本文档包括改专题的：外文文献、文献综述
一、外文文献
文献信息
标题：Effect of Tax Planning on Firms Market Performance: Evidence from Listed Firms in Ghana 作者：Kawor, Seyram; Kportorgbi, Holy Kwabla
期刊：International Journal of Economics and Finance
第6卷，第3期，页码：162-168，2014年
Effect of Tax Planning on Firms Market Performance: Evidence from Listed Firms in Ghana
Kawor, Seyram; Kportorgbi, Holy Kwabla
Abstract
The study sought to ascertain the level of tax planning of firms and to explore the relationship between tax planning and firms' market performance. The study used 22 non-financial companies listed on the Ghana Stock Exchange over a twelve year period from 2000. The longitudinal correlative designed was used. The results indicate that that firms' tendency to engage in intensive tax planning activities reduces when tax authorities maintain low corporate income tax rates. Secondly, tax planning has a neutral influence on firms' performance. This finding challenges the general perception that every cedi of tax savings from tax planning reflect in the pocket of investors. It is concluded that investors must institute systems to ensure tax planning benefits reflect significantly in their pockets.
Keywords: Ghana stock exchange, tax planning, market performance, longitudinal correlative design, investors
1. Introduction
Over the years and throughout the world, the history of taxation brings out one fact; that taxes are coercive in nature and therefore economic units which are assigned the tax liability never wholly intend to bear the actual tax burden (Commonwealth Association of Tax Administrators (CATA), 2007). Economic units, more specifically, corporate bodies are always adopting ways to minimise, postpone, or avoid entirely, the payment of tax. The attempts by the economic units to reduce, postpone or avoid tax payment can be legal or illegal. The legal means is called tax planning while the illegal means is called tax evasion. The dire consequence of tax evasion makes it an unattractive option for listed companies (Murphy, 2004).
The practice of tax planning dates back to 1947 when learned judge Hand, in the case Commissioner v Newman, held that there is nothing sinister in arranging ones affairs so as to keep taxes as low as possible. Hoffman's (1961) tax planning theory supports this argument. According to Hoffman, it is a necessity for firms to understand the prevailing tax laws and apply the laws in a manner that ensures the firms minimise their tax exposure. Hoffman posits that it makes no economic sense to pay more tax than what the law demands. Scholes and Wolfson's (1992) tax planning framework also underscores the need for corporate bodies to engage in tax planning. According to Scholes and Wolfson, a successful company is the one that is properly attuned to its tax environment.
International governmental organizations, such as CA TA (2009), suggest that corporate bodies in Ghana, especially the large entities, engage in complex tax planning activities. Research by civil society groups such as Christian Aid (2008), Action Aid (2011), and Dan Watch (2011), confirm this assertions made by the Domestic Revenue Division. The missing element in the findings is the
quantitative expression of the tax planning activities of the firms.
The traditional thinking is that firms that derive maximum benefit from tax planning perform better than those that do not plan their taxes (Murphy, 2007). From the empirical perspective, tax planning is positively associated with firms' performance. For instance, Desai and Hines (2002); Chen, Chen, Chen and Shelvin (2010) reported positive association between tax planning savings and firm performance. The argument is that tax represents cost of doing business, and any action that has the potential of minimising tax cost reflects in higher firm performance. This argument presupposes that tax planning cost and risk does not exceed the savings from the planning.
Few studies in the UK dispel the traditional relationship between tax planning and firm performance. While admitting that tax planning has a positive association with accounting performance, Desai and Dharmaphala (2007) reported that tax planning has a neutral association with market performance. Indeed Abdul-Wahab (2010) found a negative association between tax planning and firm performance. Kportorgbi (2013) suggested that corporate governance strength plays a mediating factor in the tax planning-firm performance relationship.
A study of the effect of tax planning savings on firms' market performance is crucial for all stakeholders in the emerging security markets such as the Ghana stock Exchange. In fact each possible relationship has a unique implication for the players. For instance, a positive association implies that tax planning produces a win-win situation for both management and shareholders (investors). A negative association connotes that tax planning benefits may not eventually trickle to the pocket of the shareholder. Indeed, a negative association may be an indicative of the existence of agency problem, where management is inclined to pursue tax planning to enhance their own lot rather than advancing the interest of the investor. Where a neutral association is established, it will invoke a follow up study on the possible factors that could influence the relationship either positively or negatively. Secondly, the study is necessary to inform tax planning agents and investors on the dynamics of tax planning
1.1 Objective of the Study
The primary objective of this study is to explore the relationship between tax planning savings of firms listed on the Ghana Stock Exchange and firm market performance. The study also seeks to examine the simultaneous influence of other firm specific variables on the tax planning-market performance relationship.
1.2 Tax Planning Intensity of Firms in Ghana
Commentators on tax behaviour of firms in Ghana paint a picture that suggests that large firms engage in tax planning activities. For instance CATA (2009) posits that Ghana Revenue Authority lost seventy-four million pounds between 2005 and 2007 to the European Union (EU) in tax revenue as a result of tax avoidance by several multinational companies. Murphy (2004) also reported that firms have complex gamut of arsenals to reduce their tax burden. The reports indicate that the tax avoiding mechanism of firms are largely allowed by the tax laws. There are also indications that the firms take advantage of the loopholes in the tax laws to derive unintended tax benefits. The avenues for tax planning usually revolve around locational reliefs, industry-specific concessions and capital allowance provitions. Others are time variables and entity variables.
Most of the reports are not precise in their estimation of the benefits that firms achieve through tax planning. The lack of precision in measuring tax planning intensity is largely attributed to the insufficient reporting of issues of taxation by firms. Aside the mandatory disclosures to tax authorities, firms are reluctant in disclosing much on tax behaviours. This is due to the perceived
thin line that exist between tax planning and tax evasion. Listed companies, however, provide provide adequate information necessary to estimate the tax savings of the firms. This is made possible by virtue of the financial reporting guidelines provided by the security exchange commision.
2. Review of Related Literature
This section is subdivided into theoretical review and empirical review. The theoritical review encapsultes the Hoffman's (1961) tax planning theory. Three main empirical studies are reviewed. They are Desai and Hines (2002), Desai and Dharmaphala (2009) and Abdul-Wahab (2010).
2.1 Hoffman's Tax Planning Theory
According to Hoffman (1961) tax planning seeks to divert cash, which would ordinarily flow to tax authorities, to the corporate entities. Tax planning activities are desirable to the extent that they reduce taxable income to the barest minimum, without sacrificing accounting income. The theory is premised on the fact that firms tax liability is based on taxable income rather than accounting income. The idea is thus to intensify activities that reduce taxable income but has no indirect relationship on accounting profit. The theory thus recognised a positive association between firm tax planning activity and firm performance.
Hoffman (1961) also recognised the role of tax cost in the tax planning activities. The theory thus provided that the positive association between tax planning and corporate performance is on a basic assumption that tax benefits from the tax planning exceed tax cost. The scope of the Hoffman's tax planning theory does not address the dynamics of tax planning and market performance. As capital markets develop and the separation of ownership and control of corporate bodies become well-spread, the need for a comprehensive tax planning theory is imperative. This need is rather addressed through the empirical perspective than through theoretical perspective (Inger, 2012).
2.2 Empirical Review and Development of Hypothesis
Desai and Hines (2002) provide evidence on firm performance and tax planning behaviour of firms. Again, the study investigates the relationship between tightening of tax systems and market value of firms. The study was based on 850 listed US firms. The study sample was purposively selected to reflect the characteristics desired by the researchers. The study was cross sectional and the data relates to year 2000. Correlative-description design was adopted. Simple regression and t-tests were used to establish the relationships. Desai and Hines established that intensive tax planning is associated with higher firm performance. On the other hand, the study reported that tightening of the tax system is positively associated with higher market performance of firms. The findings of Desai and Hines (2002) are similar to that reported by Chen, Chen and Chen (2010). Desai and Dharmapala (2007) provided a comprehensive study that incorporates tax planning, corporate governance and firm performance. The study used 4,492 observations on 862 firms over the period 1993 to 2001. This panel data was drawn from the Compustat and Execucomp databases, merged with data on institutional ownership of firms from the CDA/Spectrum database. Firms' performance is measured using Tobin's q and governance quality is proxied by the level of institutional ownership. Tax planning is measured by inferring the difference between the income reported to capital markets and tax authorities (the book-tax-gap). Two analysis models were adopted-the OLS model and the IV estimation model. The OLS results shows that the average effect of tax planning on corporate performance is not significantly different from zero. In other words, there is no relationship between tax planning and firm performance. The study however
reports a positive association between tax planning savings and performance for well-governed firms. Desai and Dharmapala (2007) thus concluded that corporate governance mediates the tax planning-firm performance relationship. The IV estimate shows a higher effect of corporate governance on firm performance.
Abdul-Wahab (2010) provides a result that differs from the findings of Desai and Hines (2002), Desai and Dhamarpala (2009), and Chen, Chen, Chen and Shelvin. Abdul-Wahab's (2010) study sought to establish a relationship between tax planning savings of firms and their value. The study simultaneously investigates the moderating influence of corporate governance. Abdul-Wahab's study employed 240 firms listed on the London stock exchange from 2005 to 2007. Tax planning was proxied by the difference between the effective tax rate of the entities and the applicable statutory tax rates. Self-constructed governance index was constructed using corporate governance mechanisms. Firms' value was represented by the Tobin's Q. The data was analysed using panel regression analysis model. As a check, the OLS model was also used.
The results indicate a negative relationship between firm value and tax planning activities. Abdul-Wahab (2010) explains the relationship with reference to tax planning cost and risk. The study suggested that tax planning cost and risks associated with tax planning have the potential of derailing the benefits that should have accrued to shareholders. The researcher maintains that as tax planning activities increase, the tax costs and risks outweighs the benefits.
Due to the diversity of the relationships found between tax planning and firms' market performance, it is right to develop a null hypothesis as:
H1: There is an association between tax planning and firms' market performance.
It is unreasonable to suggest that tax planning is the only determinants of firm performance. Baring the existence of multicollinearity between (among) the explanatory variables, sales growth, financial leverage, firm size and age of the firms will be introduced into the regression models. Several studies, including Desai and Hines (2002), Desai and Dharmaphala (2007), Abdul-Wahab (2010) reported positive association between firm performance and sales growth, firm size and financial leverage. It is thus clear to develop the null hypothesis that:
H2: Firm performance and sales growth and firm size are positively associated.
Firms' age, according to Desai and Dharmapala (2007) and Abdul-Wahab (2010) has a negative association with market performance of firms. This gives rise to the third null hypothesis that:
H3: Firms age and financial leverage are negatively associated with firms' market performance. 3. Methodology
Longitudinal correlative design is adopted for the study. Longitudinal design is essential if the same research entities sampled in a cross section are then re-sampled at different times (Creswell, 2009; De Vaus, 2001). According to the authors, the design helps overcome limitations associated with the "snap shot" approach of cross sectional designs.
The study population comprises all non-financial firms listed on the Ghana stock exchange. As of June 2013, twenty-three (23) out of thirty-five (35) firms listed on the Ghana Stock Exchange were non-financial companies. Financial companies are excluded from the population. Previous researchers posit that the financial sector is a highly regulated sector and as such regulations blur the relationship that exist among the variables to be studied (O'Hamon & Taylor, 2007; Desai & Dharmapala, 2009; Abdul-Wahab, 2010).
The study uses a panel data for twelve-year period, from 2000 to 2011. Data for the study is collected from the database of the Ghana Stock Exchange. Panel regression model is adopted for
data analysis and the Ordinary least square (OLS) been the method of regression.
The regression model is summarized as:
(1)
α = (alpha) shows the constant affecting net profit margin on corporate tax.
Tobin's q (market performance) = (market capitalization of entity) ÷ (book value of shareholders fund).
Tax savings = Statutory tax rate -Effective tax rate.
Statutory tax rate = flat rate as mandated by the Ghana Revenue Authority.
Effective tax rate = Corporate income tax expense/profit before tax.
Sgrowth (sales growth) = (Previous Sales revenue -Current sales revenue) ÷Previous sales revenue.
Fsize (firm size) = Natural log of firm's total assets.
fLev (Financial leverage ) = Long term debt/shareholders fund.
Age (Age of firms) = log(the difference between the year of establishment and years of observation).
4. Results and Discussion
Figure 1 and Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for two key variables, namely tax planning of firms and market performance over the twelve year period.
Like the statutory rate, tax savings of firms show a decreasing trend. As tax authorities take steps to reduce the tax burden on firms, the leakages in tax revenue due to firms tax planning activities reduce. From figure 1, the statutory tax rate reduced from about 32% to 25%. Tax savings of firms reduced also from 15% to 8% by 2011. That is to say each percentage point decrease in the statutory rate leads to a corresponding decrease in firms' tax planning savings.
The policy implication of this finding is two-fold. Firstly, the notion of increasing tax rate in order to rake in more tax revenue may not hold. As tax rates increased, the motivation of firms to deny the state of revenue through intensified tax planning machinery is enhanced. Secondly, as the tax rate is decreased, the net benefit of planning tax is derailed. The way forward for tax revenue optimisation is to maintain lower tax rates and drag more firms into the tax net.
Table 1 provides the market performance of the firms over the twelve year period.
The farther the Tobin's Q is from unity, the better the company performance. From Table 1, all the company groups recorded an average score higher than 1.00. The overall average score is 1.78 (the median represents the average as skewness is negative). The high average market performance by the firms is driven by only the mining sector and the manufacturing companies. All the remaining classes of companies recorded lower than the average score.
This finding confirms the observation of business persons in Ghana that business climate in Ghana gives unmatched advantage to the mining sector. The service sector records the lowest market performance. This raises a major concern as the sector is the major contributor to gross domestic product (GDP) in Ghana. Another sector to watch out for is the oil and gas. This sector has the most recent history. It was expected that the high hopes of investors in the sector after the discovery of oil in commercial quantities in Ghana would have positive influence on the performance. It is expected that the sector will be one of the major drivers of firms' market performance in the future.
Table 2 provides correlation results on the variables. This result is essential for at least two reasons. Firstly, it shows basic association between the dependent variable (market performance) and the
independent variable. Secondly, it shows if the "so-called" independent variables are indeed independent. In other words, it tests the multicollinearity status of the independent variables. From Table 2, the correlation co-efficient between tax savings and Tobin's Q is 0.112. This is however significant at 0.097. This significant level is compared with the default alpha of 0.05. As rule of thumb, we reject the null hypothesis if the actual significant level is higher than the expected alpha and do not reject if the actual significant is less than the expected alpha. In this instance p-value of 0.097 is greater than the expected alpha of 0.05. The null hypothesis that:
H1: There is an association between tax planning and firms' market performance is rejected.
The correlation results do not suggest causation but gives an indication of association between the variables. The "no relationship" finding between tax planning and firms' market performance supports the reports of Desai and Dharmapala (2007) but differ from the findings of Desai and Hines (2002) and Abdul-Wahab (2010). The findings suggest that although savings from tax planning reflect in higher profit after tax, it does not necessarily reflect in the pocket of shareholders. This finding ignites studies aimed at uncovering factors that mediate the tax planning-firm performance relationship. Indeed, it might be the reasons behind the works of Desai and Dharmapala (2007), Desai and Dharmapala (2009) and Abdul Wahab (2010).
Another finding in table 3 is the relationship between market performance (proxied by tobin's Q) and the firm specific variables. Sales growth and firm size shows positive and significant association with firms' market performance. On the other hand financial leverage and age of the firms shows a negative association with firm performance. The findings
We do not reject the null hypotheses (H2 and H3) stated as
H2: Firm performance and sales growth and firm size are positively associated
H3: Firms age and financial leverage are negatively associated with firms' market performance. Further Table 3 gives an indication that multicollinearity among the independent variables does not exist. The rule of thumb is that if the correlation coefficients between any two of the variables is above 0.50 (either positive or negative), those two variables are multi-correlated and should not be simultaneously included in the regression model. From Table 3, this condition does not exist. The variables can be regressed against the dependent variables.
Table 3 shows the regression of Tobin's Q (proxy of firms' market performance) and all the independent variables.
The adjusted R2 connotes that the five independent variables explain 55.3% of the variations in the dependent variable. The model is significant at 0.0001. This is a strong indicator that the variables used in the model have sufficiently explained the firms' market performance.
The regression results found a relationship that is largely consistent with the correlation results shown in table 3. The results affirm that tax planning plays an insignificant role in the determination of firms' market performance. Again this supports the agency theory's argument that it not all actions of management that help achieve the wealth maximisation objective of management. From the results sales growth and the financial leverage are the two most influential variables. Firms should maintain low financial leverage ratio and pursue sales growth strategies in order to boost their market performance.
5. Conclusions
The study sought to ascertain the level of tax planning of firms and to explore the relationship between tax planning and firms' market performance. The study used 22 non-financial companies over a twelve year period from 2000. The longitudinal correlative designed was used. The
following conclusions are reached.
Firstly firms' tax savings decrease as tax authorities reduce the statutory corporate income tax rates. This indicates that leakages in tax revenue as a result of intensive tax planning of firms reduce when tax authorities maintain low corporate income tax rates.
Secondly, tax planning has a neutral influence on firms' performance. This finding challenges the general perception that every cedi of tax savings from tax planning reflect in the pocket of investors. Agency problem is much present in the issue of tax planning. The efforts of management to reduce tax burden of firms benefit other stakeholders rather than shareholders. There may be other factors that could ensure that substantial benefits of tax planning accrue to shareholders. Some researchers arguably, root for good corporate governance. This falls outside the scope of this study.
Finally, sales growth, firm size, age of firms, financial leverage and tax planning simultaneously play a major role in determining firms' market performance. These variables explain 55.3% of the variations in firms' market performance. Sales growth and financial leverage are the two most influential variables that determine firm market performance.
References
二、文献综述
企业纳税筹划文献综述
摘要：20 世纪以来并购已经成为企业快速扩张和整合的重要手段之一。为了探究企业并购的纳税筹划，国内外学者从不同角度做了大量的研究，本文对国内外有关企业并购中的纳税筹划重要文献进行了总结和梳理，并指出了并购中的纳税筹划现有研究的局限性和进一步值得研究的领域。
关键词：并购，纳税筹划，文献综述
一、国外研究现状
1、税收对企业并购影响的相关理论
莫迪利亚尼和米勒（1958）（Miller M.H.和Modigliani F）提出的MM 定理早期观点认为在没有所得税的情况下公司价值与企业资本结构没有关系，不会因为债权资本增加而增加，1963 年加入了企业所得税因素后发现：由于企业的负债利息可以免税，负债增加，企业的加权平均成本就会降低，因此负债会因利息的抵税作用而增加企业价值，对投资者来说也意味着更多的可分配经营收入。
诺贝尔经济学奖得主之一迈伦·斯科尔斯（Myron Samuel Scholes）（1976）等人提出了“显性税收”和“隐性税收”，并研究了“税后收益最大化”与“税收套利”问题。艾克堡（Eckbo）（1983）提出了税收对并购的一些具体作用，税制中尤其是所得税是激励公司并购的主要因素，并购更加突出了税盾效应，税法中的企业资产价值重估增值使折旧增加、亏损递延等都能使企业合理避税，人们会调整交易方式，尽可能减少税负。Shrieves 和Pashley（1984）认为企业在控制了规模与产业的影响后，财务杠杆比率显著增加，并购后公司的举债能力大于并购前的负债能力之和，使公司税盾效应增加。斯莫劳克、贝蒂和梅耶德（Beatty Smirlock 和Majd）（1986）认为，并购中降低税负同时影响税收动机，有些并购活动如转移税负、延长纳税时间等可能是考虑了税收最小化的影响。迈伦·斯科尔斯与马克·沃尔夫森认为，美国在1986 年《税收改革法案》颁布之前，企业在并购交易中可以利用目标企业净亏损结转和折旧挡板效应实现节税，1986 年新法案取消了税收并购中的激励措施，潜在税收利益也就随之消失。
2、企业并购活动对税收政策的利用
Wansley，Wicciam 和Ho C Yang（1983）研究认为，不同的并购类型和支付方式对并购公司支付费用有很大的影响，如现金支付经常伴随着较高的股东收益，并指出这主要归因于税收效应和对现金支付的偏好。奥尔巴克和雷思胡斯（Alan J.Auerbach 和David Reishus）分析1970—1980 年间的318 宗并购交易后发现，企业从并购中能获得一些所得税优惠收益，未使用过的税收抵免额与经营亏损在并购交易中至关重要，收购公司主要用来冲抵亏损后所得缴纳企业所得税。
梅耶德和迈尔斯（Majd、Myers）（1984）认为，并购后某个公司的利润会因另一公司的亏损而降低，因此，并购企业会降低未来税款的现值。Huang 和Walking（1987）利用回归分析方法研究了支付方式、收购方式等的影响，认为影响并购双方利益的因素中支付方式是最主要的，现金支付具有更高的超常收益。Carla Hayn（1989）研究了1970—1985 年间的640 宗并购交易，发现640 宗并购交易中免税占28%，Hayn 指出，并购企业在选择并购目标时更看重税收因素，免税因素会增加并购完成的可能性，研究表明加速折旧可以获得税收收益，如果没有税收优惠，并购企业就会选择并购以外的发展途径。Mark A.Wolfson（1990）分析了美国1980 年以来的并购活动，研究表明，1986 年的美国税制改革阻碍了税收在资产出售、并购方面的发展，也影响了美国公司之间的并购交易，但有利于对美国公司的跨国并购交易，税收制度的变化是影响美国并购活动的重要因素。
二、国内研究现状
1、企业并购中的纳税原则和基本方法
干春晖（2004）研究了企业并购中的税收问题，全方位地对并购活动的多环节，包括并购支付方式、并购会计处理方法、并购融资方式等方面都作了税收筹划分析。李维萍（2007）探讨了税制中形成并购税收协同效应的因素和经济学家对这些因素的理论贡献。主要研究了税法非对称性、源自债务的税收屏蔽、受困权益三种税收协同效应，他认为基于税收利益目的而进行的公司并购可能通过消除税收方面的损失促进更有效率的企业行为。解宏（2009）指出，并购作为一项复杂的产权交易行为，涉及的税收问题处于多层面上，对于并购中的税收问题应从多角度考虑，如内外资企业税制不统一问题、融资费用可否税前扣除问题、员工持股计划的税收问题等。
赵晋琳（2010）分析了当前我国有关企业跨境并购重组税收政策方面存在的问题，并借鉴国外做法，立足我国实际情况，提出进一步完善税收政策和加强税收征管的建议。主要包括以下六个方面：开征较低的资本利得税，实施税收优惠；降低企业融资成本和并购成本；严格免税并购重组的审查条款；进一步加强对企业境外投资的服务力度；加强国际间税收协调与合作，防止国际税收协定滥用；建立规范的企业境外税收征管制度体系。郭恒泰（2010）分析研究了企业并购行为中的所得税问题，他认为并购起因于财务方面的目的，财务协同效应理论认为并购给企业带来的财务方面的效益是由于税法、证券交易等内在规定而产生的一种纯粹的效益。许多国家的税法使企业通过并购能合理避税，获取较大的利益。
计金标、王春成（2011）以法经济学的交易费用及产权分析为理论工具，在借鉴世界公司并购税制，尤其是美、欧公司并购税制成功经验的基础上，审视我国公司并购税制的有效性，并对其完善和改进提出政策建议。研究指出有必要从税法秩序的角度重构并购税制的基本原则。从并购融资、并购支付、并购交易法人组织结构三个方向上，细化并购税收法律条文结构，细化并购交易主体的税收待遇，从税收负担和待遇上实现差别化的税收调节，设置自主选择性适用条款已成为各国的一种普遍做法，以市场为基础增进税法的调节作用。
高寿松、戴家启（2012）通过分析所得税对企业并购的影响指出，企业并购中的纳税筹划实质上是对不同纳税方案进行择优，通过安排和筹划并购过程中经营活动、投资、融资等事宜，达到节税的目的，在并购之前进行详细的税务调查、防范涉税风险是并购企业在进行并购的过程中需要完成的重要一环，（完整内容请到百度文库）在支付方式中，现金购买是节税利
中等分辨率制备分离的 快速色谱技术 W. Clark Still,* Michael K a h n , and Abhijit Mitra Departm(7nt o/ Chemistry, Columbia Uniuersity,1Veu York, Neu; York 10027 ReceiLied January 26, 1978 我们希望找到一种简单的吸附色谱技术用于有机化合物的常规净化。这种技术是适于传统的有机物大规模制备分离，该技术需使用长柱色谱法。尽管这种技术得到的效果非常好，但是其需要消耗大量的时间，并且由于频带拖尾经常出现低复原率。当分离的样本剂量大于1或者2g时，这些问题显得更加突出。近年来，几种制备系统已经进行了改进，能将分离时间减少到1-3h，并允许各成分的分辨率ΔR f≥（使用薄层色谱分析进行分析）。在这些方法中，在我们的实验室中，媒介压力色谱法1和短柱色谱法2是最成功的。最近，我们发现一种可以将分离速度大幅度提升的技术，可用于反应产物的常规提纯，我们将这种技术称为急骤色谱法。虽然这种技术的分辨率只是中等（ΔR f≥），而且构建这个系统花费非常低，并且能在10-15min内分离重量在的样本。4 急骤色谱法是以空气压力驱动的混合介质压力以及短柱色谱法为基础，专门针对快速分离，介质压力以及短柱色谱已经进行了优化。优化实验是在一组标准条件5下进行的，优化实验使用苯甲醇作为样本，放在一个20mm*5in.的硅胶柱60内，使用Tracor 970紫外检测器监测圆柱的输出。分辨率通过持续时间（r）和峰宽（w,w/2）的比率进行测定的（Figure 1），结果如图2-4所示，图2-4分别放映分辨率随着硅胶颗粒大小、洗脱液流速和样本大小的变化。
如对您有帮助，请购买打赏，谢谢您！ 如何利用外文文献 文献综述是揭示某一研究领域当前水平和动向的论述性专题资料。它是作者围绕某一主题阅读大量的中外文献后，提取说明主题的论点和数据，全面分析、整理、归纳概括而写成的科技论文。对于大多数写作者而言，难度最大的就是借鉴外文文献。以下是笔者在这方面的一点粗浅体会。 无论是手检还是机检获得的外文文献，往往篇幅较长，专业词汇较多，全篇精读需要耗费大量时间，因此最好是先将手头上的文献摘要大致浏览一遍，进行粗略分类，比如文献是属于临床病例分析，动物实验研究还是临床人体实验研究。文献是属于综述、期刊论文还是研究报告。文献侧重于实验方法还是疾病的病因机理的研究等等。从而大致判断各类文献可以引用的是观点、方法还是结论，此为借鉴外文文献的第一步。 第二步是逐类进行快速阅读，各类文章择其重点引用部分进行快速阅读，用记号笔标记，其余部分浏览即可，并在侧边的空白处简要用中文翻译大意，并注明是引用方法学还是论点，或是临床有意义的病例。这样做的目的是方便日后查询。例如侧重引用其观点的文章中间具体的实验方法步骤与结论都可不看，只略看前言，重点看讨论。 第三步是精读，精读的目的有3个:（1）按照类别逐字逐句地阅读重点引用部分，例如方法学，就应注意分析比较各种方法的主、客观条件，步骤及结论有无差异，各有什么利弊，为什么。( 2)“查漏补缺”：看前面第二步中漏掉的部分有没有值得引用的内容，如果有，及时做好标记；( 3)根据重点引用内容的角标追溯参考文献，筛选出重点，再补查其余外文文献，尽量查全该领域的文献。 综述的写作格式 综述的写作格式一般包括四部分，即前言、正文、小结、参考文献。 前言，要用简明扼要的文字说明写作的目的、必要有关概念的定义、综述的范围、阐述有关问题的现状和动态以及目前对主要问题争论的焦点等。 正文，是综述的重点，主要包括论据和论证两个部分，正文部分根据内容的多少可分为若干个小标题分别论述。 小结，是在综述正文部分作扼要的总结，作者应对各种观点进行综合评价，提出自己的看法，指出存在的问题及今后发展的方向和展望。 综述的写作 1.1 文献综述的概念：文献综述是指在有针对性的搜集、查阅大量相关文献的基础上，通过自己的语言对所研究的问题进行系统、全而的叙述和评论。强调作者述而不评，重点在
文献综述怎么写 1) 什么是文献综述? 文献综述是研究者在其提前阅读过某一主题的文献后，经过理解、整理、融会贯通，综合分析和评价而组成的一种不同于研究论文的文体。 2) 文献综述的写作要求 1、文献综述的格式 文献综述的格式与一般研究性论文的格式有所不同。这是因为研究性的论文注重研究的方法和结果，而文献综述介绍与主题有关的详细资料、动态、进展、展望以及对以上方面的评述。因此文献综述的格式相对多样，但总的来说，一般都包含以下四部分：即前言、主题、总结和参考文献。撰写文献综述时可按这四部分拟写提纲，再根据提纲进行撰写工作。 前言，要用简明扼要的文字说明写作的目的、必要性、有关概念的定义，综述的范围，阐述有关问题的现状和动态，以及目前对主要问题争论的焦点等。前言一般200-300字为宜，不宜超过500字。 正文，是综述的重点，写法上没有固定的格式，只要能较好地表达综合的内容，作者可创造性采用诸多形式。正文主要包括论据和论证两个部分，通过提出问题、分析问题和解决问题，比较不同学者对同一问题的看法及其理论依据，进一步阐明问题的来龙去脉和作者自己的见解。当然，作者也可从问题发生的历史背景、目前现状、发展方向等提出文献的不同观点。正文部分可根据内容的多少可分为若干个小标题分别论述。 小结，是结综述正文部分作扼要的总结，作者应对各种观点进行综合评价，提出自己的看法，指出存在的问题及今后发展的方向和展望。内容单纯的综述也可不写小结。 参考文献，是综述的重要组成部分。一般参考文献的多少可体现作者阅读文献的广度和深度。对综述类论文参考文献的数量不同杂志有不同的要求，一般以30条以内为宜，以最近3-5年内的最新文献为主。 2、文献综述规定 1. 为了使选题报告有较充分的依据，要求硕士研究生在论文开题之前作文献综述。 2. 在文献综述时，研究生应系统地查阅与自己的研究方向有关的国内外文献。通常阅读文献不少于30篇，且文献搜集要客观全面 3. 在文献综述中，研究生应说明自己研究方向的发展历史，前人的主要研究成果，存在的问题及发展趋势等。 4. 文献综述要条理清晰，文字通顺简练。 5. 资料运用恰当、合理。文献引用用方括号[ ]括起来置于引用词的右上角。 6. 文献综述中要有自己的观点和见解。不能混淆作者与文献的观点。鼓励研究生多发现问题、多提出问题、并指出分析、解决问题的可能途径，针对性强。 7. 文献综述不少于3000字。 3、注意事项 ⒈搜集文献应尽量全。掌握全面、大量的文献资料是写好综述的前提，否则，随便搜集一点资料就动手撰写是不可能写出好的综述。 ⒉注意引用文献的代表性、可靠性和科学性。在搜集到的文献中可能出现观点雷同，有的文献在可靠性及科学性方面存在着差异，因此在引用文献时应注意选用代表性、可靠性和科学性较好的文献。 ⒊引用文献要忠实文献内容。由于文献综述有作者自己的评论分析，因此在撰写时应分清作者的观点和文献的内容，不能篡改文献的内容。引用文献不过多。文献综述的作者引用间接文献的现象时有所见。如果综述作者从他人引用的参考文献转引过来，这些文献在他人
企业所得税纳税筹划研究 —以YL电力有限公司为例 第一章绪论 1.1研究背景及意义 1.1.1研究背景 1.1.2研究意义 1.2文献综述 1.2.1国外研究现状 1.2.2国内研究现状 1.3研究内容和研究方法 1.3.1研究内容 1.3.2研究方法 第二章企业所得税纳税筹划的理论基础 2.1 纳税筹划的理论基础 2.1.1纳税筹划的含义 2.1.2纳税筹划与偷税，避税，节税的比较 2.1.3纳税筹划的原则 2.1.4纳税筹划的基本方法 2.2本章小结 第三章YL电力有限公司企业所得税纳税筹划的现状及存在的问题
3.1 YL公司概况 3.1.1 YL公司基本情况 3.1.2 YL公司组织结构图及部门职能 3.1.3 YL公司纳税环境分析 3.2 YL公司企业所得税纳税筹划的现状分析 3.2.1 YL公司企业所得税缴纳现状 3.2.2 YL公司收入筹划现状分析 3.2.3 YI公司费用管理现状分析 3.3 YL公司企业所得税纳税筹划存在的问题 3.3.1 YL公司纳税筹划组织结构不明确且责任不具体 3.3.2 YL公司纳税筹划在在流程设计上未达到科学有序的要求 3.3.3 YL公司在纳税筹划未充分利用税收优惠政策 3.3.4 YL公司在筹划收入的确认原则上及赊销收入发票上不明确 3.5本章小结 第四章 YL公司企业所得税纳税筹划存在问题的原因和改进措施 4.1 YL公司企业所得税纳税筹划存在问题的原因 4.1.1 YL公司未考虑纳税筹划的风险性 4.1.2企业纳税筹划意识淡薄 4.2 YL公司企业所得税纳税筹划的改进措施 4.2.1收入项目的纳税筹划改进措施 4.2.2扣除项目纳税筹划改进措施 4.2.3明确纳税筹划的组织结构和责任主体 4.2.4利用企业所得税优惠政策纳税筹划改进措施
New technique of the computer network Abstract The 21 century is an ages of the information economy, being the computer network technique of representative techniques this ages, will be at very fast speed develop soon in continuously creatively, and will go deep into the people's work, life and study. Therefore, control this technique and then seem to be more to deliver the importance. Now I mainly introduce the new technique of a few networks in actuality live of application. keywords Internet Network System Digital Certificates Grid Storage 1. Foreword Internet turns 36, still a work in progress Thirty-six years after computer scientists at UCLA linked two bulky computers using a 15-foot gray cable, testing a new way for exchanging data over networks, what would ultimately become the Internet remains a work in progress. University researchers are experimenting with ways to increase its capacity and speed. Programmers are trying to imbue Web pages with intelligence. And work is underway to re-engineer the network to reduce Spam (junk mail) and security troubles. All the while threats loom: Critics warn that commercial, legal and political pressures could hinder the types of innovations that made the Internet what it is today. Stephen Crocker and Vinton Cerf were among the graduate students who joined UCLA professor Len Klein rock in an engineering lab on Sept. 2, 1969, as bits of meaningless test data flowed silently between the two computers. By January, three other "nodes" joined the fledgling network.
大数据外文翻译参考文献综述 (文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译) 原文： Data Mining and Data Publishing Data mining is the extraction of vast interesting patterns or knowledge from huge amount of data. The initial idea of privacy-preserving data mining PPDM was to extend traditional data mining techniques to work with the data modified to mask sensitive information. The key issues were how to modify the data and how to recover the data mining result from the modified data. Privacy-preserving data mining considers the problem of running data mining algorithms on confidential data that is not supposed to be revealed even to the party
running the algorithm. In contrast, privacy-preserving data publishing (PPDP) may not necessarily be tied to a specific data mining task, and the data mining task may be unknown at the time of data publishing. PPDP studies how to transform raw data into a version that is immunized against privacy attacks but that still supports effective data mining tasks. Privacy-preserving for both data mining (PPDM) and data publishing (PPDP) has become increasingly popular because it allows sharing of privacy sensitive data for analysis purposes. One well studied approach is the k-anonymity model [1] which in turn led to other models such as confidence bounding, l-diversity, t-closeness, (α,k)-anonymity, etc. In particular, all known mechanisms try to minimize information loss and such an attempt provides a loophole for attacks. The aim of this paper is to present a survey for most of the common attacks techniques for anonymization-based PPDM & PPDP and explain their effects on Data Privacy. Although data mining is potentially useful, many data holders are reluctant to provide their data for data mining for the fear of violating individual privacy. In recent years, study has been made to ensure that the sensitive information of individuals cannot be identified easily. Anonymity Models, k-anonymization techniques have been the focus of intense research in the last few years. In order to ensure anonymization of data while at the same time minimizing the information
毕业论文开题报告 学生姓名：学号： 专业：财务管理 论文题目：论民营中小企业的税收筹划 —— 指导教师： 2012 年2月23日
毕业论文开题报告 1．结合毕业论题情况，根据文课所查阅的文献资料，每人撰写2000字左右的文献综述 文献综述
1研究背景 随着社会主义市场经济的进一步发展，特别是中国在世界的经济地位初见上升的今天，税收在企业经济生活及决策中的地位越来越重要，税收筹划作为其最重要的部分已经成为越来越多企业的关注的焦点。 近年来中国的民营经济异军突起，而在这其中又以中小型企业发展最为迅猛，作 为我国国民经济的重要组成部分，其对我国经济发展和社会稳定起着十分重要的作用，其对税收筹划的需求也日益增多。但其在发展时又面临融资难，产品单一缺乏竞争，财务管理能力有限，负担重的诸多问题，此时税收筹划作为企业经济发展尤其是税收管理的重要方面，如何充分利用税收筹划来减低税收负担，增加其在市场核心竞争力就也成为了民营中小企业面临的一个重大问题。围绕税收筹划的相关问题的研究与探索就对民营中小企业的经济发展与战略管理有着很重要的现实意义。 2国内税收筹划研究现状 2.1税收筹划体制的建立及发展环境 税收筹划在发达国家十分普遍，已经成为企业发展的重要部分，但是在我国由于国家税收代理制度还不完善，企业税收筹划意识薄弱等原因，税收筹划体制整体仍处在发展的初级阶段。 张梦梦、胡克琼（2008）表明目前在我国，税收筹划尚属新生事物，发展比较缓慢，主要由于还未被我国企业普遍接受，企业重视度不高，税务代理制度不健全。 李宝峰（2007）我国税收筹划的开展还处于起步阶段，没有收到应有的重视，并且民营中小企业没有足够的筹划空间，少有的对民营中小企业的税收筹划的研究也都大都停留在理论层面。 赵明凤（2006）表明民营中小企业很难得到国家直接的财政扶持，国家目前只能从制度层面上位中小企业创造良好的法律、法规环境，并加大纳税筹划的宣传力度。 美国斯坦福大学商学院教授迈伦·斯科尔斯(MyronS．Scholes)（2004）提出了有 毕业论文开题报告
英文翻译 A comprehensive overview of substations Along with the economic development and the modern industry developments of quick rising, the design of the power supply system become more and more completely and system. Because the quickly increase electricity of factories, it also increases seriously to the dependable index of the economic condition, power supply in quantity. Therefore they need the higher and more perfect request to the power supply. Whether Design reasonable, not only affect directly the base investment and circulate the expenses with have the metal depletion in colour metal, but also will reflect the dependable in power supply and the safe in many facts. In a word, it is close with the economic performance and the safety of the people. The substation is an importance part of the electric power system, it is consisted of the electric appliances equipments and the Transmission and the Distribution. It obtains the electric power from the electric power system, through its function of transformation and assign, transport and safety. Then transport the power to every place with safe, dependable, and economical. As an important part of power’s transport and control, the transformer substation must change the mode of the traditional design and control, then can adapt to the modern electric power system, the development of modern industry and the of trend of the society life. Electric power industry is one of the foundations of national industry and national economic development to industry, it is a coal, oil, natural gas, hydropower, nuclear power, wind power and other energy conversion into electrical energy of the secondary energy industry, it for the other departments of the national economy fast and stable development of the provision of adequate power, and its level of development is a reflection of the country's economic development an important indicator of the level. As the power in the industry and the importance of the national economy, electricity transmission and distribution of electric energy used in these areas is an indispensable component.。Therefore, power transmission and distribution is critical. Substation is to enable superior power plant power plants or power after adjustments to the lower load of books is an important part of power transmission. Operation of its functions, the capacity of a direct impact on the size of the lower load power, thereby affecting the industrial production and power consumption.Substation system if a link failure, the system will protect the part of action. May result in power outages and so on, to the production and living a great disadvantage. Therefore, the substation in the electric power system for the protection of electricity reliability,
Title ：Magnetic motor shell stamping process and die design Author：yu Department of Materials "Magnetic motor shell stamping process and die design" literature review Abstract摘要 By read these references and documents, in-depth understanding of the contemporary mold of advanced manufacturing technology and metal forming technology, a number of instances of mold design and the understanding and learning, to further study the method of stamping die design, die design and thus have a directionalguidance.As used in this design and drawing die punching die and so on, through the design of the book related to mold in-depth study, this drawing die and the punching die and so the design methods have shape.These references and documents, the design of low-cost high-accuracy die with directional guidance. Keywords： Mold advanced manufacturing technology Mold Manufacturing Trends Drawing Punching CAE Die Materials Prices Preface前言 As China's economic integration with the world economy, the rapid development of basic industries, mold manufacturing industry is also developing fast.In the current economic situation, people pay more attention to efficiency, product quality, cost, and new product development capabilities.The innovation and development of mold manufacturing concern. 1.1 The history of the development of mold Archaeological discoveries in China, as early as 2,000 years ago, China has been used to make bronze stamping dies to prove that in ancient China stamping die stamping and achievements to the world's leading.In 1953, the Changchun First Automobile Works in China for the first time established a stamping plants, the plant began manufacturing cars in 1958, cover mold.60 years of the 20th century began producing fine blanking dies.In walked a long path of development temperature, the present, China has formed more than 300 billion yuan (not including Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan statistics) the production capacity of various types of stamping dies. 1.2 Development Status and Trends Die Since reform and opening, with the rapid development of the national economy, the market demand of mold growing.In recent years, the mold industry has been the growth rate of about 15% of the rapid development of industrial enterprises in the ownership of the mold components also changed dramatically, in addition to professional mold factory outside of state-owned, collective, joint ventures, wholly-owned and private has been a rapid development.
一、激励理论的背景 在经济发展的过程中,劳动分工与交易的出现带来了激励问题。激励理论是行为科学中用于处理需要，动机，目标和行为四者之间关系的核心理论。行为科学认为人的动机来自需要，由需要确定人们的行为目标，激励则作用于人内心活动，激发，驱动和强化人的行为。哈佛大学维廉詹姆士研究表明：在没有激励措施下,下属一般仅能发挥工作能力的20%～30%，而当他受到激励后,其工作能力可以提升到80%～90%，所发挥的作用相当于激励前的3到4倍。日本丰田公司采取激励措施鼓励员工提建议，结果仅1983年一年，员工提了165万条建议，平均每人31条，它为公司带来900亿日元利润，相当于当年总利润的18%。由于激励的效果明显，所以各种组织为了提高生产效率，有些专家学者就开始了对激励理论的研究之中，探索激励的无穷潜力。 二、国外研究现状 国外对于激励理论有了大量的研究并获得了丰硕的成果。总体来说，可以分为两类激励理论。一类是以人的心理需求和动机为主要研究对象的激励理论，熟称“内容型激励理论”。另一类是以人的心理过程和行为过程相互作用的动态系统为研究对象的激励过程理论,它也被称作是“行为型激励理论”。 1 内容型激励理论 1.1 奠瑞的人类人格理论 这种理论认为，在面临着动态且不断变化的环境时，人们都是自适应的。它把需求分成了两种类型，即生理需求和心理需求。前者与人体基本生理过程的满足感有关，而后者所关注的是情绪上和精神上的满足感。 1.2 马斯洛的“需要层次”理论 美国心理学家马斯洛(A.H.Maslow)进一步发展了莫瑞的研究，在1954年出版的《动机与人格》一书中对该理论作了进一步的阐释。马斯洛认为人的需要可以划分为五个层次，从低到高依次为生理需要，安全需要，社交需要，尊熏需要，自我实现需要，且这五个层次的顺序，对每个人都是相同的。只有当较低层次的需要获得了基本满足后，下一个较高层次的需要才能成为主导需要。 1.3 赫茨伯格的激励—保健双因素理论 美国心理学家赫茨伯格因素理论打破了这一假设。他于1959年在《工作的激励》一书中提出了保健——激励因素理论，简称双因素理论。即保健因素和激励因素。保健因素可以用来体现高水平员工的不满意，激励因素可以用来体现高水平员工的满意度。他认为只有激励因素才能促发员工积极性,提高生产效率。 2 行为型激励理论 2.1 洛克的目标设置理论 2O世纪6O年代末，埃德温·A·洛克和他的同事们花了许多年的时间研究目标对于人类行为和绩效的效果。他们的研究导致了目标设置理论的创立并不断地得到验证，提出：指向一共同目标的工作意向是工作效率的主要源泉。他还提出了具体的设置目标的步骤。 2.2 亚当斯的公平理论 美国心理学家亚当斯(J.s.Adams)对员工受激励程度的大小与他人之间的关系进行研究，并在《工人关于工资不公平的内心冲突同其生产率的关系》(1962年与罗森合写)，《工
燕山大学 本科毕业论文——开题报告 课题名称：我国零售企业纳税筹划的研究 学院（系）： 年级专业：会计08-3班 学生姓名： 指导教师： 完成日期：2010年3月25日 I
一、本课题国内外研究动态综述 （一）国外研究动态 在纳税筹划的发展史上，为大家公认的纳税筹划产生的标志事件是20世纪30年代应该上议院汤姆林爵士针对“税务局长诉温斯特大公”一案所作的有关纳税筹划的声明，也被认为是税收筹划最早的法律根据。汤姆林爵士认为：“任何一个人都有权安排自己的事业，依据法律这样可以少缴税。为了保证从这些安排中获得利益，不能强迫他多缴税。”这个观点受到法律界的认同。而从此以后，关于纳税筹划的研究也得到了快速的发展。37另一个重要的判例为1947年美国法官汉德在一税务案件中的判词更是成为美国税收筹划的法律基石，原文是：“法院一直认为，人们安排自己的活动，以达到降低税负的目的是不可职责的。每个人都可以这样做，不论他是富人还是穷人，而且这样做是完全正当的，因为他无须超过法律的规定承担国家的税收。税收是强制课征而不是无偿捐献，以道德的名义来要求税收纯粹是奢谈”。 1953年，在法国巴黎成立了最早实施现代咨询及相关税收筹划的实施机构——欧洲税务联合会，该机构明确提出税务专家是以税务咨询为中心开展税务服务的，于是形成了一种独立于代理业务的新业务，这种业务的主要内容是税收筹划。 荷兰国际财政文献局(IBFD)《国际税收辞汇》是这样定义的：“税务筹划是指通过纳税人经营活动或个人事务活动的安排，实现缴纳最低的税收。 印度税务专家N．J．雅萨斯威在《个人投资和税务筹划》一书中说：“纳税人通过财务活动的安排，充分利用税务法规提供的包括减免在内的一切优惠，从而享得最大的税收利益。” 另一位印度税务专家E．A．史林瓦斯在他编著的《公司税务筹划手册》中写道：“税务筹划是经营管理整体中的一个组成部……分税务已成为重要的环境因素之一，对企业既是机遇，也是威胁。 美国知名法官勒纳德．汉德说过：“在纳税发生之前，系统地对企业经营或投资行为作出事先安排，以达到尽量少纳税的目的，这个过程就是税务筹划。主要如选择企业的组织形式和资本结构，投资采取租用还是购入的方式，以及交易的时间。 总之，目前国外的税收筹划已经得到了比较完善的发展，税收筹划的方法也形成了系统化的体系。税收筹划已成为国际经济的普遍现象，成为了各国政府及企业界广泛关注的企业行为。 （二）国内研究动态 1
第一篇： 航空博物馆与航空展示公园 巴特罗米耶杰·基谢列夫斯基 飞翔的概念、场所的精神、老机场的建筑---克拉科夫新航空博物馆理性地吸取了这些元素，并将它们整合到一座建筑当中。Rakowice-Czyzyny机场之前的旧飞机修理库为新建筑的平面和高度设定了模数比例。在此基本形态上进一步发展，如同裁切和折叠一架纸飞机，生成了一座巨大的建筑。其三角形机翼是由混凝土制成，却如同风动螺旋桨一样轻盈。这个机翼宽大通透，向各个方向开敞。它们的形态与组织都是依据内部功能来设计的。机翼部分为3个不平衡的平面，使内外景观在不断变化中形成空间的延续性，并且联系了建筑内的视觉焦点和室外的展览区。 新航空展示公园的设计连接了博物馆的8栋建筑和户外展览区，并与历史体验建立联系。从前的视觉轴线与通道得到尊重，旧的道路得到了完善，朝向飞机场和跑道的空间被限定出来。每栋建筑展示了一个主题或是一段飞行史。建筑周围伸展出巨大的平台，为特殊主题的室外展览提供了空间。博物馆容纳了超过150架飞机、引擎、飞行复制品、成套的技术档案和历史图片。这里的特色收藏是飞机起源开始的各种飞行器，如Jatho1903、Grade1909、莱特兄弟1909年的飞机模型和1911年的鸽式单翼机。 The first passage: Museum for aviation and aviation exhibition park Bartiomiej Kislelewski The idea of flying, the spirit of place, the structure of the historic airfield – the new Museum of Aviation in Krakow takes up these references intellectually and synthesizes them into a building. The old hangars of the former airport Rakowice Czyzyny set the modular scale for the footprint and the height of the new building. Developed from this basic shape, as if cut out and folded like a paper airplane, a large structure has been generated, with triangular wings made of concrete and yet as light as a wind-vane propeller. The wings are generously glazed and open in all directions. Their form and arrangement depend on the interior uses. In the floor plans of the wings, the three offset
合理避税文献综述 国外研究现状 合理避税是随着税务咨询业得发展而逐步形成的，而意大利的税务咨询业可谓是世界上形成最早的国家，19世纪中叶意大利的税务咨询业务范围就已经包括了“合理避税”，这可以说是合理避税行为的起源。 “合理避税”可以说是很早就存在的，但是“合理避税”为社会关注和被法律认可，从时间上可以追溯到20世纪30年代。其中最为典型的要算是30年代英国一则判例。1935年，英国上议院议员汤姆林爵士针对“税务局长诉温斯大公”一案，对当事人依据法律达到少缴税款作了法律上的认可，他说：“任何个人都有权安排自己的事业，依据法律这样做可以少缴税。为了保证从这些安排中得到利益……不能强迫他多缴税。”汤姆林爵士的观点赢得了法律界认同，这是第一次对合理避税作了法律上认可。1959年，从事税务咨询的专业团体在巴黎成立了欧洲税务联合会，联合会明确提出了税务专家开展包括合理避税在内的税务咨询活动，同时代理纳税人填制纳税申请表、财务文件等事项。这标志着现代意义上合理避税的产生。并逐渐成为了一门专业性很强的学科。尤其是在近三十年来，随着世界经济一体化，跨国公司的数量和规模不断增加，客观上推动了合理避税的理论和实证研究。对合理避税研究的文章、书刊也不断的大量出现，也将合理避税的研究更加的深化。 关于合理避税的研究成果也很多，Sale J.Tmothy和Carrollkaren.B.于1979年《Management Accounting》上发表了题为“Tax Planning Tools for The Multinational Corporation”的论文，P.C李尔斯于1979年出版的《信托与纳税筹划》，还有一家很有名气的伍德赫得?费尔勒国际出版公司（在纽约、伦敦、多伦多、悉尼、东京等地设有机构）于1989年出版过题名为《跨国公司的税收筹划》（Tax Planning for Muitinational Comparies）的一本专著。书中提出的论点及合理避税的技术在一些跨国公司中颇有影响。当代著名的经济学家萨缪尔森在其《经济学》中分析美国联邦税制是指出：“比逃税更重要得是合法的规避税负，原因在于议会制定的法规中有‘漏洞’，听任大量的收入不上税或以较低的税率上税”。1英国税务专家S.詹姆斯和C.若布斯在其合著的《谁是经济学》中指出：“会计师们强调避税的合法性，将避税称之为‘纳税筹划’或‘税收减轻’。”2霍瓦斯公司出版的《国际税收（1991）》实际上也是一本税收的国际筹划专著。 通过以上的相关介绍，可以看出西方对于合理避税研究时间较早，研究成果丰富，并且大量的运用于实践，随着世界经济一体化，税收国际化，对于合理避 1保罗.萨缪尔森.经济学（第17版）[M].北京：人民邮电出版社.2004 2西蒙.詹姆斯.税收经济学[M].北京：中国财政经济出版社.2004