《翻译理论与实践》考试理论部分复习提纲
一、翻译定义：
1. 张培基——翻译是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动。？
3. 刘宓庆——翻译的实质是语际的意义转换。？
4. 王克非——翻译是将一种语言文字所蕴含的意思用另一种语言文字表达出来的文化活动。
5. 泰特勒——好的翻译应该是把原作的长处完全地移注到另一种语言，以使译入语所属国家的本地人能明白地领悟、强烈地感受，如同使用原作语言的人所领悟、所感受的一样。？
6. 费道罗夫——翻译就是用一种语言把另一种语言在内容与形式不可分割的统一中所有已表达出来的东西准确而完全地表达出来。？
7. 卡特福德——翻译的定义也可以这样说：把一种语言（Source Language）中的篇章材料用另一种语言（Target Language）中的篇章材料来加以代替。
8.奈达——翻译就是在译入语中再现与原语信息最切近的自然对等物，首先就意义而言，其次就是文体而言。
“Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”---Eugene Nida
纽马克——通常（虽然不能说总是如此），翻译就是把一个文本的意义按作者所想的方式移译入另一种文字（语言）。“Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language.”--- Peter Newmark
10. “Translation is the expression in one language (or target language译入语) of what has been expressed in another language (source language 原语), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences.”--- Dubois
12. 13.Translation or translating is a communicative activity or dynamic process in which the translator makes great effort to thoroughly comprehend a written message or text in the source language and works very hard to achieve an adequate or an almost identical reproduction in the target language version of the written source language message or text.
二、翻译标准
1. 翻译的标准概括为言简意赅的四个字：“忠实（faithfulness）、通顺（smoothness）”。忠实指的是忠实于原文。通顺指的是译文的语言必须合乎规范、通俗易懂。？
2. 严复对翻译曾经提出“信（faithfulness）、达（expressiveness）、雅（elegance）”的标准：“译事三难：信、达、雅。求其信已大难矣，顾信矣不达，虽译犹不译也，则达尚焉。”
3.“泰特勒三原则”：（1）That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work；（2）That the style and manner of writing should be of the
same character with that of the original；（3）That the Translation should have all the ease of original composition.”（1）译作应完全复写出原作的思想；（2）译作的风格和手法应和原作属于同一性质；（3）译作应具备原作所具有的通顺。”？？（谭载喜，2006）泰特勒指出，这三项原则是好的翻译所必备的条件，它们次序的排列是恰当的、自然的，是按重要顺序排列的，如果在不得已的情况下要牺牲某一个原则就要注意到它们的次第和比较上的重要性，决不能颠倒主次，以牺牲思想内容的忠实来求得译文的优美和流畅。
5. 奈达提出了著名的“动态对等”。他对翻译所下的定义: 所谓翻译, 是在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现源语的信息, 首先是意义, 其次是文体。Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. (Nida & Taber,1969:12).
这一定义明确指出翻译的本质和任务是用译语再现源语信息, 翻译的方法用最切近而又最自然的对等语。？
6. 纽马克“文本中心”论：纽马克把要翻译的对象看成文本，并根据语言的功能把文本分为表达型、信息型和召唤型三大类。表达型包括严肃的文学作品、声明和信件等；信息型包括书籍、报告、论文、备忘录等；召唤型包括各种宣传品、说明书和通俗小说等。他认为不同的文本应该用不同的翻译方法（纽马克把翻译方法分为语义翻译和交际翻译两种。前者强调忠实于原作“原作者”；后者强调忠实于译作“读者”）,不同的评价标准，不同的“等效”要求。？
8. 其他翻译标准？
刘重德：信达切
许渊冲：信达优；美化之艺术，创优似竞赛；（三美论：意美、音美、形美；等化、深化、浅化；知之、好之、乐之；发挥译入语优势）
傅雷：重神似不重形似
钱钟书：化境
鲁迅：凡是翻译，必须兼顾两面：一则当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿。
林语堂：音美、意美、神美、气美、形美
郭沫若：好的翻译等于创作
三、翻译过程
理解和表达是翻译的两个主要步骤。译者对原文的正确理解在翻译过程中至关重要；译者的表达须具有准确力和表现力，语言须具有生动性和形式美。
分析原文就是细致处理词位的所指意义和联想意义、研究句法和语篇结构。理解和领会原文是从事无论何种翻译的基本功力。如果译者确实理解了原文的涵义，又能得心应手地驾驭译语，那么翻译就是一个很自然的驾轻就熟的过程。
翻译的过程可以简单分为：理解—表达---校核三个阶段，或理解---表达两个阶段。
四、翻译分类：？
2. 从涉及到的符号来看，翻译可分为语内翻译（intralingual translation）（通过同一语言中的一些语言符号解释另一些符号，如把古汉语译成现代汉语），语际翻译（interlingual
translation）（通过一种语言符号解释另一种语言符号，如把英语译成汉语），符际翻译（intersemiotic translation）（通过非语言的符号系统解释语言符号或用语言符号解释非语言符号，如用手势语解释一则新闻。）
3. 从翻译的手段来看，翻译可分为口译、笔译和机器翻译。
4.从翻译的题材来看明，翻译可分为专业性翻译（翻译法律、科技文献、专业学术论著等）、文学翻译（翻译小说、诗歌、戏剧等文学作品）和一般性翻译（翻译各种应用文和新闻报道等）。
5. 从翻译方式上来看，翻译可分为全译、摘译和编译。
泰特勒（Tytler,1748-1814）的翻译理论和思想主要见于《论翻译的原则》一书。该书是西方翻译理论的第一部专著，在书中，泰特勒提出了著名的翻译三原则：1、译文应完整地再现原文的思想内容(That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.)；2、译文的风格、笔调应与原文的性质相同(That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.)；3、译文影响原文一样流畅(That the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.)。
八、常用翻译方法、策略与技巧
1. 直译与意译（Literal translation and Free translation）
英语与汉语的语言结构与文体结构有相同的一面，汉译时可照译，即所谓“直译”——既忠实原文内容，又符合原文的语言与文体结构。由于人们在感情，在对客观事物的感受及社会经历等方面会有相似之处，英汉语言表达中有少量相同或近似的表达方式，这些表达方式的字面意义，形象意义相同或近似，隐含意义相同，也就是说，这些表达方式的字面意义和形象意义所传达出的文化信息是相同的，可以互译。？
“意译”则从意义出发，只要求将原文大意表达出来，不需过分注重细节，但要求译文自然流畅。由于文化因素的影响，在翻译时无法保留原语的字面意义和形象意义，可将原文的形象更换成另一个译文读者所熟悉的形象，从而转达出原文的语用目的，译出隐含意义。英汉两种语言不同的发展历史，民族文化，风俗习惯造成了两个民族独特的语言与独特的表达方式。因此，翻译时必须对两种语言文化基础有基本的认识，不能逐字翻译。凡语言都有习惯表达，言外之意。在深入领会原作的精神实质的前提之下，不拘泥于原作的字面形式，创造性的表达原作思想，但不可添枝加叶，改变原作的风格。
注：在翻译界通用的方法是将“直译”与“意译”相互结合。任何一篇好的翻译作品，并不是单纯的某一种翻译方法贯穿始终，而是在保持原文内容的准确性，不引起歧义的情况下，将这两种翻译方法在同一翻译作品中并用，相得益彰。笔者对翻译界的这种做法完全认同。笔者认为，两种翻译方法在任何一篇翻译作品中都能并用的话，一定可以译出一部优秀的翻译作品。
2. 归化和异化（domestication and foreignization）？
异化和归化是在1995年由美国翻译理论家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）在《译者的隐形》（The Translator’s Invisibility）一书中提出来的。从历史上看，异化和归化可以视为直译和意译的概念延伸，但又不完全等同于直译和意译。直译和意译所关注的核心问题是如
何在语言层面处理形式和意义，而异化和归化则突破了语言因素的局限，将视野扩展到语言、文化和美学等因素。按韦努蒂（Venuti）的说法，归化法是“把原作者带入译入语文化”，而异化法则是“接受外语文本的语言及文化差异，把读者带入外国情景”。（Venuti，1995:20）由此可见，直译和意译主要是局限于语言层面的价值取向，异化和归化则是立足于文化大语境下的价值取向，两者之间的差异是显而易见的，不能混为一谈。
归化（domestication）是指在翻译中采用透明、流畅的风格，最大限度地淡化原文的陌生感的翻译策略（Shuttleworth&Cowie，1997:43-44）。它应尽可能的使源语文本所反映的世界接近目的语文化读者的世界，从而达到源语文化与目的语文化之间的“文化对等”。
异化（foreignization）是指偏离本土主流价值观，保留原文的语言和文化差异（Venuti，2001:240）；或指在一定程度上保留原文的异域性，故意打破目标语言常规的翻译（Shuttleworth&Cowie，1997:59）。它主张在译文中保留源语文化，丰富目的语文化和目的语的语言表达方式。
用通俗的语言概括，即归化法要求译者向译语读者靠拢，采取译语读者习惯的译语表达方式，来传达原文的内容；异化法则要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者使用的原语表达方式，来传达原文的内容。
注：异化时不妨碍译文的通顺易懂，归化时不失去原文的味道，同时，我们应坚持对语言形式采取归化的策略，而对其文化因素进行异化处理。这样，译文作品可兼两策略之长而避其短，使两者有共同发展的空间。由此，在实际翻译过程中归化与异化应该是相辅相成，并有互补的辩证统一关系。
翻译理论知识概要
第一部分：翻译术语
1. Definitions of translation
Translation can be roughly defined as a reproduction or recreation in one language of what is written or said in another language.Being a very
complicated human activity, its whole picture is never easy to describe. Scholars with different academic backgrounds have attempted to define it from various perspectives.
(1). Linguistic Views on Translation
Translation theorists from the linguistic school conceive of translation as a linguistic activity and some believe that translation theory is a branch of linguistics,
approaching the issues of translating primarily from the viewpoint of the linguistic differences between source and target texts.
Translation may be defined as the replacement of textual material in one language (the source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (the target language). (Catford, 1965: 20).
Translation theory derives from comparative linguistics, and within linguistics, it is mainly an aspect of semantics; all questions of semantics relate to translation theory. (Newmark, 1982 /1988:5).
(2). Cultural Views on Translation
In the cultural approach, translation is regarded not only as a transfer of linguistic signs, but also as a communication of cultures, i.e. translation is an "intercultural communication"; hence the terms of "intercultural cooperation", "acculturation", and "transculturation".
翻译不仅涉及语言问题,也涉及文化问题。译者不仅要了解外国的文化, 还要深入了解自己民族的文化。不仅如此, 还要不断地把两种文化加以比较, 因为真正的对等应该是在各自文化中的含义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等等都是相当的。翻译者必须是一个真正意义的文化人。人们会说：他必须掌握两种语言; 确实如此, 但是不了解语言当中的社会文化, 谁也无法真正掌握语言(王佐良,1989)。
(4). Semantic Views on Translation
This view focuses on the semantic equivalence between the two languages,as well expressed by Eugene Nida(1986):"Translating means translating meaning".
Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text (Newmark,1988:5).
Semantic translation: the translator attempts,within the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the target language,to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author (Newmark,1982:22).
In semantic translation, greater attention is paid to rendering the author's original thought-processes in target language than to attempting to re-interpret source text in a way which the translator considers more appropriate for the target setting (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:151).
(5).Functional Views on Translation
Functionalists believe that translation is a specific form of human action with a certain purpose, a kind of linguistic service provided to the society.Translators should take into account the needs of the client, the reader as well as the purpose or use of the translation:
It is not the source text, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, but the prospective function or purpose of the target text as determined by the initiator's, i.e.client's needs (Baker,2001:236).
(6).Communicative Views on Translation
This approach views translation as a communicative process which takes place within a social context.
Communicative translation:the translator attempts to produce the same effect on the target language readers as was produced by the original on the source language readers (Newmark, 1982:22).
Communicative translation is generally oriented towards the needs of the target language reader or recipient. A translator who is translating communicatively will treat source text as a message rather than a mere string of linguistic units,and will be concerned to preserve source text's original function and to reproduce its effect on the new audience (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:21).
The above views help us to understand the complex nature of translation. Since there are many factors which affect the translation process, translation is a complicated human activity.
2. Translation Criteria Put Forward by Famous Translators or
Translation Theorists
Some well-known translators or translation theorists at home and abroad have put forward criteria to judge the quality of a translation.
(1).严复(1853-1921):Triple Principle of Translation
信(faithfulness): 忠实准确
达(expressiveness}: 通顺流畅
雅(elegance): 文字古雅
Yan Fu put forward this "Three-character Guide” in his preface to the translation of T.H. Huxley's book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays (《天演论》译例言1898): 译事三难信达雅。求其信己大难矣。顾信矣不达。虽译犹不译也。则达尚焉...... 易曰修辞立诚。子曰辞达而已。又曰言之无文，行之不远。三者乃文章正轨。亦即为译事楷模。故信达而外，求其尔雅。此不仅期以行远已耳。实则精理微言。用汉以前字法句法，则为达易。用近世利俗文字，则求达难。往往抑义就词，毫厘千里。审择于斯二者之间，夫固有所不得已也。岂钓奇哉。......
Translation has to do three difficult things: to be faithful, expressive, and elegant.It is difficult enough to be faithful to the original, and yet if a translation is
not expressive, it is tantamount to having no translation. Hence expressiveness should be required too.……
The Book of Changes says that the first requisite of rhetoric is truthfulness. Confucius says that expressiveness is all that matters in language. He adds that if one's language lacks grace, it won't go far. These three qualities, then, are the criteria of good writing and, I believe, of good translation too. Hence besides faithfulness and expressiveness, I also aim at elegance. I strive for elegance not just to make my translations travel far, but to express the original writer's ideas better, for I find that subtle thoughts are better expressed in the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose than those of the vulgar writings of today. Using the latter often leads to distortion of meaning, which, however slight, results in vast misunderstanding. Weighing the pros and cons, I opted for the former, as a matter of necessity, not trying to be different ……
Yan Fu’s first two criteria of being faithful to the original text in content and being expressive in translation are generally acceptable, but his interpretation of "elegance" has aroused plenty of criticism because, in his opinion, one has to resort to the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose to achieve "elegance". Yan Fu's criteria are also controversial for his emphasis on the equal status of the three conflicing principles. Despite
this, Yan’s criteria are still popular in China, but the interpretation of his criteria has changed. Nowadays to many translators, "elegance" implies "the safe and sound preservation of the taste and shade of the original”(黄龙, 1988:90) or "运用读者所最乐于接受的文体, 使译文得以广泛流传，扩大影响"(劳陇，《翻译通讯》1983年第10期).
(2). 鲁迅信（faithfulness) 顺
（smoothness) ？
(3). 林语堂忠实{faithfulness) 通顺(smoothness) 美(beautifulness)？
翻译的标准问题，大概包括三方面。我们可依三方面的次序讨论。第一是忠实标准，第二是通顺标准，第三是美的标准。这翻译的三层标准，与严氏的"译事三难"，大体上是正相比符的。
(4). 傅雷:神似(resemblance in spirit)？
以效果而论，(文学)翻译应当像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似。(《高老头》重译本序，1951)
(5). 钱钟书：化境(reaching the acme of perfection)？
文学翻译的最高境界是"化"，把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原有的风昧，那就算得入于"化境"。十七世纪有人赞美这种造诣的翻译，比为原作的"投胎转世"(the transmigration of soul), 躯壳换了一个，而精神姿致依然故我。换句话说，译本对原作应该忠实得以至于读起来不像译本，因为作品在原文里绝不会读起来像经过翻译似的。(《林纾的翻译》，1964)
(6). 刘重德：信（faithhlness）？
达（expressiveness）
切（closeness)
信于内容(to be faithful to the content of the original);
达如其分(to be as expressive as the original);
切合风格(to be as close to the original style as possible).
(《浑金璞玉集》，1994: 9)
(8). Alexander Fraser TytIer (泰特勒): Three Principles of Translation
Alexander F.Tytler, a famous British translation theorist, put forward the classical criteria in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790):
1) The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the
original work (译作应该完全传达原作的思想)；
2) The style and manner of writing in the translation should be of the
same character with that of the original (译作的风格与笔调应当与原作保持一致)；
3) The translation should have all the ease of the original composition (译作应当和原作一样流畅).
Tytler further points out that the above-said three principles are arranged and ranked according to the order of their significance, and that, when they are not simultaneously attainable, the first should be held to at the sacrifice of the third principle, then the second .
(9). Eugene A. Nida (奈达): Functional Equivalence (功能对等) ？
Eugene A.Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward his recent interpretation of functional equivalence in his Language and Culture: Context in Translating(2001:87):
1) A minimal, realistic definition of functional equivalence:The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (最低限度而又切合实际的功能对等定义：译文读者对译文的理解应当达到能够想像出原文读者是怎样理解和领会原文的程度).
2) A maximal, ideal definition of functional equivalence: The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did. (最高限度合乎理想的功能对等定义：译文读者应当能够基本上按照原文读者理解和领会原文的方式来理解和领会译文).
3. Classification of translation
(1). Jakobson (1896-1982)
1) Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means
of other signs of the same language.
2) Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by
means of some other language.
3) Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by
means of signs of nonverbal sign systems.
e.g.
1) 原文：子曰：“学而时习之，不亦乐乎!有朋友自远方来，不亦乐乎!人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎!”
译文一:孔子说:“学习了而时常温习，不也高兴吗！有朋友从远方来，不也快乐吗!别人不了解我，我并不怨恨，不也是君子吗？”(徐志刚译)
译文二: The Master said，"To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt，Is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, Is this not after all delightful? To remain unsoured even though one’s merits are unrecognized by others, Is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman? (Waley 译)
[点评]原文同译文一之间的转换属于语内翻译(intralingual translation), 即用同一语盲的其他语言符号对原文迸行阐释或者重述(rewording)。原文同译文二之间的转换属于语际翻译(interlingual translation)，即两个不同语言之间所进行的转换。
2) 原文：A: What does your watch say?
B: It says “five past three”.
[点评]在这一对话中，B实际上是在迸行一种翻译，这种翻译叫做符际翻译(intersemiotic translation)，即语言同非语言符号之间的代码转换。当A询问B几点钟的时候，B只能看钟或者看手表，而钟或者手表并不能说话，B只能根据钟表的时针和分针来确定具体儿点钟了。而B所言实际上是言语传达一个非言语信息(non-linguistic message)。将非言语信息用言语传达出来是翻译的一种方式，这不是从一种语言到另一种语言的转换过程，而是从非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的过程。非语言交际系统和语言交际系统的共同特征是两者都属于"符号系统"(即用于交际的系统)。雅可布逊Jakobson)将这种由非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的转换过程称为符际翻译是恰当的。其实，我们每个人每一天、每一刻都在迸行着符际翻译而不自知也。从这个意义上说，我们每个人都是某种意义上的译者(Hervey et.al 1995:8-9).
(2). Peter Newmark (纽马克): Communicative and Semantic Translation (交际翻译与语义翻译)？
Peter Newmark, a famous British translation theorist, put forward his concepts of communicative and semantic translation in his Approaches to Translation (1982/1988:39):
1) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as
possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. (交际翻译力图对译作读者产生尽可能接近原作读者所获得的效果).
2) Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic
structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. (语义翻译力图在译作语言的语义结构和句法结构允许的情况下，译出原作在上下文中的准确意义).
4. Nature and Scope of Translation
What is translation? Some people believe it is a science, others take it as an art, and yet many consider it a craft, or rather, a skill.
Of these varied opinions, which one holds true for our purpose? The answer depends on how we understand or interpret the word "translation", for the very word "translation" itself is ambiguous, and the Chinese equivalent "'fanyi" sounds even fuzzier. Fanyi, in Chinese, may either stand for a subject of the curriculum, a job people engage in, a piece of literary work, or the translating or interpreting work itself. Sometimes, "fanyi" may even refer to the translator or interpreter himself/herself.
If the word "translation" refers to a subject, namely, the study of translation theory and skills, it is no doubt a science, just as any subject is, with its own rules, laws and principles for the translators to abide by; however, if it refers to some specific pieces of translation, then it is more like an art, with each piece manifesting its own charms and style in the creative hands of the translator; whereas, if it refers to a process, in which something is translated, then we may regard it as a craft or skill. For unlike any branch of natural science, the process of translation has its peculiarity, and none of its rules and principles are universally applicable. Besides, it entails a lot of practice—particular craftsmanship and skills are displayed by the touches of different translators.
Translation covers a very broad range. In terms of languages, it can be divided into two categories: from native languages into foreign languages and vice versa; in terms of the mode, it can be divided into oral interpretation, written translation and machine translation; in terms of materials to be translated, there is translation of scientific materials, translation of literary works such as novels, stories, prose, poetry, drama, etc. , translation of political essays such as treatises on social problems, reports, speeches, etc. , and translation of practical writing (as official documents, contracts and agreements, notices , receipts, etc.); in terms of disposal, it can be either full-text translation（全文翻译）, abridged translation（摘译）or adapted translation（编译）.
5. Principles or Criteria of Translation
The so-called principles and criteria of translation are actually the two sides of the same thing. The former lays emphasis on the translator, who should follow them while translating; while the latter on the reader or critic, who may use the criteria to evaluate translation works. Whenever principles or criteria of translation are under discussion in China, Yan Fu’s "three-character guide", which was first proposed in 1898, would evoke controversy, namely, the principle of "信、达、雅"(faithfulness expressiveness and elegance ).
In the past decades Mr. Yan's principle of translation has been generally regarded as a plumb-line for measuring the professional level of translation and a goal for translators to strive after. However, in the application of this principle, people have come to find some limitations to the three characters and put forward a variety of new standards instead.
Three kinds of opinions are expressed on the principle of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The first group maintains the original three characters, and in the meantime, adds some new concepts to the character "雅". According to them, "雅" means far more than the English word "elegance". Apart from the traditional interpretation, it also means classicism, the adherence to the original style and flavor. The second group, however, argues that the word "雅" is out of place in translation. While adopting the first two characters of Mr. Yan Fu's principle, it discards the character "雅" and tries to find some other new criteria instead. Noticeably, there are revisions such as "信、达、切" (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness), "信、达、贴" (faithfulness, expressiveness and fitness), and so on. The third group of people, by casting away the three-word guide, propose some new principles or criteria of translation of their own. Of the various popular theories two of them are most influential: spiritual conformity (神似) and sublimated adaptation(化境). The former, proposed by Fu Lei emphasizes the reproduction of the spirit or the flavor of the original, while the latter, advocated by Qian Zhongshu, focuses on the translator's smooth and idiomatic Chinese version for the sake of the Chinese reader.
Despite the variety of opinions, two criteria are almost unanimously accepted, namely, the criterion of faithfulness/accuracy（忠实、准确) and that of smoothness (流畅). We may also take these two criteria as the principles of translation in general.By faithfulness/ accuracy, we mean to be faithful not only to the original contents, to the original meaning and views, but also to the original form and style. By smoothness, we mean not only easy and readable rendering, but also idiomatic expression in the target language, free from stiff formula and mechanical copying from dictionaries.
6. Literal Translation and Free Translation
The process of translation consists of two phases: comprehension and expression. Generally speaking, comprehension is of foremost importance, and expression is the natural consequence of thorough comprehension.However, in the practice of translation we may find that now and then some words in their usual senses are very
difficult to deal with because of the disparity between the English and the Chinese languages. In this case, we have to resort to some special means of translation. Literal translation and free translation are two useful approaches in dealing with such awkward situations.
The so-called literal translation,superficially speaking, means "not to alter the original words and sentences"; strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original".It takes sentences as its basic units and takes the whole text (discourse) into consideration at the same time in the course of translation. Furthermore, it strives to reproduce both the ideological content and the style of the original works and retains as much as possible the figures of speech. There are quite a lot of examples of successful literal translation that have been adopted as idiomatic Chinese expressions. For example, crocodile's tears,armed to the teeth, chain reaction, gentlemen's agreement, and so on. Similarly, some Chinese idioms also find their English counterparts through literal translation. For example, 纸老虎(paper tiger), 一国两制(one country, two systems ), and so on.
Free translation is an alternative approach which is used mainly to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns or figures of speech. This approach is most frequently adopted when it is really impossible for the translator to do literal translation. For example:
·Adam's apple 喉结
·at sixes and sevens 乱七八糟
·It rains cats and dogs. 大雨滂沱
·Don't cross the bridge till you get to it. 不必担心过早。(不必自寻烦恼)
·Do you see any green in my eye? 你以为我是幼稚可欺的吗?
The above illustrations can not be translated literally，otherwise，the Chinese rendition would make nonsense at all，let alone the original meaning.
Literal translation and free translation, however, are relative concepts. In other words, there is no absolute “literal”，nor entirely "free" version in the practice of translation, and overemphasizing either of them would result in ridiculous consequences. Let's scrutinize the following two practical cases.
Original English 1
I love tiger cat, … British movies on public television，fluffy blouses, the nuclear family, (Helen Snow，My China Years)
Chinese Version A:
我爱虎猫, …… (爱)电视上放映的英国影片，有绒毛的短衫，核心家庭，……Chinese Version B:
我喜欢豹猫, …… 喜欢公共电视台播放的英国电影，喜欢蓬松、柔软的棉毛衫，喜欢一夫一妻制的家庭，……
Comment:
Apparently, these two Chinese versions are far from being perfect. Other things aside, the rendering of the phrase nuclear family poses a serious problem of representation. Version A renders "the nuclear family" as "核心家庭" by means of literal translation. However, this version is too stiff, therefore it fails to convey the original meaning to the Chinese reader—for most Chinese, they have hardly any idea what "核心家庭" really means. Version B adopts the approach of free translation and puts it into "一夫一妻制"；evidently it goes too far and distorts the author's original intention, and in doing so, the translator abuses the practice of free translation. In fact, the nuclear family has nothing to do with either of the versions. A close examination of its definition in an English-English dictionary sheds light on this phrase: nuclear family, a family group that consists only of father, mother and children. Therefore, the proper rendering of the phrase should be words to this effect: a cozy small family, namely, the Chinese equivalent "小家庭".
Original English 2 :
Mao Tse-tung was well bred, but inside he was made of steel, of hard resistance, of tough tissue—the kind of tissue the Boxers thought they had by magic, and bared their solar plexuses to foreign bullets.(ibid. )
Chinese Version A:
毛泽东有很好的教养，内部是钢，有坚强的抗力，是坚韧的材料制成的。这是义和团设想的由于神力具有的，可以把腹部袒胸给外国人的子弹的那种材料。Chinese Version B:
毛泽东教养有素，精神支柱铁铸钢打，不怕高压，是由坚韧的组织构成的。这种组织，就是义和拳认为他们通过魔法得到的那种组织袒胸露体，刀枪不入。
Comment:
The word "tissue" can hardly be rendered into Chinese either in literal translation or free translation，nor could the metaphor "inside he was made of steel" be properly rendered without grasping the essence of the whole sentence. However，since there is no corresponding expressions in Chinese, the translators tackle them according to their own understanding. Inversion A，"tissue" is freely rendered as "材料" (material)，while version B literally as"组织"(organic tissue)—both fail to convey the original meaning and attitude of the writer. By adopting translation skills such as amplification, omission，conversion and restructuring，we may translate the original English sentence as follows:
Revised Version:
毛泽东外表温文尔雅，但内心深处却钢铸铁打，既坚韧，又抗压—在他的身上可以看到当年义和团自信所具有的那种神力，面对洋枪洋炮也敢袒胸露怀。
From the above analysis, we come to the conclusion that there is no obvious distinction between literal translation and free translation, nor is it necessary to distinguish one from the other. The key point for a translator to grasp is to comprehend the original thoroughly, and then put it into idiomatic Chinese. In the process of translation, specific approaches such as literal or free translation may be of some help, but we should avoid the two extremes. In the application of literal translation, we should endeavor to rid ourselves of stiff patterns and rigid adherence to translation rules, trying to be flexible; while in the practice of free translation, we should be cautious of subjectivity, avoiding groundless affirmation or arbitrary fabrication. Whatever the circumstances, we may alternate or combine these two approaches when it is necessary.
7. Omission ？
Omission is a technique opposite to amplification. True, a translator has no right to subtract any meaning from the original work. But it does not follow that he should refrain from omitting any words at all in translation. In fact, one of the marked differences in syntax between English and Chinese is the disparity in wording. What is regarded as a natural or indispensable element in one language may be regarded as superfluous or even "a stumbling block" in the other. Take the following English sentence and its Chinese version for example:
Original English: The time-keeping devices of electronic watches are much more accurate than those of mechanical ones.
Chinese Version: 电子表比机械表准确得多。
A comparison between the Chinese version with the English original shows that many of the "redundant" English words have been omitted in the Chinese translation, otherwise, the Chinese sentence would sound wordy and unnatural. Therefore, a manipulation of the technique "omission" is always called for in English-Chinese translation. On the other hand, some Chinese sentences, when translated into English, also need to be rid of redundant wording so as to conform to idiomatic English expressions.
8. Conversion ？
Conversion, one of the commonly adopted translation techniques, means the change of parts of speech in translation. Owing to the syntactical differences between English and Chinese, it is usually impossible for a translator to keep to the original part of speech in the process of translation. For example:
Original English: This watch never varies more than a second in a month.
Chinese Version: 这块表一个月的误差从不超过一秒钟。
The English verb "varied" can hardly be rendered into Chinese by the same part of speech without spoiling the original meaning. As a matter of fact, a word belonging to a certain part of speech in one language sometimes has to be converted into a different part of speech, so as to bring forth a readable and coherent sentence.
9. Restructuring
Restructuring, as one of the translation techniques, means the necessary or inevitable change of word order in a sentence according to the usage of the language to be translated into. It is also called rearrangement or inversion.
10. Hypotactic vs. Paratactic (形合与意合)
Hypotaxis (形合法) is the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don't come. English sentence building is featured by hypotaxis.
Parataxis(意合法)is the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives Showing the relation between them, for example, The rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. Chinese sentence building is featured by parataxis.
11. Foreignizing Translation and Domesticating Translation
(1). Foreignizing Translation
Foreignizing translation lays great emphasis on retaining the cultural flavors of the source language and enables the reader to have an alien reading experience, thus developing the reader's awareness of cultural differences. To promote cultural exchange and mutual understanding between peoples of different languages and cultures, foreignizing translation is a far better choice than domesticating translation. In this way we can better understand the source-language culture and enrich Chinese modes of expression. The weakness of foreignization is that the culture-specific expressions thus translated may not be familiar to our readers or smooth enough for us to read with ease. In this case, a semantic translation or an explanatory note may be added. However, what is unfamiliar at present may gradually become familiar as more and more intercultural communications take place, or as people read more and more such translated expressions. Here we are reminded of a much quoted saying by Lu Xun:
翻译必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也不会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌合神离，从严辨别起来，它算不得翻译。凡是翻译，必须兼顾着两面，一当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿，但这保存，却又常常和易懂相矛盾：看不惯了。不过它原是洋鬼子，当然谁也看不惯，为比较的顺眼起见，只能改换它的衣裳，却不该削低它的鼻子，剜掉它的眼睛。（《鲁迅全集》第6卷，348页）
and also a quotation from Mao Zedong:
要从外国语言中吸收我们所需要的成分。我们不是硬搬或滥用外国语言，是要吸收外国语言中的好东西，于我们适用的东西。因为中国原有语汇不够用，现在我们的语汇中就有很多是从外国吸收来的。例如今天开的干部大会，这“干部”两个字，就是从外国学来的。我们还要多多吸收外国的新鲜东西，不但要吸收他们的进步道理，而且要吸收他们的新鲜用语。（《反对党八股》）
It should be noted that skilful foreignizing translation, which may involve the techniques of necessary addition or omission, does not mean word-for-word or mechanical translation which disregards the original implication, the constraints of Chinese usage (linguistic and cultural), and the acceptability of our readers.
Examples:
1). arm to the teeth
武装到牙齿(cf. 全副武装)
2). crocodile tears
鳄鱼的眼泪(cf. 猫哭老鼠假慈悲)
3). Beauty lies in the lover's eyes.
情人眼里出美人(cf. 情人眼里出西施)
4). In the country of the blind, the one-eyed man is King.
盲人国里，独眼人称王(cf. 蜀中无大将，廖化作先锋)
5). as gay (cheerful) as a lark
像云雀那样快活(cf.兴高采烈)
e.g. Ha, ha! We should be as gay as larks, Mr. Richard — why not? (C. Dickens:
The Old Curiosity Shop)
6)．Sour grapes
酸葡萄(cf.把得不到的东西说成是不好的)
e.g. But because we cannot satisfy the desires of our hearts - why should we cry
"sour grapes" at them? (H. Wells: Christina Alberta's Father)
7). Pandora's box
潘多拉的盒子(cf. 灾难和罪恶的来源)
8). Judas kiss
犹大之吻(cf.虚伪的好意)
9). teach a pig to play on a flute
教猪吹笛(cf. 对牛弹琴)
10). flog a dead horse 鞭打死马(cf.做无用功；白费口舌)
11). a dark horse 黑马(cf. 出人意料的获胜者)
12). as easy as ABC 像ABC 字母一样简单(cf. 非常容易)
13). ivory tower 象牙塔(cf. 人们避免现实生活中烦恼的小天地)
14). Beauty is but skin-deep.
(谚语) 美貌只是一层皮(cf. 不可以貌取人)
15). Can the leopard change his spots?
(谚语)美洲豹岂能改变身上的花纹(cf. 本性难移)
16). Trojan horse
(谚语) 特洛伊木马(cf. 诡计；隐患；从内部进行颠覆破坏的人)
17). Never offer to teach fish to swim.
(谚语) 不要教鱼游泳(cf. 不要班门弄斧)
18). look for a needle in a haystack
在草堆里找针(cf. 海底捞针)
19). a stick-and-carrot policy
大棒加胡萝卜政策(cf.软硬兼施；恩威并用)
20). domino effect
多米诺骨牌效应(cf.连锁反应)
21). John is her office Romeo.
约翰是她办公室里的罗迷欧(cf. 办公室里的男情人)
22). sandwich man
三明治式广告宣传员(cf. 身前身后挂着标语牌的广告宣传员)
In foreignizing translation, a paraphrase or an explanation, if necessary, may be added to the unfamiliar expression or a footnote may be placed at the end of the translation, so as to make the English culture-loaded expression comprehensible to our readers:
e.g. It was another one of those Catch-22 situations, you're damned if you do and you're damned if you don't.
这真是又一个如同军规第二十二条的尴尬局面：做也倒霉，不做也倒霉，令人左右为难。
注:：Catch-22 situation 源自美国小说家Joseph Heller 于1961 年出版的小说《第二十二条军规》（Catch-22)。该条军规规定：飞行员如果觉得自己神经不正常，可以获准不执行飞行任务，但必须提出申请并得到批准。但同时该军规又规定：如果飞行员因此提出申请，则充分证明该飞行员能意识到面临着无法克服的困难，头脑清醒，神经正常，因此不得豁免飞行任务。这是一条自相矛盾、无法执行的规定。
(2). Domesticating Translation
Domesticating translation minimizes the foreignness of the source-language text by changing heterogeneous elements into what is familiar to the target-language reader. This method of "substitution" means replacing the English culture-loaded expression by its Chinese equivalent, which may be similar in form and same in meaning (形似意同) or different in form but same in meaning (形异意同), to minimize the strangeness of the English expression by adopting a fluent, natural-sounding Chinese style for our readers' preferences. Domestication is usually employed when the translator believes that the original cultural flavor is widely different from Chinese culture and therefore too difficult for our readers to understand.
翻译理论知识 一、翻译的定义 学习一门新的学科，首先必须有一个科学的定义。翻译是一个包罗万象、博大精深的技艺，至今也没有一个统一规范、举世公认的定义。我们只能综合各种不同的定义来掌握翻译的本质。 1. The Definition of The Oxford English Dictionary To turn from one language into another. 2. The Definition of Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language To turn into one’s own or another language. 3. A good translation is one which the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language as to be as distinctly apprehended and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs as it is by those who speak the language of the original work.好的翻译应该是把原作的长处完全地移注到另一种语言，以使译人语所属国家的本地人能明白地领悟、强烈地感受，如同使用原作语言的人所领悟、所感受的一样。（泰特勒，1790） 4. Translation consists in reproducing in receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language , first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.翻译就是在译入语中再现与原语的信息最切近的自然对等物，首先是就意义而言，其次是就文体而言。 （奈达，1974） 5. 翻译是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动。（张培基，1980） 6. 翻译是把一种语言表达的意义用另一种语言传达出来，以达到沟通思想感情、传播文化知、促进社会文 明，特别是推动译语文化兴旺昌盛的目的。（孙致礼：2003） 7. 翻译是将一种语言文字所蕴含的意思用另一种语言文字表达出来的文化活动。 （王克非，1997） 二、翻译的分类 翻译分不同的类型。就文本而言，随着世界发展的全球化趋势，翻译的范围越来越广，涵盖各个领域，如文学、政治、文化、贸易、科技、传媒等。在这个意义上，翻译可分为文学翻译、科技翻译和实用文体翻译。 1.按语言分类：本族语译成外语、外语译成本族语/ 语内翻译（intralingual translation）、语际翻译（interlingual translation） 2.按活动形式分类：笔译（translation）、口译（oral interpretation） 3按翻译材料的文体分类：应用文体翻译、科技文体翻译、文学作品翻译、政论作品翻译 4按处理方式分类：全译、节译、摘译、编译、译述 三、翻译的标准 翻译标准就是指翻译实践时译者所遵循的原则，也是翻译批评家批评译文时必须遵循的原则。翻译是一种社会活动，翻译标准则是从中产生的。由于社会活动受制于社会条件及译者个人等等因素，因此翻译标准也就打上了深深的社会和译者的烙印。 在我国持这一翻译原则的有玄奘、严复和鲁迅等人。玄奘是唐代著名的佛经翻译家，主张翻译"既须求真又须喻俗"(A good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public.)，意即译文要"忠实通顺"。严复是我国清末时期的名学者。他在《天演论》(译例言)(1898)中提出了"信达雅"三字标准(faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)。"信"是"意义不背本文"，"达"是不拘原文形式，尽译文语音的能事以求原意明显。"信"、"达"互为照应，不可分割开来。"雅"在今天看来是不可取的，因为这个"雅"是用汉以前字法句法，即所谓的上等文言文。鲁迅先生认为："凡是翻译，必须兼顾两面，一当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿。"这就是说，译文既要信又要顺(both faithful to the SL and smooth in expression)。我国当代翻译理论家张培基等人在其《英汉翻译教程》中所提出的"忠实"、"通顺"标准也属此类型。从
《翻译理论与实践》考试理论部分复习提纲 一、翻译定义: 1、张培基——翻译就是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动。 3、刘宓庆——翻译的实质就是语际的意义转换。 4、王克非——翻译就是将一种语言文字所蕴含的意思用另一种语言文字表达出来的文化活动。 5、泰特勒——好的翻译应该就是把原作的长处完全地移注到另一种语言,以使译入语所属国家的本地人能明白地领悟、强烈地感受,如同使用原作语言的人所领悟、所感受的一样。 6、费道罗夫——翻译就就是用一种语言把另一种语言在内容与形式不可分割的统一中所业已表达出来的东西准确而完全地表达出来。 7、卡特福德——翻译的定义也可以这样说:把一种语言(Source Language)中的篇章材料用另一种语言(Target Language)中的篇章材料来加以代替。 8、奈达——翻译就就是在译入语中再现与原语信息最切近的自然对等物,首先就意义而言,其次就就是文体而言。 “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style、”---Eugene Nida 纽马克——通常(虽然不能说总就是如此),翻译就就是把一个文本的意义按作者所想的方式移译入另一种文字(语言)。“Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language、”--- Peter Newmark 10、“Translation is the expression in one language (or target language译入语) of what has been expressed in another language (source language 原语), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences、”--- Dubois 12、13、Translation or translating is a communicative activity or dynamic process in which the translator makes great effort to thoroughly comprehend a written message or text in the source language and works very hard to achieve an adequate or an almost identical reproduction in the target language version of the written source language message or text、 二、翻译标准 1、翻译的标准概括为言简意赅的四个字:“忠实(faithfulness)、通顺(smoothness)”。忠实指的就是忠实于原文。通顺指的就是译文的语言必须合乎规范、通俗易懂。 2、严复对翻译曾经提出“信(faithfulness)、达(expressiveness)、雅(elegance)”的标准:“译事三难:信、达、雅。求其信已大难矣,顾信矣不达,虽译犹不译也,则达尚焉。” 3、“泰特勒三原则”:(1)That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work;(2)That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original;(3)That the Translation should have all the ease of original composition、”(1)译作应完全复写出原作的思想;(2)译作的风格与手法应与原作属于同一性质;(3)译作应具备原作所具有的通顺。”(谭载喜,2006)泰特勒指出,这三项原则就是好的翻译所必备的条件,它们次序的排列就是恰当的、自然的,就是按重要顺序排列的,如果在不得已的情况下要牺牲某一个原则就要注意到它们的次第与比较上的重要性,决不能颠倒主次,以牺牲思想内容的忠实来求得译文的优美与流畅。 5、奈达提出了著名的“动态对等”。她对翻译所下的定义: 所谓翻译, 就是在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现源语的信息, 首先就是意义, 其次就是文体。
翻译概述（1） 一、学科特点 翻译是一种跨越时空的语言活动，是"把一种语言已经表达出来的东西用另一种语言准确而完整地重新表达出来"(范存忠："漫谈翻译"《翻译理论与技巧》中国对外翻译出版公司，1985，p.80), 是"从语义到文体在译入语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现原语的信息"（谭载喜：《奈达论翻译》中国对外翻译出版公司，1984，p.10）。翻译虽为个体所承作，却是一种社会活动，一门综合性很强的学科。它既有很强的理论性又有丰富的实践内涵。就前者而言，翻译经过千百年来各国翻译家的共同努力，已经在语言学、文学、文化、心理学、人类学、哲学和教育学等学科的基础上初步建立了一套理论体系，并在具体实践中总结出了一套行之有效的跨文化和语言转换模式。随着科学的日益进步，这种体系和模式正处在不断地完善之中。就后者而言，翻译是人类社会活动的产物，具有很强的实践性。翻译理论与实践的关系是辨证的；翻译理论产生于翻译实践，反过来又指导实践，实践转过来又丰富翻译理论。可以说，没有社会实践就不会有翻译理论的产生；没有翻译理论作为指导，翻译实践就会难免走弯路。因此，学好翻译既要重视翻译理论的学习，又要加强翻译实践；理论联系实际，这是我们学好翻译的必由之路。 二、为什么可能有翻译 翻译是人类社会发展和进步的需要，因为人类社会要发展进步就需要在不同文化的民族之间进行沟通，而这一全过程都离不开翻译。正如Steiner和张培基所说的那样：Translating it is that openeth the window, to let in the light; that breaketh the shell, that we may eat the kernel. (Steiner) 翻译是沟通各族人民的思想，促进政治、经济、文化、科学、技术交流的重要手段，
第一章翻译理论概述一、Definition of Translation二、中国翻译简史三、中国翻译理论四、翻译的基本原则五、翻译工作者的基本素质一、Definition of TranslationDefinitions given by Chinese scholars：● 翻译是把一种语言文字的意义用另一种语言文字表达出来。（现代汉语词典）●翻译是将一种文字之真义全部移至另一种文字而绝不失其风格和神韵。（吴献书，1949）●翻译是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动。（张培基，1980）●翻译的实质是语际的意义转换。（刘宓庆，1990）●翻译的定义应该是：“将一种语言传达的信息用另一种语言传达出来。” （蔡毅，1995）●翻译是将一种语言所蕴含的意思用另一种语言文字表达出来的文化活动。（王克非，1997）翻译是跨语言、跨文化的交流。（沈苏儒，1998）● 翻译应当把原文的本意，完全正确地介绍给中国读者，使中国读者所得到的概念等于英俄日德法┅┅读者从原文得来的概念。（瞿秋白）Definitions given by Western scholars：● 翻译是翻成本族语言或另一种语言（to turn into one’s own language or another language）美国韦氏新大学词典●好的翻译应该是把原作的长处完全地遗注到另一种语言，以使译入语所属国家的本地人能明白地领悟、强烈地感受，如同使用原作语言的人所领悟、所感受一样。（泰特勒，1790）●翻译就是用一种语言把另一种语言在内容与形式不
可分割的统一中所业已表达出来的东西准确而完全地表达出来。（费道罗夫，1953）● According to Catford transl ation is “ the replacement of textual material in one language SL by equivalent textual material in another language TL”. （翻译的定义也许可以这样说：把一种语言（SL）中的篇章材料用另一种语言（TL）中的篇章材料来加以代替。）（卡特福德，1965）● ●翻译是把一种语言的言语产物在保持内容方面（也就是意义）不变的情况下改变为另外一种语言的言语产物的过程。（巴尔胡达罗夫，1985中文版）● According to Newmark translation is “ a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language”2001a:7.美国现代翻译家、语言学会主席尤金奈达（EugeneA Nida）1969年所下的定义：Nida in sists “… translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” Nida1969: 53。（翻译就是在译入语中再现与原语的信息最切近的自然对等物，首先是就意义而言，其次是就文体而言）Translation Translation in fact has three distinguishable meanings for this word. It can refer to: 1 translating: the process to translate the activity rather than the tangible object 2 a translation: the
翻译理论知识 内部编号：（YUUT-TBBY-MMUT-URRUY-UOOY-DBUYI-0128）
《翻译理论与实践》考试理论部分复习提纲 一、翻译定义： 1. 张培基——翻译是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动。 3. 刘宓庆——翻译的实质是语际的意义转换。 4. 王克非——翻译是将一种语言文字所蕴含的意思用另一种语言文字表达出来的文化活动。 5. 泰特勒——好的翻译应该是把原作的长处完全地移注到另一种语言，以使译入语所属国家的本地人能明白地领悟、强烈地感受，如同使用原作语言的人所领悟、所感受的一样。 6. 费道罗夫——翻译就是用一种语言把另一种语言在内容与形式不可分割的统一中所有已表达出来的东西准确而完全地表达出来。 7. 卡特福德——翻译的定义也可以这样说：把一种语言（Source Language）中的篇章材料用另一种语言（Target Language）中的篇章材料来加以代替。 8.奈达——翻译就是在译入语中再现与原语信息最切近的自然对等物，首先就意义而言，其次就是文体而言。 “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” ---Eugene Nida
纽马克——通常（虽然不能说总是如此），翻译就是把一个文本的意义按作者所想的方式移译入另一种文字（语言）。“Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language.” --- Peter Newmark 10. “Translation is the expression in one language (or target language译入语) of what has been expressed in another language (source language 原语), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences.” --- Dubois 12. 13.Translation or translating is a communicative activity or dynamic process in which the translator makes great effort to thoroughly comprehend a written message or text in the source language and works very hard to achieve an adequate or an almost identical reproduction in the target language version of the written source language message or text. 二、翻译标准 1. 翻译的标准概括为言简意赅的四个字：“忠实（faithfulness）、通顺（smoothness）”。忠实指的是忠实于原文。通顺指的是译文的语言必须合乎规范、通俗易懂。 2. 严复对翻译曾经提出“信（faithfulness）、达（expressiveness）、雅（elegance）”的标准：“译事三难：信、达、雅。求其信已大难矣，顾信矣不达，虽译犹不译也，则达尚焉。”
翻译基础知识 一、翻译的分类 1.按所涉及的两种代码的性质，可分为语内翻译（intralingual translation）、语际翻译（interlingual translation）、语符翻译（inersemiotic translation）。 2.按翻译主体的性质，可分为人工翻译、机器翻译（Machine Translation）两类。 3.按翻译的工具和成品形式，可分为口译和笔译。 4.按翻译的客体，亦即所译资料的性质，可分为文学翻译（literal translation）和实用翻译（pragmatic translation）。 二、译家译论 1.支谦：在三国时期，支谦的《法句经序》中提出了“因循本旨，不加文饰”的译经原则。 2.道安：晋、前秦时道安在《革卑婆沙序》中提出，“案本而传，不令有损言游字；时改倒句， 余尽实录。”道安涉及译论的佛经序文较多，最有名的是提出“五失本”、“三不易”之说。其意思是，翻译佛经在五种情况下会失去本来面目，有三件事决定了译事是很不容易的，因此必须慎之又慎。 3.彦琮：北朝末年及隋初，彦琮著《辨证论》，它可以看作是我国第一篇翻译专论，他主张译经 “宁贵朴而近理，不用巧而背源”。可见他是坚持忠实第一并倾向于直译的。 4.玄奘：唐代僧人玄奘的指导原则是：“既须求真，又须喻俗”。“求真”即追求准确，要力求“忠 实原作”，这是一切认真负责的翻译工作者的共同理想。同时必须“喻俗”，亦即使群众理解，这就是说要“通顺”。玄奘在译经中成功地运用了补充法、省略法、变位法、分合法、译名假借法、代词还原法等等翻译技巧。 5.马建忠：清末，马建忠在其《马氏文通》中提出“善译”之说：“必先将所译者与所以译者两国之 文字，深嗜笃好，字栉句比，以考彼此文字孳生之源，同异之故。所有当相之实义，委曲推究，务审其声音之高下，析其字句之繁简，尽其文体之变态，及其义理精深奥折之所由然。” 6.林纾：林纾强调在翻译时译者应该投入自己的主观感情，译者须与原作者或作品中人物的心灵 相交流。 7.鲁迅：鲁迅在《且介亭杂文二集》里说：“凡是翻译，必须兼顾着两面，一当然力求其易解，一 则保存着原作得丰姿”。也就是说既要通顺，又要忠实。所谓忠实，是指内容上的“信”；所谓通顺，是指表达上的“顺”。 8.茅盾：文学翻译的目标是“艺术创造性翻译”——用一种语言把原作的艺术意境传达出来，使 读者读译文时能够像读原作时一样得到启发、感动和美的感受。 9.钱钟书：“文学翻译的最高标准是‘化’，把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既不能因语文 习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原作的风味，那就算得入于‘化境’。十七世纪有人赞美这种造诣的翻译，比为原作的‘投胎转世’，躯壳换了一个，而精神姿致依然故我。换句话说，译本对原作应该忠实得以至于读起来不像译本，因为作品在原文里决不会读起来像经过翻译似的。” 10.傅雷：“以效果而论，翻译应当像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似。”“两国文字词类的不 同，句法构造的不同，文法与习惯的不同，修辞格律的不同，俗语的不同，即反映民族思想方式的不同，感觉深浅的不同，观点角度的不同，风俗传统信仰的不同，社会背景的不同，表现方法的不同。以甲国文字传达乙国文字所包含的那些特点，必须像伯乐相马，要“得其精而忘其粗，在其内而忘其外”。而即使最优秀的译文，其韵味较之原文仍不免过或不及。翻译时只能尽量缩短这个距离，过则求其勿太过，不及则求其勿过于不及。”
《翻译基础理论》课程教学大纲 课程代码：070331042 课程英文名称： Basic theory of translation 课程总学时：32 讲课：32 实验：0 上机：0 适用专业：俄语专业 大纲编写（修订）时间：2017.11 一、大纲使用说明 （一）课程的地位及教学目标 翻译基础理论是俄语专业第五学期的专业基础课，是一门培养俄语翻译人才的基础理论课程。翻译基础理论的教学目标是授予学生必要的翻译理论知识、方法和技巧，培养学生的翻译实践能力，为将来从事教学工作和翻译工作打下基础。 通过本课程的学习，学生将达到以下要求： 1．掌握翻译中处理词汇和语法现象的方法 2．掌握正确地语义传达、翻译技巧 （二）知识、能力及技能方面的基本要求 1.基本知识：词汇的翻译问题、语法范畴的翻译问题等。 2.基本理论和方法：要求学生熟练运用各种翻译技巧解决实际翻译过程中遇到的问题。 3.基本技能:通过翻译实践练习来供学生从事翻译实践使用。 （三）实施说明 1．教学方法：重视教材重点、难点的选定和启发式讲解，重视实践环节，尽可能多地为学生创造实践的环境。课后要布置合理的复习任务和预习任务，引导和鼓励学生通过实践和自学获取知识，培养学生的自学能力；增加第二课堂活动，调动学生学习的主观能动性，增强学生掌握翻译基础理论的能力。 2．教学手段：为了贯彻“翻译课首先是一门实践课”的原则，本课程中配有各种形式的重点思考题，包括填空、校对、翻译等，用以提示和巩固讲授的重点。 3．计算机辅助设计：无。 （四）对先修课的要求 无 （五）对习题课、实验环节的要求 要求学生能独立、自主的利用所学的知识来完成课后题；并且能根据所学知识进行翻译实践。（六）课程考核方式 1. 考核方式：考试。 2. 考核目标：考核学生掌握所学的重点词汇和翻译理论基础，重点考核学生所学知识应用到实践中的能力。 3．成绩构成：本课程的总成绩主要由三部分组成：平时成绩（包括作业情况、出勤情况等）占10%，期中成绩占20%，期末考试成绩占70%。平时成绩由任课教师视具体情况按百分制给出。（七）主要参考书目: 1．《俄译汉教程增修本（上）》，蔡毅，靳慰然，曹书勋，孙桂芬，外语教学与研究出版社，1981年6月第1版 2．《俄译汉教程增修本（下）》，蔡毅，靳慰然，曹书勋，孙桂芬，外语教学与研究出版社，1982年6月第1版 3．《俄汉翻译基础教程》，杨仕章，高等教育出版社，2010年4月第1版
1.归化（domesticating method）把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读 者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容。 归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢，译者必须像本国作者那样说话，译作必须变成地道的本国语言。 2.异化(foreignizing method)是“译者尽可能不去打扰作者，让读 者向作者靠拢”。就是迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以目的语文化为归宿。 3.语际翻译（interlingual translation）指不同语言之间的翻译活动， 如把汉语文本译文英语文本。 4 语内翻译（intralingual translation）指同一语言的各个语言变体 之间的翻译，如把方言译成民族共同语，把古代语译成现代语。 5 连续传译（consecutive interpretation）又称即席翻译，用于会 议发言、宴会致辞、商务谈判、学术研讨等场合，发言人讲完 全部或部分内容之后，由口译人员进行翻译。 6 同声传译（simultaneous interpretation）通常用于大型正式会议 上，要求译员利用专门设备，不间断的进行边听边译。 7 信达雅翻译作品内容忠实于原文谓信，文辞畅达谓达，有文采谓 雅 8 可译性指一种语言中的某个词、短语、小句或语篇可以翻译为另 一种语言的可能性程度。
9.形合（hypotaxis）指句中的词语或分句之间需要一种语言形式手 段（如连词或关联词）连接起来，表达一定的语法意义和逻辑 关系。 10.意合(parataxis) 之词语或分句之间不用语言形式手段进行连接， 句中的语法意义和逻辑关系通过词语或分句的含义来表达。11 直译（literal translation）即直接翻译,指译文基本上按原文的形 式和结构进行翻译，但也并非是死扣原文，字字翻译 12 意译（free translation）不拘泥于原文的语言形式和结构，按 译文的习惯将原文意义表达出来。 13.综合性语言（synthetic language）词与词的关系是靠词本身的 形态变化来表现的，如拉丁语、俄语、德语和古英语。 14 分析性语言（analytic language）词与词的关系并不是通过词 形变化，而是通过词序或虚词（助词）等手段来表示的，如汉 语。 15屈折变化（inflection changes ）以语素内部的元音或辅音的变化表示一定语法意义的方式 16 “洋气”鲁迅坚持以忠实为第一要义的直译。并认为翻译需要兼 顾两个方面，一个是易懂，另一个是保存原作的丰姿。即信和 顺。假如信和顺之间必须取舍的话，宁信而不顺的，即使造成 句子有些不通顺，难懂。鲁迅主张在翻译中尽量保存原作的“洋 气”以体现“异国情调”。 17 “化境”钱钟书文学翻译的最高标准是“化”，把作品从一国文字
严复,中国介绍近代思想的第一人，翻译“第一国手” 信、达、雅——中国传统翻译思想的纲领:信“Faithfulness”——忠实原文,达“Expressiveness”——语言通顺畅达,雅“Elegance”——文字古雅.信为本，雅为表，达是两者的纽带 林纾翻译理论： 1、“存旨”论：“神会、步境、怡神”; 2、“文心”论：要讲究“文之枢纽”文章的“纲领”文章的“开场、伏脉、接笋、结穴”; 3、“支点”论：在翻译某个作家的作品的时候，总是努力在中国古代文学中寻找与之对应的作家; 4、“足音”论：虽不审西文，然日闻其口译，却能区别其文章之流派，如辨家人只足音。 近代西学翻译思想 （1）明末清初的科技翻译高潮 代表人物：徐光启，李之藻 翻译特点：翻译方式为外国人主译，华士润色；或中外合译；少见国人主译之书籍 （2）清末民初的西学翻译高潮 A. 洋务时期的翻译贡献：科学技术术语的统一 B.维新时期的翻译贡献：①译名的统一;②东学西渐 代表人物：马建忠梁启超严复林纾 马建忠：杰出的语言学家，著名的翻译家和翻译评论家，早期资产阶级维新思想家，著有《马氏文通》 贡献：“善译”说 梁启超：近代资产阶级维新思想家，著名史学家，被中国学术界奉为“鸿儒” 他的翻译思想：A “翻译强国”思想译书三义：择当译之本，定公译之例，养能译之才; B “翻译文体革命思想”：提倡“通俗语体”; C翻译小说理论的影响 D 翻译文学与佛典的关系,科学地提出了佛经翻译的三个时期 瞿秋白：佛经的翻译是中国第一次用自己最简单的言语去翻译印度日耳曼族之中最复杂的一种言语——梵文。 事实上开创了白话的运用。 胡适：开创一种文学新体；解放了最缺乏想象力的中国古文学；中国浪漫主义文学受其影响；佛经往往带着小说或戏曲的形成。 The features of traditional Chinese translation theories (1)The Confucianism(儒学) is obvious (2) It puts emphasis on practice skills (3)It closely relates with classical Chinese esthetics “五四”新文学时期的翻译思想: ⑴关于“直译与意译”; ⑵关于“信与顺”; ⑶关于“形似与神似”. 鲁迅的“易解，丰姿”双标准论，即“凡是翻译，必须兼顾两个方面，一则求其易解，一则保存原作的丰姿”，和“翻译与创作并重”的思想。瞿秋白的“绝对正确，绝对白话”和“信顺统一”的思想，郭沫若的“创作论”的翻译思想。成仿吾的“批评的建设”和“建设的批评”的文艺翻译批评思想即诗歌翻译思想。 中国传统译论的特点: （1）、以中和为美 ,讲求和谐; （2）、尚化实为虚 ,讲求含蓄; （3）、重感性体悟 ,讲求综合 鲁迅主要理论贡献: 1. “易解、丰姿”双标准论, “移情、益智”双功能说; 2.“宁信而不顺”的翻译思想; 3.“重译”和“复译”的思想; 4.翻译批评：“剜烂苹果”的思想; 5.“翻译应与创作并重”的思想. 《狂人日记》——文学史上的第一篇真正意义的白话小说。 瞿秋白翻译思想: 1 、关于大众化原则“绝对正确，绝对白话”的思想; 2、关于翻译与中国现代语言建设的思想郭沫若翻译理论和思想:整个翻译思想的灵魂--创作论. 1、翻译家不是鹦鹉名士; 2、好的翻译等于创作; 3、风韵译; 4、共鸣说; 5、生活体验论; 6、译文同样应该是一件艺术品 成仿吾翻译理论和思想: 1. 文艺批评：翻译批评思想; 2. 诗歌翻译理论与思想; 3. 马克思主义著作翻译：“准确性、鲜明性、生动性 “顺”派
翻译理论知识回顾 Basic Knowledge of Translation Theory I.Translation 1.Definition 1)The Definition in the Old Days ●“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”——贾公彦(618-907) 唐朝 ●“夫翻译者，谓翻梵天之语转成汉地之言。音虽似别，义则大同。”——法云(960-1279) 宋代 It means that translation is a rendering from one language (Source Language) into another (Target Language), remaining the meaning. ●The British scholar Dr. Samuel Johnson once said: “To translate is to change into another language, remaining the sense.” 2)The Current Definition ●The American translation theorist Eugene A. Nida wrote in 1964: Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.（所谓翻译，是在译语中用切近而又最自然的对等语再现原语的信息，首先是意义，其次是文体。） 1)再现原文的信息(message)而不是保留原文的形式结构(formal structure) 2)对等(equivalence)不是同一(identity) 3)对等是最贴近、自然的对等 4)意义是优先考虑的因素 5)文体很重要 ●The British translation theorist Tytler’s definition in 1970 about translation: “A good translation is one which the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language as to be as distinctly apprehended and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs as it is by those who speak the language of the ori ginal work.” ●Prof. Huang Long Translatology Translation may be defined as follows: The replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL) （翻译可以作以下界定：用一种语言（目的语）的文本材料对等地再现另一种语言（源出语）的文本材料。） 1)部分地替代 2)对等概念 2.Varieties of Translation 1)Interpretation and written translation 2)In terms of SL and TL, Interlingual translation语际(不同语言之间)， Intralingual translation语内(同一语言rewording)，Intersemiotic translation符际(eg.把语言符号用图画、手势、数字或音乐来表达) 3)In terms of style, political essay政论，practical writing应用文，science and technology科技，literary translation and so on.
关于翻译理论的知识 一、填空 1.Yan Fu’s 3-word translation criteria are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance 2.Translation in China has a long history of some 2000 years. 3.The two words used as the common criteria of translation in China today are faithfulness and smoothness 二、回答问题 1. Translation is a representation or recreation in one language of what is written or said in another language, not only an art but also a science. 2. A qualified translator should have 5 prerequisites: 1) a good command of the source language, 2) a good command of the target language, 3) a wide range and scope of knowledge, 4) a high political consciousness, 5) a necessary knowledge of basic technique used in translation. 3直译与意译 1) Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original almost without any change of word-order or sentence construction. 2) Liberal translation is also called free translation, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word-order of the original. 4 信、达、雅（faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance） 保持原作丰姿（Keep the full flavor of the original work ） 忠实、通顺（faithfulness and smoothness） 直译与意译（literal translation and liberal/free translation）
翻译作者 严复 信（faithful）忠实准确的传达原文的内容。 达（expressiveness）译文通达顺畅 雅（elegance）译文有文采，文字典雅。 1.翻译“隔尘”观 认为译文与原文“隔尘弥多”，“去真滋远”。他反对转译，认为翻译只是权宜之计，要了解西方文化，最好是学西文，直接体验西方社会的生活，阅读西文原著，这样做不仅能真实地了解西学，所读书目也不受限制。严复的不可译观反映了他对语言、文化和翻译本质的认识，体现了他对翻译质量的严格要求，包含着鼓励国人学习外语的良苦用心。 2.翻译版权思想 严复指出，从精神上来说，著译者劳心劳力，理应得到重视与保护；从经济上说，得到物质奖励的同时，也可以免去著译者的后顾之忧；从国家长远发展的角度来说，著译新书是开启民智、强盛教育的前提，如果著译者因为权利得不到保护而放弃这一工作，那么，对国民教育和国家未来发展都将是严重的阻碍。 3.翻译管理理念 严复担任过京师大学堂译书局的“总办”，起草和制订过《译书局章程》，对翻译机构中岗位的设定和人员的分工合作、具体的计酬办法、翻译合同的拟订、译名的统一，等等，有一整套具体可行的想法和管理方案。《章程》分四个部分。“局章”和“薪俸”部分规定，“总译”挑选外国中小学教科书，根据课本的难易程度，估定翻译的稿费和所需时间，并按照译者的专长来分派任务。 林纾 翻译风格： 速度快、 自由式古文、 林译小说的语言并非传统意义上的古文，小说中出现很多白话、外来语和欧化句法。他继承了传统古文的长处，又冲破了古文的严格定律，在词汇、句法上进行了大胆的创新。 意译、 忠于原文 不足之处： 讹的毛病、不忠于原文、对原文删减或增加 翻译的影响 宣扬爱国精神、传播资本主义民主思想和自由平等观、新的生活和艺术理念、推动新文化运动 归化，意译（domesticating translation, free translation)是林纾采用的基本的翻译主张。 归化翻译法旨在尽量减少译文中的异国情调，为目的语读者提供一种自然流畅的译文。归化法源于“尽量不干扰读者，请作者向读者靠近”这一著名翻译论说。林纾的翻译是运笔如风，“所难者不加窜点，脱手成稿”，“能限一时许就千言，不窜一字”。 林语堂 Lin Y u Tang insisted that translation is a creation,it is an art.In his opinion,translation should pay attention to both style and content of the original.
西方翻译理论的主要流派及成就 1.美国翻译理论 Eugene. A. Nida：Functional Equivalence Oklahoma, pious Christian, Los Angel University, South California University (Master in Holly Bible New Testament in Greece ) Michigan University (Doctor of Linguistics guided by Charles Fries & Leonard Bloomfield in1943) 美国圣经公会供职从事组织和指导圣经翻译工作。著作40多部，论文250余篇 最早、最多，影响最大。谭载喜《奈达论翻译》《中国翻译》和外国语。1984年，中国对外翻译出版公司与金隄合著On Translation: With Special Reference to Chinese and English 《论翻译》Language, Culture, and Translating (1993)《语言、文化与翻译》Shanghai Foreign Languae Education Press世界性的深远影响，为翻译注入了新思想和活力，引进了新的概念和方法。“奈达的著作，开创了翻译理论的新时代。”（Christian Balliu） 奈达的翻译思想分成三阶段：1）描写语言学句法、词法和语义翻译问题的描写研究2）交际理论运用语言学理论最重要，成熟、发展、系统3）社会符号学运用社会语言学和社会符号学 翻译从科学到艺术的转化翻译是艺术(art)，翻译家是天生的；翻译研究是科学(science)，是比较语言学的重要分支。翻译基本上是一种技艺（technology），需要多种学科才能产生令人满意的译作，包括语言学、文化人类学、心理学和交际理论（1996）。 奈达的基本翻译思想：1）翻译是交际活动2）翻译主要是译意3）为了译意，必须改变语言表达形式。 翻译过程四阶段：分析(analysis)、转换(transfer)、重组(restructure)和检验(test)。 Eugene. A. Nida?s translating thought and theory have made worldwide influence. Not only has he published a great number of books and essays on translation, but also he is active in taking part in international academic exchanges and always gives lectures all over the world even in his eighties. He has brought new thought and vigor to the career of translation by introducing new concepts and methods. Is it a translator?s task to focus primarily on the source culture or the target culture? Although the answer is not clear-cut, the dominant criterion is the communicative function of the target text. Translating means communicating, and this process depends on what is received by persons hearing or reading a translation. Judging the validity of a translation cannot stop with a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices. What is important is the extent to which receptors correctly understand and appreciate the translated text. Accordingly, it is essential that “functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of the translated text understand and appreciate the translated text.” Language And Culture –Contexts in Translating(Nida, 2001) 《语言与文化一翻译中的语境》 Nida, one of the greatest scholars in the translating field, describes his famous theory of Functional Equivalence in his several books and articles. In Toward a Science of Translating (Nida, 1964), 《翻译科学初探》he used the concept of “dynamic equivalence” to refer to the “closest natural equivalent”. In The Theory and Practice of Translation(Nida &Taber, 1969), 《翻译理论与实践》he improved this concept and defined it like this: Translation is to reappear information of the source language in the target language by selecting the closest natural equivalent of the original text according to first meaning, then style. In the definition, “close” refers to “close information to the source language”; “natural” to “natural form of expression in the target language”; “equivalent” to “the way in which they are combined”. Therefore, in a sense, Nida here focused on semantic equivalence （语义对等）instead of formal correspondence. But the term “dynamic equivalence” is always misunderstood by some translators, accordingly many individuals have been led to think that if a translation has considerable impact then it must be a correct example of “dynamic equivalence”. And even every kind of free translations can style itself “dynamic equivalent”. Because of this misunderstanding and in order to emphasize the concept of function, it seems much more satisfactory to use the expression “functional equivalence” in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation. So in From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translation (Nida & Warrd, 1986), 《从一种语言到另一种语言：论圣经翻译中的功能对等》Nida changed the term of “dynamic equivalence” into that of “functional equivalence”. The terms “function” and “functional” seem to provide a much sounder basis for talking about translation as a form of communication, since the focus is on what a translation does or performs. In this book,