English Lexicology(英语词汇学)
Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.
The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：
English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.
The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论） and lexicography(词典学)
The reason for a student to study English lexicology：
According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.
A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.
Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary
Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence
Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: al most arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”
Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary
Vocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary
Classification of English Words：
By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary
By notion:content words&functional words
By origin:native words&borrowed words
The basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.
The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):
1)All-National character（全民通用性most important） 2)Stability（相对稳定性）
3)Productivity（多产性） 4)Polysemy（多义性） 5)Collocability（可搭配性）
没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话） (3)slang （俚语） (4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)
Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but) Native Words and Borrowed Words
Native words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in use
Borrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)
4 Types of loan words:
1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))
2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)
3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语 long time no see (from China)
4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowed
Chapter 2 the development of the English Vocabulary
The Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)
The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）The Eastern set:
（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：
Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.
（2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.
(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.
(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.
The Western set:
(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.
(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.
(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.
(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：
Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.
The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:
1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.
2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections
3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language. Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):
1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)
2)semantic change旧词新义 :does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.
3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new words Reviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.
Chapter 3 Word Formation I
Morpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaning Type of Morpheme(词素的分类)
（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).
（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.
Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)
Affixes can be put into two groups:
1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.
2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words.
B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.
Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）
Morpheme(词素)
Bound root prefix
bound derivational
affix suffix
inflectional
Root and stem（词根和词干）
The differences between root and stem:
A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.
Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)
1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.
（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.
1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)
2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)
3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)
4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：
arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,u ltra-,under-,ect. overweight
5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear
6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)
7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)
8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)
9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)
(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.
1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes
https://www.doczj.com/doc/4911537670.html,pounding复合法（also called composition）
Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems Compounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)
Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）
（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot
（2）adjective compounds ： e.g. acid + head = acid-head
（3）verb compounds ： e.g. house + keep = housekeep
3.Conversion转类法
Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）
4.Blending拼缀法
Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN
5.Clipping截短法
Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：
1).Front clippings删节前面 (phone from telephone)
2).Back clippings删节后面 (dorm from dormitory)
3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)
4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)
6.Acronymy首字母缩写法
Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.
（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)
（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)
7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）
Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)
8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):
Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）
Chapter 5 Word Meaning
The meanings of “Meaning” (“意义”的意义)
Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.
Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with
other expressions in the language.’
Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.
1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning.
E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.
2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.
3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)
4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-feather
Types of meaning(词义的类别)
1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)
2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）
(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning) Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)
1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.
2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.
[4types:
（1） Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)
（2） Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.
（3） Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative
（4） Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]
Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）
Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:
1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.
2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.
Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:
1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning
stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)
2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning
of a word move gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle) 3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the
primary meaning. In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.
4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development
leading to polysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other. Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.
Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)
1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.
2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)
3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.
Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)
1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long) 2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )
3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)
The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：
1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.
2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.
3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.
Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.
Synonymy(同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .
Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :
(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are
words which are identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ]
(2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar
or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer, idle/lazy/indolent)
Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :
1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)
2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）
3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.
4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.
Discrimination of Synonyms
(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and
intensity of meaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire) (2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the
stylistic and emotive colouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：
policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )
(3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but
difference in usage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)
Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.
Types of Antonyms:
1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very”to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)
2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.
3)relative terms（关系反义词）： this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）
Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):
1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)
2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym
3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）
4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool) The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）
1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.
2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)
3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)
Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animal Superordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.
Semantic Field(语义场)
Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.
e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)
The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.
e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)
Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变
Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.
Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)
1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)
2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]
3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的） beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]
4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的） sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]
5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明 one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.
Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)
1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):
1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and
discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.
2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.
3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.
2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.
1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier
2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast
3)analogy类推:
Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境
Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.
Two types of context（语境的种类）
1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In
a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )
2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：
1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)
2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)
The role of context(语境的作用)
1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)
1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.
2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity
如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little
2.Indication of referents(限定所指)
如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context 3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)
1)definition
2)explanation
3)example
4)synonymy
5)antonymy
6)hyponymy（上下义关系）
7)relevant details
8)word structure
Chapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语
Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.
Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）
1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）： words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.
The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.
2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.
1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced
2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed
3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.
4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeable
The fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯
Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）
1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语 (white elephant累赘物)
2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）
3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）
4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）
5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）
Use of idioms（习语的使用）
1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：
1）colloquialisms（俗语）
2）slang （俚语）
3）literary expressions（书面表达）
The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.
2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)
1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：
（1）alliteration头韵法
（2）rhyme尾韵法
2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）
（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举 [scream and shout] （2）repetition 重复[out and out]
（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置 [here and there]
3.figures of speech（修辞格）
（1）simile明喻
（2）metaphor暗喻
（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen
（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread
（5）Personification拟人法
（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die)
（7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of trouble
Variations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：
1.addition增加
2.deletion删除
3.replacement替换
4.position-shifting位置转移
5.dismembering分解
Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典
Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.
Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):
1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的
(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.
(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)
2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）
（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical,
function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的
（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:
1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.
2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (
3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)
（1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意)
（3）Pocket D: 只有拼写、发音和最重要的意义，很少或者几乎不举例。about 50,000 entries or fewer
4.Specialized dictionaries（专用词典）
concentrate on a particular area of language or knowledge, treating such diverse topics as etymology, synonyms, idioms, pronunciation, usage in language, and computer, engineering, literature and a variety of other subjects.
Use of the dictionaries(词典的使用)
1 read the contents page to find out quickly what information is included in the dictionary
2 read the guide to the use of the dictionary
Content of the dictionary（词典的内容）
1.spelling
2.pronunciation
3.definition
https://www.doczj.com/doc/4911537670.html,age
5.grammar
https://www.doczj.com/doc/4911537670.html,age notes and language notes使用注释和语言注释
7.etymological information词源信息
8.supplementary matter补充事项
9.
Three good general dictionaries （3本常用字典）
1.Longman dictionary of contemporary English (LDCE) new edition(1987)《朗文当代英语词典》新版：特征①clear grammar codes ②usage notes ③language notes
2.Collins COBUILD English language dictionary (CCELD) (1987) 《科林斯合作英语词典》：特征：①definition-in full sentences ②extra column-deal with grammar information ③usage examples-to show its meanings and usages
3.A Chinese-English dictionary (revised edition) (CED)(1995)《汉英字典修订版》：首版1978年。
（1）has an addition of 800 single character entries and of 18000 multi-character entries including catchphrases, sayings and proverbs. （2）revised some old entries
（3）keeps the previous alphabetical order of entries, which makes the dictionary easy to use
（4）boasts of the quality of the English equivalents it provides for its Chinese items.
1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （ alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional . A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词 aliens 异形词 translation-loans 译借词 1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly 3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition 4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点 (Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation between notions, words, etc.)
教育学笔记 教育与教育学 教育的发展 一、教育的概念 教育一词最早出现在《孟子·尽心上》 广义的教育包括家庭教育、学校教育、社会教育。 狭义的教育指学校教育 二、教育的构成要素 教育者：教师是学校教育的主体，在教育过程中发挥主导作用。 受教育者：学生是教育实践活动的对象及学习的主体。 教育影响：教育影响是教育内容、教育方法和教育手段极其联系的总和。 在这三个基本要素中，受教育者和教育内容之间的矛盾是教育中的基本的决定性的矛盾。 三、教育的属性 本质属性：教育是一种有目的的培养人的社会活动。 社会属性：永恒性、历史性、相对独立性、继承性、阶级性。 四、教育功能的分类及教育的个体功能
教育起源的相关学说：
综观古代学校教育，其共同特征是： 1.教育与生产劳动想脱离； 2.教育具有阶级性和等级性 3.教育内容偏重于人文知识，教学方法倾向于自学、对辩和死记硬背。 接下来我们用两张思维导图来记忆近代社会的教育和现代社会的教育： 通过之前的笔记，我们了解了教育发展的历史形态，那世界教育改革的趋势又是什么呢？我们接着往下看：
教育学的研究对象及其发展状况。 首先我们来思考一下，教育的研究对象是什么呢？ 那么我们先要了解一下教育学的定义： 教育学是研究教育现象和教育问题，揭示教育规律的一门社会科学。 什么是教育现象呢？ 教育现象是教育活动的外在的、表面的特征，包括教育社会现象和教育认识现象。 什么是教育规律呢？ 教育规律是教育内部诸因素之间、教育与外部诸因素之间内在、本质、必然的联系。 其次我们来思考一下，教育学的研究任务是什么呢？ 教育学的研究任务是阐明教育的基础知识和基本理论，揭示教育教学的基本规律，给教育理论和实践工作者以理论和方法的指导，全面提高教育教学质量，为培养合格的人才服务。这句话比较长，也比较拗口，聪明的你记住了吗？ 接下来我们再来看一下教育学和几个概念的联系和区别： 教育学不等于教育方针政策，但二者之间是有联系的，教育方针政策的制定要考虑教育学所阐述的教育科学理论，教育学也要围绕教育方针政策提出的问题、课题，开展科学的研讨和探讨，提供可供参考的意见。 教育学源于教育实践经验，又高于教育实践经验。教育实践经验是学习、研究、发展教育学的基础之一。 教育学是庞大教育科学体系中的基础学科。 教育学的价值与意义： 1.有助于树立正确的教育思想，提高贯彻社会主义教育方针、政策的自觉性。 2.有利于巩固热爱教育事业的专业思想，全面提高教师的素质。 3.有助于认识和掌握教育规律，提高从事教育工作的水平和能力。 4.有助于推动教育改革和教育科学研究。
重点单词扩充讲解： 1. organizational: a 组织上的 由此我们可以联想到：organize: v 组织；organization: n 组织；organizer: n 组织者 请看下列习题，选择该组词里恰当的词填空： 1). Last week, our school __organized_____ a spring outing. 2). The task calls for the highest _organizational_ skill. 3). China has joined World Trade _organization_________. 4). He is the ____organizer______ of the speech contest. Answers: organized, organizational, Organization, organizer 2. objective: n 目标； a 客观的，反义词subjective: 主观的 3. predict: v 预言、预示； 由此我们可以联想到：prediction: n 预言；predictable: a 可预测的；predictor: n 预言家 4. simplify: v 简化 由此我们可以联想到：simple: a 简单的；simply: ad 简单地，仅仅地；simplification: n 简化；simplified: a 被简
Exercises for the above words: 1). The machine is simple_____ in operation but complex in structure. 2). Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet in the original is beyond our capacity while __simplified__ edition is quite easy. 3). There is no point in arguing about it, becau se it is __simply_____ a question of procedure. 4). The _simplification_____ of working process freed the workers fro heavy labor. Answers: simple; simplified; simply; simplification 5. tendency: n 趋势、倾向；tend : v 倾向于…，tend to do sth e.g. old people have the tendency of getting fatter. Or old people tend to get fatter. 6. managerial: a 经理的、经营上的； 由此我们可以联想到：manage: v管理、经营；management: n; manager: n 经营者，管理者；manageable: a 可管理的、可经营的。 7. argue: v 争辩、争论，常用固定搭配：argu with sb about/over sth由于某事而同某人争论；argue sb into doing sth说服某人做某事；argue sb out of doing sth说服某人不
考研英语词汇复习笔记 翻硕复习的一大重头戏就是词汇，而词汇量是巨大的，必须要有日常的积累和复习，并且掌握科学的记忆方法，才能最有效地积累词予匚量。下面是关于英语词汇的学习笔记，以供大家参考。(1) 1. bereave :使某人丧失(尤指亲属)bereave Sb Of Sb an accident WhiCh bereaved Him Of his Wife 使他丧失妻子的事古攵the bereaved husband 死了妻子的男人 the bereaved丧失亲人的人 bereavement(n):丧亲之痛，丧失亲人 deprive : take Sth away from sb;PreVent Sb from enjoying Or USing Sth剥夺sb/sth的sth;阻止某人 享有或使用Sth deprive sb/sth Of Sth deprive Of OneS CiVil rights剥夺某人的公民权deprivation(n):剥夺;贫困;被剥夺的事物WideSPreaCl deprivation 普遍贫困 MiSSing the HOIiday WaS a great deprivatiOrL错失假日是极大的损失。 deprived(adj):贫困的，穷苦的deprived ChildhOOd 贫苦的童年
2. abdomen : Part Of the body below the CheSt and CliaPhragm,cOntaining the stomach.腹部 abdominal(adj)腹部的an abdominal OPeratiOn 月复咅8手术belly : (口)front Of the HUman body from the WaiSt to the groin;belly 肚子，胃 With an empty belly 空着肚子 in the belly Of a ShiP 在船腹里 belly OUt(动词用法):鼓涨,凸出The Wind bellied OUt the SaiIS 3. c onSeCrate : devote sth/sb to Or reserve sth/sb for a SPeCial (esp religious) PUrPOSe 扌巴sth/sb 献给 sth/sb 做某种(尤其宗教)用途COnSeCrate sth/sb to Sth COnSeCrate OneS Iife to the SerViCe Of GOd,to the relief Of SUffering献身于为神服务(解除世人痛苦)的事业 devote : give OneS time z energy to sth/sb; dedicate 为某人付出，向某人奉献，献身于devote Oneself/sth to sb/sth devoted(adj):热爱的，非常忠实的Z全心全意的a devoted SOn
学习资料收集于网络，仅供参考 English Lexicology(英语词汇学) 1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学旨在调查和研究英语单词和单词的等价物的形态结构,其语义结构、关系、历史发展、形成和用法。 2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary 1.Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence 词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。 2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”词语是一个符号，代表着世界上其他的事物。每种世界文化已经赞成一定的读音将代表一定的人，事，地方，特性，过程，行动，当然是在语言系统之外。这种象征性的联系几乎总是主观的，并且“在代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系” 3.Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other内因是因为英语字母表采用罗马字母，罗马字母没有独立的字母代表每个读音，因此一些字母代表两个读音或者组合在一起发音。 （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years另一个原因是发音比拼写的变化快，在一些时候还拉开了距离。在最近五百年里，尽管口语发音已经出现了显著的变化，却没有相应的拼写变化。 （3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes第三个原因是一些早期的书写员发明了一些不同。（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary最后借词来了，这是丰富英语词汇的重要途径。 （5）printing印刷已经变得非常普及。它有助于固定单词的拼写、standardization标准化使得拼写不容改变。、dictionary字典在拼写终结中得到好处。 —Old English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. 古代英语中的口语比今天更忠实的代表书面语 —The written form of English is an imperfect representation of the spoken form。英语的书写是发音形式不完善的代表 4.What is vocabulary？ （1）Total number of the words in a language一个语言的单词综合 （2）Words used in a particular historical period 特殊历史时期使用的单词 （3）All the words of a dialect，a book ，a discipline...某个方言，书籍，学科中的所有单词 5.Classification of English Words：英语词汇由所有种类的词汇组成。它们可以根据不同的标 准或者不同的目的进行分类。 By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary根据使用频率，单词可以分为基础词和非基础词。 By notion:content words&functional words可以根据概念分成实词和虚词
全国2018年7月自学考试教育学（一）试题 课程代码：00429 一、单项选择题(本大题共15小题，每小题2分，共30分) 在每小题列出的四个备选项中只有一个是符合题目要求的，请将其代码填写在题后的括号内。错选、多选或未选均无分。 1.首次把“教育学”作为一门独立的科学提出来的是( ) A.培根 B.夸美纽斯 C.裴斯泰洛齐 D.赫尔巴特 2.“出自于造物主之手的东西，都是好的，而一到了人的手里，就全变坏了。”这句话出自于( ) A.《教育漫话》 B.《爱弥儿》 C.《大教学论》 D.《学记》 3.强调教育是儿童对成人的无意识模仿，这种观点就是( ) A.教育生物起源说 B.教育心理起源说 C.教育劳动起源说 D.教育交往起源说 4.中小学学籍管理的内容主要包括( ) A.教师的任用、晋升、工资福利、退休、奖惩 B.学校课程计划的编制 C.教科书的编写、审定和使用 D.成绩评定、升级和毕业 5.明确提出儿童“发展的权利”的是1989年联合国大会通过的( ) A.《世界全民教育》 B.《德里宣言》 C.《儿童权利公约》 D.《儿童的生存、保护和发展世界宣言》 6.教育家凯兴斯泰纳认为学校教育的目标就是培养有用的国家公民，这是一种( ) A.神学的教育目的论 B.社会本位的教育目的论 C.个人本位的教育目的论 D.教育无目的论 7.使每一个个体实现某种需要、愿望，并从中体验满足、快乐、幸福，获得一种精神上的享 1
受，这体现了德育的( ) A.享用功能 B.社会性功能 C.教育性功能 D.发展性功能 8.形式教育与实质教育最本质的争论点就在于( ) A.直接经验与间接经验 B.分科与综合 C.人文主义与科学主义 D.知识与能力 9.赫尔巴特提出“四段论”的教学模式强调的是( ) A.教师系统传授知识 B.学生从活动中学习 C.问题的解决 D.学生自学 10.在教师的指导下，学生围绕着某个问题发表和交换意见，通过相互之间的启发、讨论、商量获得知识，这是( ) A.讲授法 B.谈话法 C.讨论法 D.发现法 11.学生集体在形成的最初阶段，其主要任务是( ) A.使每个人都得到全面发展 B.使集体具有教育功能 C.组织丰富多样的活动 D.组织和团结集体 12.心理咨询的直接目标是( ) A.解除学生心理困扰，顺利度过当前危机 B.使学生遇到问题时可以自己独立处理 C.使学生承担起自己处理自己问题的责任 D.增长学生的自信，促进学生自立自强 13.某个学生语文考试得了90分，这是一种( ) A.测量 B.评价 C.总结性评价 D.形成性评价 14.最早具有现代意义的教育立法出现在( ) A.经济法 B.土地法 C.工厂法 D.宗教法 15.《义务教育法》在我国教育法体系中属于( ) A.第一层次 B.第二层次 C.第三层次 D.第四层次 2
重点语法知识讲解 1．动词的时态和语态 动词的时态和语态一览表 时态语态一般现在时一般过去时一般将来时 主动被动 do are done did were done will do will be done 现在进行时过去进行时将来进行时 主动被动 are doing are being done were doing were being done will be doing现在完成时过去完成时将来完成时 主动被动 have done have been done had done had been done will have done will have been done 现在完成进行时 主动被动 have been doing 1．1 现在完成时 发生在过去的动作一直持续到现在，或对现在仍有影响。 现在完成时的标志： so far， by now/ up to now，for three years， since 1995， in the past two decades 1.2 过去完成时 过去的过去。 1）said, reported, thought 等引导的间接引语中。 He missed the train. He said he had missed the train. 2）hardly…when, no sooner… than句型中表示先发生的动作 No sooner had he got up than he received the call. 3）与过去事实相反的虚拟语气中
If I had tried harder, I would have won. I wish I had done better in the exam. 1.3 完成进行时 从过去一直持续到现在，没有间断。汉语提示语：一直 The water has been running the whole night. 1.4 过去时 过去某一具体时间发生的事，不考虑与现在的关系。 过去时的标志：yesterday， in 1995， last week，in the nineteenth century，five years ago 等等。 2．非谓语动词 2.1 非谓语动词一览表 非谓语动词形式意义 现在分词 一般式 doing 主动 , 正在进行 被动式 being done 被动 , 正在进行 完成主动式 having done 主动 , 已经完成 完成被动式 having been done 被动 , 已经完成过去分词 done 被动 , 已经完成 动词不定式 一般式 to do 主动 , 将要进行 被动式 to be done 被动 , 将要进行 完成主动式 to have done 主动 , 已经完成 进行主动式 to be doing 主动 , 正在进行 2.2. 非谓语动词作状语
英语词汇学笔记之“名词解释篇” 2010.1.11济南1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words. 3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root)--- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk. 4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes--- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand". 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion. 7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes. There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks. 8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes--- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y. Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word. Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base) Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective) 11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12.Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove. 13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).
《英语词汇学》（课程代码： 00832 ）试卷结构 Chapter 5 Word Meaning （词的意义） Reference （所指关系）is the relati on ship betwee n Ian guage and the world. Concept 概念），which is beyond Ianguage, is the result of human cognition n. 认识； 知识； 认识能力 ,reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Sense （语义）de no tes the relati on ship in side the Ian guage. Every word that has meaning has sense （not every word has referen ce ） Motivation （词义理据 ）account for the connection between the linguistic （word ） symbol and its meaning. Onomatopoeic motivation （拟声理据）words were created by imitating the nature sounds or noises. Morphological motivation （形态理据）compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes comb in ed.彳艮多合成词和派生词都是这类， Semantic motivation （语义理据）refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It expla ins the connection betwee n the literal sense a nd figurative sense of the word.（ 由字面义派生出来的弓丨申 义） Etymological motivation （词源理据）the meaning of many words often relate directly to their origins. In other words the history of the word explain the meaning of the word. Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relati on ships. Conceptual meaning also known as denotative meaning （夕卜延意义 ）,is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-mea ning. Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. Connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associati ons suggested by the con ceptual meaning, traditi on ally know as connotations . Stylistic meaning refers to stylistic features, which make them appropriate for differe nt con texts. 语法意义 Types of Meaning 词义的分类
《教育学原理》自考笔记 教育原理的学科性质：作为教育学的分支学科，是一门理论学科。从研究领域看是研究教育活动的领域；从研究内容看介于普通教育学应用学科与形而上学层次之间；研究方法上更多的从宏观，整体上研究问题，力争具体到抽象，特殊到一般的过渡。高等教育学的学科性质：应用性为主，兼顾其基础性。 高教研究对象：透过诸多高等教育现象表现出来的特殊矛盾与发展规律。教育遵循两大规律：教育与社会的关系，教育与人的关系。高教的特殊矛盾和基本规律是高教与社会发展关系的规律和高教与人的发展关系的规律，两规律反应在两关系上，构成要素：高教与社会发展，人的发展。 两大研究轨道：注重高教学科理论体系建设，更加重视高教应用性研究。 高教发展历史：春秋，官学衰私学现，学术活跃；汉设太学，封建教育制度建立；东汉－鸿都门学，世界第一所文学艺术专门学校。科举隋朝建立唐发展；宋现地方教育行政管理机构－提举学事司。宋书院是私学演进的形式后官学化。 高校职能：培养人才是高校的基本职能；发展科学技术是高校的重要职能；发挥资源优势，积极开展直接的社会服务也是高校职能之一。 研究教育理论的意义：学研他可以使我们认清教育现象的本质；教师形成正确的教育观念；提高教育教学的实践能力。/树立正确高教理念，提高教师素质，推动教育改革和教育科学研究。 第一章：教育的概念 教育本质四观点：上层建筑说、生产力说、多志说、本质规定说。本质：培养人的社会活动。 概念：广义指有目的的增进人的知识、技能，影响人的思想品质和人的体质的活动。狭义的即学校教育。 要素：教育者，受教育者和教育影响【（措施）包括教育内容和教育手段】。相互独立，相互制约，教育者是主导性的因素，教育活动的组织者和领导者，遵循既定的教育目的，运用教育影响，调控着受教育者和整个教育过程。促进受的身心发展，达到预期目的。 起源：生物起源说（利托尔诺和沛西）人和动物都有；心理起源说（孟禄）原始社会儿童对成年人的模仿;劳动起源说： 历史阶段：原始状态简单；农业社会阶级性与劳动分离；工业社会现代学校，又与劳动结合；信息社会变革国际化本土化终身化全民化。 第二章教育与社会 制约性：社会生产力水平（教育发展的速度规模。人才培养的规格教育结构，教学内容课程设置）社会政治经济制度（教育领导权，教育目的，受教育的权力）人口因素（人口数量，质量，结构，地域分布）其他社会意识形态对教育的影响和制约。
2011自考英语二考试重点：Unit 06 历年考试重点及试题 自考英语二复习重点自考英语二自考英语复习资料【字体：小大】 自考英语二考试重点：Unit 06 历年考试重点及试题 1. Most today’s robots are employed in the automotive industry, _____they are programmed to take over such jobs as welding and spray painting . (99.4) A. as B. which C. when D. where 答案：D. 考点：where 引导的非限定定语从句，修饰automotive industry。 2. Robots differ from automatic machines in_____after completion of one specific task, they can be reprogrammed to be another one. (00.4) A. which B. that C. how D. whether 答案：B. 考点：in that 复合连词引导原因状语从句，表示“在于”。 3. Robots , already taking over human tasks in the automotive field, are beginning_____(see) in other industries as well. (00.4) (01.10) 答案：to be seen 考点：begin to do sth. 所以用动词不定式，而且用被动式。 4. Anyone______(want) to understand the industry of the future will have to know about robotics. (00.10)（01.4） 答案：wanting 考点：动词现在分词作定语修饰anyone。
《英语词汇学》（课程代码：00832）试卷结构 Chapter 5 Word Meaning(词的意义) Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between language and the world. Concept(概念)，which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition n.认识；知识；认识能力, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Sense(语义)denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference) Motivation (词义理据)account for the connection between the linguistic(word) symbol and its meaning. Onomatopoeic motivation(拟声理据) words were created by imitating the nature sounds or noises. Morphological motivation(形态理据)compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. 很多合成词和派生词都是这类， Semantic motivation(语义理据)refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.( 由字面义派生出来的引申 义) Etymological motivation (词源理据) the meaning of many words often relate words the history of the word explain the meaning of the word. associative meaning 关联意义 Lexical meaning 词汇意义 Types of Meaning conceptual /denotative meaning 词义的分类概念意义 Grammatical meaning 语法意义directly to their origins. In other connotative meaning 内涵意义 stylistic meaning 文体意义 affective meaning 感情意义 collocative meaning 搭配意义 Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships. Conceptual meaning also known as denotative meaning( 外延意义 ), is the meaning given in the dictionary and
绪论 一、教育学的概念 【识记】 是通过研究教育现象来揭示教育规律的科学，是教育科学体系中的一门基础学科。 从内涵上说，这个名词在我国基本上有三种含义：一是指所有教育学科门类的总称，这时，它也称为“教育科学”，与“经济学”、“哲学”、“物理学”等一样属于一级学科，在其下面还有众多的二级或三级学科，如“教育社会学”、“比较教育学”、“教育哲学”等等；而是指一种课程的名称，在这种意义上，是指各个师范院校所开设的一门带有专业基础性质的课程，该课程也往往称为“教育学原理”、“教育概论”、“教育原理”等等；三是指一种教材的名称。 二、教育学的研究对象 【识记】 教育学研究的对象是教育问题。 三、教育学的创立 【识记】 教育学创立的标志 （1）从对象方面而言，教育问题构成一个专门的研究领域，受到了思想家和教育家们的特殊关注； （2）从概念和范畴方面而言，形成了专门的反映教育本质和规律的教育概念与范畴，以及概念与范畴的体系； （3）从方法方面而言，有了科学的研究方法； （4）从结果方面而言，产生了一些重要的教育学家，出现了一些专门的、系统的教育学著作； （5）从组织机构而言，出现了专门的教育研究机构。 培根（英国）：为独立形态教育学的出现做出重要贡献；近代实验科学的鼻祖；提出实验的归纳法，为后来教育学的发展奠定方法论基础；《论科学的价值和发展》；首次把“教育学”作为一门独立的科学提出来。 夸美纽斯（捷克）：《大教学论》；“泛智教育”思想；第一本教育学著作；在他以后，人们开始了教育学的独立探索时期。 康德（德国）：《康德论教育》；教育是一门很难的艺术，其实践必须和“真知灼见”结合起来；“教育的方法必须成为一种科学”；“教育实验”； 赫尔巴特（德国）：“现代教育学之父”，“科学教育学的奠基人”；《普通教育学》，第一本现代教育学著作；把教育学变成由一些基本的教育概念组成的知识体系；科学教育学的学科基础为心理学和哲学。 洛克（英国）：《教育漫话》，建构了完整的审视教育理论体系 卢梭（法国）：《爱弥儿》，资产阶级教育思想，“自然教育”；教育四个时期：婴儿时期，儿童时期，少年时期，青年时期； 裴斯特洛齐：《林哈德和葛笃德》，“使人类教育心理学化” 【领会】 教育学创立的条件 教育学的创立是种种主客观条件综合作用下产生的。 （1）教育学的创立像其他许多学科的创立一样，来源于社会实践的客观需要，就教育学而言，主要来源于教育实践发展的客观需要；新航路的开辟，资本主义的产生和发展，产生了一些新型的实科学校，需要培养师资，促进了教育学的创立；