义语言学这个大学派中的小学派。这个大学派还包括不少小学派，如西海岸学派（学者主要在美国西海岸的加州。代表性学者之一是也做汉语的安珊笛。专做汉语的李讷也属于此学派）、俄勒冈学派、系统功能语法学、词语法学等。这个大学派是当代语言学两大对立学派之一，另一大学派就是形式主义语言学（包括古典形式主义——结构主义语言学和当代形式主义——生成与法学）。这两大学派的最大基本假设对立，是语言系统及其子系统（广义句法系统[包括传统的语法和词汇]、语音系统、广义语义系统[包括狭义语义系统、语用系统、话语系统]）是不是自足的。形式主义语言学的假设是自足的，功能主义语言学的假设是不自足的。 认知语言学与功能主义语言学中的其他小学派有不少差异，如着重语言的心理因素，不同于系统能语言学等学派的着种语言的社会因素，并在上世纪80年代后期建立了三个类似的心理[广义]句法模式（Lakkof 的《女人、火和危险的东西》、Langacker的《认知语法学基础》第一卷、Fillmore和Kay的《结构式语法学教科书》）；主张意义是百科知识，不同意把语义系统分割为语言知识的狭义语义系统和百科知识的语用系统；主张主观论（如语义塑造等过程中的主观作用），不同意某些功能主义学者（如安珊笛）的客观论。尽管认知语言学着重语言的心理因素，但它并非只考虑心理因素，不能把它缩水为从认知角度研究语言。从认知（或心理）角度研究语言，是当代语言学各学派的普遍倾向，并非认知语言学的专利。R. Hardson 在《英语词语法学》的开头列出了当代语言学的10个倾向，其中之一就是“认知主义”。当代语言学的认知主义倾向，是其教父Chomsky从一开始就提出的。他早已有力地批驳了结构主义语言学的行为主义倾向，把语言假设为认知子系统。 “认知语言学“这个名称，为什么容易引人望文生义呢？大概是因为有“认知”这个时髦译名，而且这玩意儿加在“语言学”前面，让这个名称看起来像心理语言学、社会语言学、计算语言学等现役的或退役的边缘学科或交叉学科（如前二者早已是语言学的核心学科了，但曾经是边缘学科）。“认知”译自英语名词cognition或形容词cognitive。老的译名就是“认识”，没什么神秘色彩了吧：）。传统上把心理活动分为三类：认识、情感和意志。三者之中，只有认识得到了密集研究。汉语的“认识”，原是个多义的常用词，再做术语，有容易引人望文生义的缺点。新造个“认知”译名做术语，有好处。再者，用“认识”来译cognitive 打头的名称，就会有容易误解为动宾结构的“认识心理学”（认知心理学）、“认识科学”（认知科学）、“认识语言学”（认知语言学）、“认识语义学”（认知语义学）、“认识语法学”（认知语法学）、“认识音系学”（认知音系学）、“认识人类学”（认知人类学），也不如新造个“认知”来译。 认知主要指人类的信息加工杨宁兄提出了一个很好的问题。认知语言学确实有被时髦地滥用的倾向。认知语言学确实和心理语言学有很大交叉。但是想一想“认知心理学”这个词，就可以知道两者不同。有“认知心理学”而没有“心理认知学”，可见认知科学可以看作心理学一部分。两者的不同，可以说认知科学主要把认识过程看作一种信息处理加工过程。所以“认知”也不等于一般的“认识”。我们用“认知”的场合不用“认识”，原因也不仅限于杨宁兄所说的。 认知科学的主要奠基人George Miller 的名著：“神奇的数字7+2”，其副标题就是“人类信息加工能力的某些局限”(此文我翻译后发表在《心理学动态》1983(4)期)。这篇文章的英语 原文前几年有被人贴到了网上(https://www.doczj.com/doc/508051354.html,/user/smalin/miller.html)。可见此文的地位之重要。现在许多人常常提到这个数字七，我不知道有多少人看过了原文或译文。但大家接受它，可见符合我们的心理直觉。Miller 在发表此文的同时，发表了另一篇重要文章：“人类记忆与信息贮存”此文我翻译后发表在，《思维科学》1986(1)期。这个杂志是山西出的，英文题目就叫Cognitive Science 。不知这个杂志现在还在不在？ 不过后来认知科学的发展，范围越来越大，认知语言学跟心理语言学也就越来越难分了。我觉得认知语言
Define the following terms: 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. . 4. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. 5. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 6. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 7. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 8. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. 9. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. 10. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. 11. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability. 12. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds 13. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. 14. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker 15. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. 16. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 17. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, 18. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 19. Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 20. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 21. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But