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中英礼仪文化禁忌比较与跨文化交际

中英礼仪文化禁忌比较与跨文化交际
中英礼仪文化禁忌比较与跨文化交际

摘要

本文通过引述国内外的对禁忌的研究进而对礼仪文化禁忌进行定义与分类,从而发现中国的禁忌与英国禁忌的区别并进行比较,再追本溯源,分析两国产生这些差异的原因,分别从话题禁忌、交往禁忌、饮食禁忌等三方面寻找原因。从这三个角度分别选出了具有代表性的例子进行论证。然后,通过与跨文化交际的结合,指出在中英两国交往中需注意的一些问题,并给出有利的解决方案。

关键词:文化禁忌;比较;跨文化交际

ABSTRACT

This paper first quotes researches of taboos from both home and abroad, trying to make definition for the cultural taboos and classify them. Then the paper studies the taboo difference between China and Britain and does some contrast, and then searches for the original reasons for the question from three aspects: taboo topics, social taboo and diet taboo, etc. From the three angles this paper selects typical examples to illustrate the question. Finally, the paper combines taboos with intercultural communication, pointing out some problems in intercultural communication between Chinese and English people, and offers some suggestions in order to solve these problems.

Key words:taboo; contrast; intercultural communication

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Contents

1.Introduction (51)

2. Cultural taboos (52)

2.1 Definition (53)

2.2 Classification (53)

2.3 Origin (54)

3. A contrast of cultural taboos between China and Britain (56)

3.1 Introduction of Chinese cultural taboos (56)

3.1.1 Topic taboos (56)

3.1.2 Sociable taboos (57)

3.1.3 Diet taboos (58)

3.2 Introduction of British cultural taboos (58)

3.2.1 Topic taboos (58)

3.2.2 Sociable taboos (59)

3.2.3 Diet taboos (59)

3.3 Reasons and functions of the taboo difference (60)

3.3.1 Reasons (60)

3.3.2 Functions (61)

4. The relation between taboos and intercultural communication (62)

4.1 Cultural taboos’ influence on intercultural communication (63)

4.2 Some problems (64)

4.2.1 Cultural shock. (64)

4.2.2 Stereotypes (64)

4.2.3 Prejudice. (64)

5. Solutions (65)

6. Conclusion (66)

Acknowledgement .............................................................................. 错误!未定义书签。References (67)

1.Introduction

Taboo refers to the things that are sacred, unclean, and dangerous and the forbidden attitude which people hold towards its characteristics. That is to say, it includes two sides: on one side are the special things; on the other side is a control model. The essence of taboo is a negative norm of psychology and behavior. Though the violation of taboo is psychological, one can not avoid its punishment.

China is a country renowned for its long history and sound etiquette,different peoples, as well as cultural exchanges with other countries. With the development of the times, the old taboos are either compact or changed.The development and changes in cultural etiquette taboos, has been an impact on our people's behavior and way of thinking. As to Britain, which is a country with hundreds of thousands of miles away from China,its unique customs and rituals, and cultural taboos have also profoundly affected the lifestyle of the people for some reasons such as geography and so on.Sino-British etiquette cultures have many differences in terms of taboos, which reflect obviously the daily life of different ethnic groups.If the taboos between the two countries cause some unnecessary misunderstandings or some other cultural impact, it is likely that both parties would suffer from unnecessary losses, which might by completely avoidable.In light of the above reasons, this paper aims to discuss the issue with a clear understanding of the Sino-British cultural taboos.By contrast of taboos between the two countries, and with reference to the actual cross-cultural communication, cross-cultural communication will become easier, as misunderstandings are eliminated, which are caused by etiquette cultural taboos.

2. Cultural taboos

The taboo research has been done continuously from the 19th century. Though taboo includes marked folk culture and embodies people’s life and regulates people’s forming of consciousness, social order and artistic aesthetic system, it is still a mysterious and scary custom to ordinary people. Etiquette cultural taboos appeared under a complex atmosphere and people used them to control their behaviour.

Being dangerous and having a punitive role are the two main characteristics of taboo. For their own utilitarian purposes, psychologically, taboo words and actions by self-defence measure are generated from the ghost worship.Taboo can be divided into primary stage, secondary stage and disappearance stage.Funerals and ancestors worship is where taboo originated, with the most direct connection to the faith of ghost.It inherits the secondary phase of the original period of ghost worship taboos. Their institutionalization, ritual-oriented manners make onerous provisions of taboos.In people's lives, ritual, festivals, industry, etc., which is considered unlucky, are sources of taboos.From the ages of emancipating the mind and starting doing away with superstition in modern times, science gradually takes root, and taboos die a natural death, or are subject to transformation.

Taboo was first used by ancient people because of superstitious awe of supernatural power or as passive preventive measures taken in ancient society to protect themselves. I n ancient social life, the taboos had played the same role as that of norms and constraints.Even today, many taboos of the proscribed materials are of mystery and superstition nature, the elimination of the concept has been gradual, and there are still many taboos left, exerting impact on people’s lives.

2.1 Definition

Taboo is a word that has been long researched both at home and abroad. Taboo in Chinese is “禁忌”, which first appeared in Han Dynasty and old Chinese royal kingdoms defined it as something forbidden by the god so that they could control people more easily[1]34. As time goes by, studies on taboos have little achievement, and most of China’s research on taboos is based on western works.

Oxford Advanced English-Chinese Dictionary defined taboo as follows: something that religion or custom regards as forbidden, not to be touched, spoken of, etc; general agreement not to discuss something, do something[2]1235.

Taboos are some kind of prohibition in people’s attitudes toward scary and dirty things. Being dangerous and punitive are two characteristics of taboos [1]46. They contribute to people’s utilitarian purposes psychologically to take self-defence measures.

2.2 Classification

Different countries and different peoples throughout the world have been affected by taboos because of their own culture, customs and even religious beliefs. Thus their etiquette cultural taboos have been developed into various types which could be divided into several kinds as: colour taboos, number taboos, taboo topics, taboos on animals and logos, diet taboos, sociable taboos, etc.

Taboo topics relate to language users of different countries.Taboo topic is very rich in local and social dialects, customs and characteristics of language.The principles of taboo largely come from good or bad fortune, decency and propriety, utility, honor, and many other considerations.

Sociable taboo is in the aspect of personal behavior and interpersonal actions, and they all belong to daily taboos. In this regard, folk taboos play a normative role. In the subtle interpersonal relations, especially between friends and relatives, the law is often beyond reach and powerless. To a certain extent, the taboo functions to limit the behavior.

Customs are different in different dietary, so diet taboos reflect a certain degree of folk beliefs. In China, the heaven is able to affect how much people

can access to food.Agriculture, hunting, fishing and other labor activities, often associate with religion, festivals and form some unique diet taboos.

2.3 Origin

Talking about the origin of taboo, generally there are four explanations [3]23-24.The first concerns the spiritual power of the worship and fear of the god. Second is the desire for self-restraint and limitation. Third is to adhere to and obey the morality. Fourth is a summary of lessons and some knowledge from them. Here, we divide them as follows: a study on the supernatural power, a study on the desire, a study on the ceremonies, and a study on lessons.

Firstly, the study is about the supernatural power. Supernatural power, is also called as “mana [3]20”. In English it is also translated as Manna, Mana, or Mara, etc.Stemming from the Oceania, it is an anthropological term that refers to things or people embodying supernatural forces. As in Chinese, the correspondence to it is “灵力[4]21”, and it means a power that is supernatural.It is said that taboo is the spiritual force with direct or indirect attachment to somebody and through which the ghost makes the effect. The original idea of the primitive things forms taboos and the original ban.Ghost and Goblin are considered to be a spiritual force, they are also considered to be “like the devil [4]234” and “non-contact”. Tian Shunzhu, who is a writer once said that some taboos are generated from the worship of ghost, and people know where there is a breach, it is subject to retaliation for the ghost[5]24.So we can see that taboos arise with people's fear of the spiritual force. The study of the supernatural power, in fact, is a study of the development history of human belief, it analyzes the power of people's spiritual beliefs and the resulting emotions generated by the belief, such as respect and fear, etc., and accordingly it traces back to the source of taboos.

Secondly, the study is on the desire.Freud believed that it is not enough to find the root of taboo only from people’s belief. In his book Totem and Taboo he said: Windt made people know that taboo is a kind of performance and the extension of faith to the devil forces by ancient people.Wen's theory in fact not really traced back to the original reason for taboos, or dug out the root causes. Fear or “the devil” in psychology can not be considered to be the first cause, and

that is people cannot find the source of a thing, unless the existence of the devil is real.Taboo itself is a contradiction of emotional words, because strong prohibition must also be something that everyone wants to do. How can people who break the taboos be considered as a taboo is that he must have already had the characteristics which may induce others to follow him.Here, Freud has noted psychologically inhibited desire.Desire, is a human instinct need, but as a social man, he has to somewhat suppress the desire.This kind of suppression of desire is the fundamental source of taboo. The study of the desire is broad. It is mainly in terms of psychology source of taboo stressing the “suppression [6]51”side of taboo.

Thirdly, the study is of the ceremonies. In the study of desire, the role of social constraints has been stated. Social constraints can be reflected in many ceremonies.Ceremony represents something “unreasonable”, “socially prescriptive”.Ceremony taboo is that people must unconditionally obey a prohibition.The provision of the ceremony is to ensure that the kind of ceremony is smoothly and successfully completed, that the ceremony marks the significance that is completely recognized.Some people define taboo as “passive worship”. Taboo is also directly translated as “the prohibition on the rituals”.The study of ceremonies is from the “prescriptive society”[1]7. Taboo is a social contract of the embryo. From sociological point of view, the origin of taboos is clear. It often goes with some sort of arbitrary requirement. After the formation of taboo,it has an “irresistible force of constraint”.People, out of the need for communication, often do not go to carefully examine its rationality, but only absolutely obey it.This kind of taboo is based on the initial requirement, so it is unreasonable and elusive.

Fourthly, the study is on the lessons. The lessons are from the failures or mistakes. Ignorance and underdevelopment often result in common misunderstanding. The “common misunderstanding” derived “lessons”are the origin of taboos. People lose their confidence in one or several failures and losses. People fear to struggle with nature and have psychological mystery to the struggle with nature. In review of the losses, people exaggerate them and the behavior of people becomes the precepts and ceremonies. The study is the epistemological origin of the taboos. The taboo has reflected people's awareness of the activities of deviation, but for people's understanding of the development,

the taboo is an indispensable process. Although, in a sense, it has “practical” significance, “experience,” in its meaning, its “lessons learned” summary is not to be lost.

3. A contrast of cultural taboos between China and

Britain

3.1 Introduction of Chinese cultural taboos

In China, taboos affect people’s mind and their everyday life. In the system of taboo, Chinese believe that the origin of disaster exists everywhere. They hide in some invisible things, places and even locations. Any word or act may cause a catastrophe. In a word, etiquette cultural taboos have a great effect on people’s daily life.

3.1.1 Topic taboos

There are many taboo topics in China, and different places have their own taboos. Lots of topics are forbidden in people’s communication. For example, the number four is not a number that people like to mention because its pronunciation is the same with Chinese character of death. To the old people in China, they believe that talking about things relating to death may trigger

scourge or other unlucky stuffs. The number taboo has its influence in our daily life. In hospitals, rooms and beds are seldom marked with the number four. For hospitals are the places dealing with the living and the dead.Coincidentally, buildings also don’t use number four to mark their rooms and floors. People use F13B to take the place of F14. Modern Chinese still take it as a tradition and their offspring get used to this phenomenon.

In China, mentioning of sex is to some degree not acceptable. Chinese is a nation with long history and famous for its good etiquette and sound manners. People pay much attention on their behavior. Talking about sex is considered to be dirty and it will make other people embarassed. This topic is too personal to anyone and it is privacy to everyone.

If someone is a Christian in China, do not talk about other religion before him and it may irritate him. And it is the same to other religion believers.

3.1.2 Sociable taboos

Sociable taboos are taboos on how people get along with others and their behaviours of interacting with outer world.

China is famous for hospitality. There are also many taboos on how to welcome and get along with visitors. People usually take some presents with them, and some gifts have their unique meaning. When someone is in hospital, visitors usually take fruits as presents. In general, apples, oranges,peaches, chestnuts are welcome as they all have the implication of having good luck and recovering soon. Remember not to take pears to patient, because its pronunciation is similar to the word of separation.

Take sociable taboos in Menggu Minority as an example.In the pastoral home or in the tourist spots, the host or hostess will offer guests a bowl of tea sincerely.Guests have to use their right hands or both hands and bow slightly to pick up the tea. Guests should not use their left hands, otherwise they will be considered as a man who has no knowledge of courtesy. If the host or hostess is going to pour some tea into the bowl, and the guest doesn’t want any more, he may use the spoon or the spout to gently touch the edge of the bowl, the host will instantly understand the intention of the guest.

3.1.3 Diet taboos

Diet taboos may exert a direct impact on the food culture of all ethnic groups and adjust the diet structure. In the past,people usually prayed for their ancestors’ spirits first after the harvest or hunting, thanked the gods’ bless, and then turned to their own consumption.Eating is a serious and sacred thing, and the Chinese people treat a meal as the most important event for one day or even in life. Chinese usually ask “Have you had the meal?” when meeting with their acquaintances. Therefore, any mistakes or taboo will immediately cause misunderstanding and people’s relationship will turn disharmonious. When eating, any improper topics are forbidden at table, as it may lead to a disaster. For example, i f a child can not eat a whole bowl of rice, in the future he has to marry pock-marked wife or husband.

Take diet taboos of Hui Minority as an example. In Hui Minority,pork and donkey meat and blood and meat of some ferocious beasts are forbidden. They also never eat fish without scales and the livestock slaughtered by non-Muslims.

C anned food and dim sums that are not produced by Muslim are not welcome. People are forbidden to make a joke about food.

3.2 Introduction of British cultural taboos

Britain is considered to be a serious nation and is a country famous for its gentlemen manners, so many more etiquettes and taboos exist which people need to pay attention to.

3.2.1 Topic taboos

In Britain, topics of conversation may involve all aspects of the daily lives. However, there are also some private things that can not be asked. Take topic of age as an example. Englishmen don’t like to mention their real age, especially for old people. In Western culture, the value of age is almost negligible. Asking a person’s age is very rude and is considered lacking in good manners.If old people are willing to talk about their age, they would naturally talk about this issue. For example, they will want others to guess how old they are.

Next topic is related to money.In the West, people think the money issue is purely individual. Even within the family, generally family members do not know the exact income of each other.But this does not mean the relationship between family members is not good. This is merely a reflection of a perception: family allows its members to maintain a certain degree of independence and freedom. Of course, husband and wife generally know their respective income. Therefore, it is wise not to ask an Englishman how much he earns per month.

3.2.2 Sociable taboos

Englishmen don’t like standing too close to each other when talking. In general, 50 centimetres is suitable. When people mention about a person who is disabled, or old they usually use a tactful phrase such as a challenged person instead of a disabled person, and senior people instead of old people.In other words, we should try to avoid the prejudice or discrimination of gender, race, age, etc.

How to behave at a party in Britain? British people usually hold a party at 10 pm and it is always at private home or in a hotel. The host sends invitations in advance to invite guests, and makes sure the number of females is roughly the same as that of males or the number of men is bigger than that of women. In accordance with convention, the host asks people to the dance, and sometimes also hosts a dinner. Sometimes, the host only holds a dance instead of a banquet, while other parties may invite a small number of party guests to eat dinner, after dancing. Some people can only attend the ball but are not invited to eat. Therefore, people who are invited must see the words on the invitations so as not to embarrass the host.

3.2.3 Diet taboos

Generally speaking, British diet pays little attention to food and pays much attention to drink.The British cuisine is not characteristics of the daily food and the kinds of its food are rare. Most of Englishmen do not eat dog meat, salty or too spicy dishes or dishes with sticky sauce.Monosodium glutamate is also a sauce Englishmen do not like.

Different from people in other European countries, Englishmen take tea as their daily necessities. Englishmen drink black tea. When drinking, they must first pour some milk into the cup and then follow some other steps like adding some sugar.They not only drink a cup of “quilt tea”when waking up in the morning, during working hours they also dedicate time to “tea break”, which is the so called “afternoon tea”.In the UK, drin king “afternoon tea” is the snack between lunch and dinner, and it is also a sociable way for people to meet new friends.

3.3 Reasons and functions of the taboo difference

3.3.1 Reasons

Why are there so many differences between China and the UK? The reasons are as follows.

The first reason may be the languages people https://www.doczj.com/doc/4b7142065.html,nguage and culture are inseparable from each https://www.doczj.com/doc/4b7142065.html,nguage is part of the culture, but it also embodies culture.The relationship between language and culture is a two-way relationship.It can be said that language reflects the characteristics of a nation, which not only include the nation’s historical and cultural background, but also imply the nation's views on life, lifestyles and ways of thinking.Sociologists tell us that all culture is unique, distinct from each other.

The second reason is the difference in values. The main feature typical of Britain is individualism and respect for the independence of individuals. Its value is also embodied in the concept of punctuality, the pursuit of efficiency and optimism,focusing on telling people that they should make full use of the limited time to continue to create more material wealth, reflecting the progressive concept in accumulating wealth.

The third reason is the faith and different believes.Christianity is the main religion in England, which brings about a number of unique characteristics of the culture.C hristmas is the biggest festival in Christian country with unique religious and cultural meanings.During the holiday season, people usually

advise others not to be too concerned about other’s noise caused by eating and drinking. At the same time, people are persuaded to take this opportunity to donate something to help poor people. While in China, taking the festivals to donate or do good things rarely happens.

3.3.2 Functions

In China’s traditional culture, a considerable part of taboos is created by the public. They are transmitted in forms of art, customs, habits, etc.They are part of the culture, and we are accustomed to calling them folk culture, and folk taboo is one of the important components of folk culture.

Although some taboos on the surface have a superstitious character, in fact they have a rational core to meet the actual needs of human life and have become an integral part of national culture.Taboos are mostly irrational, but they have practical significance. In general, the practical significance is as follows.

(1) The educational function of taboos.Taboo is often used as an ethical enlightenment in order to enhance the deterrent force to stop abuses. For example, in ancient times, disobedience to the respectful ancestors is a serious taboo and would receive the most tragic punishment. As an old saying goes, “The good will receive reward, while the bad will receive punishment” which has formed the doctrine of advisable punishment.

(2) The function of self-protection.To avoid the dangers and the scourge of its existence, taboos are usually created with a mysterious atmosphere in which taboo issues emerge in a dangerous state. They remind people that they must be careful in marriage, birth, burial, worship ceremonies,etc., or they will be punished.“Not to go out drinking helps people to prevent insanity”, so dietary taboos about wine is a kind of forceful measure against injury.

(3) Taboo function of social integration. One can not live alone without society.In order to protect the harmony of man and society, promote the development of society, we need to have a certain order to restrain the behaviour of each ethnic group of human. Various Chinese ethnic groups in this regard have many taboos.For example: Daur people forbid people who hold whip, bows and arrows, swords and guns and other items into the room.Another

example is the Mongolian guest taboo. For the guests who ride a horse to yurts, he must go with a slow speed and behave gently, so as not to disturb the herd. When entering the yurt, the guests have to obey the bogey accompanied by the sleeves with skirts tuck into the belt.Remember that don’t hold the whip in, put the whip on the right side of the yurt door. When getting into the yurt, the guests can not sit on the west of kang, while bogey is to sit in front of shrines. Otherwise, the host would be cool to the guests and think that the guests neither understand customs nor respect national customs.The Miao ethnic people are forbidden to play in dangerous environment. Don’t pile things on the transport road, and avoid using lethal weapons or playing candles and fire.In the social order, people are forbidden to steal other people's pigs, cattle, sheep, chickens, ducks, geese, as well as fruits, vegetables and so on. It can be seen that all these taboos and practices facilitate the adjustment of human relations, maintenance of public and social order.

In fact, the taboo is the only primitive binding of human society, and the source of family, morality, religion, politics, law and all the rest of prohibition. With economic prosperity, scientific and cultural development, many taboos and superstition will gradually be neglected by the public and even forgotten, while many other taboos, which meet the scientific requirement, are bound to retain its vitality and strong transmission power and will continue to play their positive role in people's new life.

4. The relation between taboos and intercultural

communication

The history of communication is as long as that of human beings. Communication appeared with the emergence of human beings since the human survival depends on communication and contact. The most succinct definition is that communication is the exchange of information and transmission of meaning. Actually almost all the communication scholars concur that communication is a process in which everything is on going, ever-changing and continuous and during which symbols are formed and transmitted between people.

Cross-cultural communication aims at how people, from differing cultural backgrounds, endeavour to communicate. Cross-cultural communication tries to bring together such relatively unrelated areas as cultural anthropology and established areas of communication. Its core is to understand and study how people from different cultures communicate with each other. Its aim is to produce some guidelines with which people from different cultures can better communicate with each other.

Cross-cultural communication, like many other academic fields, is a combination of different fields. These fields include anthropology, cultural studies, psychology and communication. It is also frequently referred to as “intercultural communication”.

4.1 Cultural taboos’ influence on intercultural communication

At any moment, our behavior is the product of millions of years’ evolution. Taboos have also undergone millions of years of evolvement. Taboos do have great influence on cross-cultural communication.

Firstly, cultural taboos have some effect on how people act and talk in their interaction. As a group of people live under some background, they know what they should talk or act in their communication and its easier for them to keep touch with each other.

Secondly, having knowledge of taboo of different countries may help people understand better in cross-cultural communication. As mentioned before that some topics are privacy to people in different countries. Thus, if someone can’t metion something, he may use other words to express it, people then will know why it happen and what it means.

Thirdly, taboos are part of the country’s culture. By learning taboos, people

can realize various culture style around the world. Business goes more frequently and fluently with the study of taboos.

4.2 Some problems

Some problems unavoidably exist in the communication between China and Britain because of cultural taboos.

4.2.1 Cultural shock.

People like familiar things and familiar atmosphere, as they can help them reduce stress. However, when people thrust into another cultural and experience, they may become victims of cultural shock for psychological and physical discomfort from the contact.

4.2.2 Stereotypes.

Stereotype originated from numerous sources such as jokes, movies and televisions. TV network, as an important mass media, plays a significant role in cross-cultural communication. Take British movie for example, gentlemen in Britain are portrayed as polite and gentle, with good manners. Undoubtedly, a Chinese who gets the knowledge of Englishman only from TV will have a distorted and false image of British people.

4.2.3 Prejudice.

Prejudice is a thoughtless derogatory attitude of a group. It includes racism, sexism, homophobia and ageism. Prejudice is viewed as a personality trait linked to authoritarianism resulting from early socialism.

5. Solutions

To overcome these problems, people should analyse the situation and select the correct mode of behavior to try to adapt whenever possible regardless of the culture we are encountering.

Here are some solutions to improve our ability of communication and solve problems in cross-cultural communication. Firstly, we should know ourselves. It includes knowing our culture and knowing our communication style. Every one of us is the product of our culture and knowing ourselves is necessary for developing the cultural awareness required in effective intercultural communication.

Secondly, we need to develop communication flexibility.When deciding on how to present ourselves to another person, particularly if that person is from a culture different from our own, we must be flexible. Many experts in communication competence actually believe that one definition of competence is the ability to adjust and shape our communication behaviors to fit the settings, other people and ourselves. We need to acquire the skills that will allow us to respond to various conditions, people, and situations. The ability means being able to be reflective instead of impulsive when interacting with another culture.

The third solution is to appreciate similarity and respect difference. Similarity plays a key role in the establishment and development of relationships. We are attracted to people whom we perceive as similar to ourselves. If we are to succeed in intercultural communication, we should pay enough attention to the enormous differences between our culture and the one we are getting into contact with. If we can appreciate similarities and pay due regard to differences existing in cultures, we are able to better assess the potential consequences of our acts and be more tolerant of those acts of others. Sound business relationships and high profits would come with the effective communication.

6. Conclusion

The paper employs the sampling method to take taboo examples in the daily life both in China and England, especially taboo topics, sociable taboos, and diet taboos as the object of research. It analyses the nature from the phenomenon. Based on these examples, the paper analyses the prevalent problems of Sino-British ritual cultural taboos, exploring its causes and the impact on communication. Finally, the paper proposes solutions to the problems of cross-cultural communication. Following these steps, it is not difficult for people in China and Britain to have a good communication and better relationship.

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[17] 许立生. 跨文化交际[M]. 上海外语教育出版社, 2003(5).

各国饮食礼仪与禁忌

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英汉禁忌

Comparative Study of Chinese and English Taboos A successful cross-cultural communication requires us to break through the cultural barriers. A good command of taboo culture will guides people speak and behave properly at a proper time, place and with a proper degree. Taboo phenomenon is not unique .Instead; it has long existed in all cultures and languages throughout the world. However, influenced by different cultural backgrounds, ideologies and concepts of value, the content and forms of taboos are different. 禁忌语存在于任何国家和社会,具有客观性。然而在不同的语言中又有不同的禁忌表达方式,具有民族性和时代性。 The origin and definition of linguistic taboo The term “taboo” was borrowed from Tonga, an island group in Polynesia, and its original meaning is “sacred” “untouchable”. When it came into English vocabulary, it became the synonym of taboo, which stands for prohibition or repression. It is specifically used to describe some special languages and behaviors. 分类: (1)宗教禁忌语: To some extent ,taboo topics have a tight association with Christianity. People in the ancient times held that some religious words or expressions had a mysterious and supernatural power, so names of god and devil such as Jesus, Christ, Joseph, heaven have to be completely avoided on many occasions. 英语国家大多信奉基督教,对有关神灵的语言God,devil,Christ等,除了在 严肃认真的谈话以外,不可以随便说出口,否则会被认为亵渎神灵,使说话人受到谴责。而汉民族没有一个统一的宗教信仰,宗教禁忌没有对全民族语言产生较大的影响。例如: “…How would our Lord have been if Peter had rescued him in the Garden?”(Ernest H emingway,“A Farewell to Arms Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,1992,129页)“our Lord”在这里指的是“Jesus Christ”,即耶稣。 Compared with religious verbal taboos in English-speaking countries, there are similar taboos about God in Chinese as well. In the Chinese view of thinking, God enjoys such an absolutely high power that no one or other things have a capability to exceed. If a person wants to cite god as his witness while making his vows ,such phrases as "天" (sky)"上天作证", "对天发誓",or "上苍见证"will be chosen to express his feeling。在汉语中,即便谈到魔鬼也多直言不讳,如:“妖魔鬼怪”,“牛鬼蛇神”,“鬼东西”,“扮鬼脸”等。 另外,关于骂人的话,英语中的辱骂语都与宗教有关,比如:“Oh, God dammed”,“For Christ?s sake!”而汉语与宗教有关的固定的咒骂的话似乎很少,而大多与动物特别是与狗有关。例如:“狗东西”、“狼心狗肺”等。

跨文化交际与礼仪的重要性

跨文化交际与礼仪的重要性 随着经济全球化的发展,不同国家之间的交流和接触日益频繁,来自不同国家,有着不同文化背景的人们之间的交流成为人们普遍关注的问题。所谓的跨文化交际,是指来自不同文化背景的人从事交际活动、相互交流的过程。而跨文化交际与普通交际的差别就在于一个“跨”字,即交际双方来自不同的文化背景。然而,在跨文化交际中,由于交际双方的文化背景、习惯、习俗等的不同,交际者之间往往因不了解别国的风俗礼仪而产生误会甚至是冲突。因此,学习各国不同民族的文化礼仪、风俗习惯成为跨文化交际活动中一个不可忽视的重要内容。而跨文化的交际需要双方适当的礼仪作为连接的桥梁。是否能够在交流活动中成功地进行跨文化交际,最重要的一点是是否具备一定的跨文化礼仪知识。 荀子曰:“人无礼则不生,事无礼则不成,国无礼则不宁。”中国自古以来就有“礼仪之邦”的美誉。所谓“礼”,是教人尊敬与关心他人,使之合乎情理。所谓“节”是教人在言谈举止上要恰到其分,使之合乎事理。可见,小到人与人的交往,大到国家间的交往,都必须遵守社交礼仪规范,否则就会失礼失态。拥有长久历史的礼仪文化是古人留给我们的一笔丰厚财富,这对于跨文化的交际与礼仪的发展有着重要的作用。 下面,我们将从文化、涉外秘书工作、送礼习俗、商务交谈等角度阐释跨文化交际与礼仪的重要性。 一、跨文化交际与礼仪在文化方面的重要性 文化是人们行动的指南,指导人们的一切行动文化。在跨文化交际与礼仪中,文化是核心的部分。影响跨文化交际与礼仪的文化因素包括一个民族的历史传统、宗教、价值观念、社会组织、风俗习惯、社会所处的发展阶段和社会制度等。了解各国文化中存在的不同的文化模式和交往规则可以帮助交际者认识到文化差异对交际的影响,提高对跨文化现象的敏感度。它也可以帮助交际者理解跨文化交际语境中交际对象的行为取向。 二、跨文化交际与礼仪在涉外秘书工作中的重要性 涉外秘书往往会与不同国家的人员进行交流,这对于他们来时既是机遇也是挑战。由于不同的语言和文化背景而产生的跨文化交际的障碍比比皆是,作为秘书要处理好跨文化交际活动,避免跨文化交际障碍的出现,促进跨文化交际活动

跨文化交际礼仪

第四节跨文化交际礼仪 一、打电话 二、待人接物 三、着装与赴约 下面我们将为大家介绍跨文化交际时要涉及的一些礼仪。 一、打电话 1.预约 西方人有很强的时间观念,所以他们无论做什么事情都要有电话预约。 例如,你去订台、订宾馆、买机票、看医生、到朋友家拜访等等,一定要事先约好时间,几点几分。如果你到酒店或者餐厅,服务员一般会问你,“先生,请问您有预定吗?”所以,大家如果有机会到国外去留学、工作或者是旅游,一定要养成预约的习惯。如果没有得到主人的允许,不要擅自到别人家拜访,否则,这样做是很不礼貌的。 英国人很注重自己的隐私,如果不是关系特别好的朋友,一般他们不会邀请陌生人到家里去拜访。英语中有句习语“英国人的家是一座城堡。”如果你跟老师有问题要交流,也需要提前预约或者是在老师办公的时间,英语叫Office hour去拜访老师, 不可以随便到老师家里拜访。 另外,不要在清晨或者是晚上10点半以后给别人打电话,因为这样会让对方感到非常紧张,以为发生了什么重大事情。 2.邀请 西方人在邀请别人的时候,通常可以通过以下几种方式: 第一,发请柬第二,打电话第三,面对面邀请。 通常人们会提前一到两个月,至少也要提前一周的时间发出邀请。如果你是在这种场合邀请别人来吃饭,比如说大家已经坐好了,你才给朋友打电话,“喂,你在哪儿?我们在某某某酒楼吃饭,你过来吧。”那么这个人一定不会来。为什么?因为他觉得你不是特意请他的,你是临时才想到他的。这样做是极其不礼貌的。所以我们应该知道电话预约的习惯。如果你不能赴约,一定要提前打电话告诉对方因为什么事情不能赴约,要明确地告诉他,不要等到最后一天才打电话说,“对不起,我不能去。”这样也是很不礼貌的。 二、待人接物 1.宴请 中国人在请客时一般特别客气,主人或东道主通常会准备一大桌子的菜,有时候会请人到酒楼去吃饭,主人开场的第一句话会这么说,“哎呀,你看,我也不会做,随便凑合着吃吧,不成敬意。” 西方人一看,这么一桌子菜,这么丰盛,你还说没什么吃的,他会很不理解,感到很纳闷儿。另外,中国人特别客气,在吃饭的时候喜欢帮别人夹菜,如果客人遇到不喜欢或者不能吃的菜,又不好意思说,这样会令客人感到非常尴尬。 西方人在请客吃饭的时候,通常会加上这样一句话,我是特意为你准备的。他会加上“特意”两个字以表示他对客人的尊重。 另外,请客吃饭的时候,中国人的习惯是一定要提前到,有时候会帮主人打打下手,或者聊聊天。那么在西方,一定要准时赴约,不要提前到。为什么?因为主人在厨房做饭的时

英国的礼仪习俗

英国的礼仪习俗. 英国的礼仪习俗去了解外面的世界。英, ,很多人走出国门随着生活水平的提高我们只有知道其国家的礼仪习俗,国就是其中一个受人欢迎的国度。下面我就简单的介绍才能更好与其交往,进而融入其中好好的生活,一些英国的礼仪习俗。 1.“绅士”风度的原则。在社交场合遵循“女士优先”英国的男士崇尚绅士风度,尊重女性,待人谦和,衣冠得体,所谓绅士风度是指;为人彬彬有礼,谈吐高雅,知识渊博,见多识广,有爱心,尊老爱幼,无不良嗜好,身体

健康,举止文明,穿着得体,人际关系良好等。其具体表现有:进房间或进餐馆大多男的要替女士开门;如果男女双方一起进房间,开车门或做其他除非男的必须在女士的前头去选餐桌、是女子在前,男子要走在女士身旁靠来车方向的或过马路时,效劳;在街上行走,一侧,以免发生危险时,保护妇女免受伤害;如果一个男 子和两个女士一起走,他应当走在两者当中;如果男主人或女主人或者两者同坐一辆车来接客人去吃饭,客人应该挤在汽车的前座,让后座空着,因为司机就是男主人或女主人;在宴会上,主人把客人领进客厅时,如果客人是位女士,她进客厅时,厅中的大多数男子都要站起来以示敬意。如果女主人的女儿在,她要把客人给女儿作介绍。通常是把男士介绍给女士,除非他年长得多或地位高得多。一般的惯例是年轻的介绍给年长的。不管进入客厅的是男士还是女士,在客厅里就座的女士都不必起身为礼。宴会开始,男士们为女士们拉开椅子,帮女士入座; 而且总是习惯先将妻子,另外丈夫通常要偕同妻子参加各种社交活动 介绍给贵宾认识;男士应该先向所遇到的熟悉的女士微微点头打招呼。如果某位女士向您走来,请记住,如果她主动伸出手,您才能与她 握手。如今世风已不如但是有些英国人慨叹,在对待女士的礼遇方面,工资待遇和接受高等教育方以前。据说是因为妇女在选举、就业、 看面获得了与男人平等的权利,她们就不再需要以往的那种照顾了。来,对女士的礼貌是出于男士觉得女士需要保护。 2.英国人的着装

跨文化交际开题报告

关于跨文化交际中的禁忌问题 A Probe into the Differences of Taboo Between Western and Chinese Cultures (一)选题依据 在经济全球化的今天,国际交流日益频繁,尤其是跨文化交际也越来越频繁,在跨文化中的语用失误越来越受到人们的重视。禁忌是世界各民族之间普遍存在的一种文化现象,禁忌规范了人们的言语行为与社会交际,而中西文化的巨大差异直接导致了汉英禁忌语的迥异,就是禁忌语,跨文化交际是现代交际的重要组成部分,了解语言禁忌现象就成了最基本的要求,可以使跨文化交际更加得体,更清晰的展示出中西方禁忌语的异同,以便在跨文化交际中能避免出现言语不当的问题,并通过中西方禁忌语的异同研究出来。 (二)选题意义 禁忌是世界各民族之间普遍存在的一种文化现象,禁忌规范了人们的言语行为与社会交际。而中西文化的巨大差异直接导致了汉英禁忌语的迥异。所以,无论是在英语还是汉语中,我们都会遇到一些因传统或社会风俗不同,会引起对方强烈反感,这样便导致了有些词语我们要避免使用,就是禁忌语。在经济和信息日益全球化的今天,不同民族不同国家的人之间的交流也日益频繁。跨文化交际是现代交际的重要组成部分,了解语言禁忌现象就成了最基本的要求,可以使跨文化交际更加得体。 本选题重点关注日常交流中跨文化交际语的禁忌语,从语用学的角度出发,在跨文化交际的视野里,界定和区分了禁忌语的几种类型,分析了中西方禁忌语不同的种种原因,以期在注重语言知识的同时,避免不必要的交际失当,从而提高英语综合应用能力。在日常对话中避免语用失误的出现,即使出现也能很快认识并改正,而此篇论文的目的就是总结前人研究的成果,更清晰的展示出中西方禁忌语的异同,以便在跨文化交际中能避免出现言语不当的问题,并通过中西方禁忌语的异同研究出其折射的中西方文化的差异,这样可以更透彻的了解中西方文化,对于跨文化交际很有帮助。 (三)课题写作的目标 禁忌语是一种普遍的社会现象和语言现象,它与人们的日常生活和社会习惯有着紧密的联系,这在每个民族和每种语言中都有体现。中西方文化和信仰差异导致了禁忌语也存在着较大的差别。 于是,这篇论文要先陈诉清楚禁忌语的定义,来源,特征,然后总结出中西方禁忌语的异同,最后从这些异同中总结出产生中西方禁忌语相似和差异的原因,最终从这些原因中总结禁忌语折射在文化上的差异。了解了这种差异,才能避免的跨文化交际因为文化差异而发生一些问题,有助于更好地跨文化交际。 (四)课题的基本内容 Content

文化差异与跨文化交际2019尔雅答案100分

。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。 丝绸之路 1 中西方文化交流的历史源远流长,历史上有一条连接东西方文明古国的通道被称之为“丝绸之路”。“丝绸之路”的得名是由(D)提出的。 A、张骞 B、汉和帝 C、汉武帝 D、李希霍芬 2 “丝绸之路”曾作为连接中西方的重要通道发挥着重要的作用。不发挥的作用主要是指(B)。 A、贸易作用 B、军事作用 C、外交作用 D、文化交流作用 3

“丝绸之路”加强了东西方的贸易往来。通过“丝绸之路”中国没将(B)运输到东南亚、南亚、东非以及欧洲各国。 A、瓷器 B、茶叶 C、香料 D、丝绸 4 古代丝绸之路不仅指陆上丝绸之路,还包括海上丝绸之路。对 5 通过丝绸之路,中国人将四大发明传到欧洲;西方人将印度哲学、阿拉伯的历法和医术传入中国,促进了中西方文化的交流。对 东西方文化传播 1 佛教传入中国后对中国文化的影响巨大。中国历史上就曾修建过许多反映佛教文化的石窟,其中下面那个不是敦煌莫高窟与(A)并称为中国四大石窟。 A、固原须弥山石窟 B、天水麦积山石窟 C、洛阳龙门石窟

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