现代汉字学名词解释
1．音素文字——文字的基本单位记录的是语言中的音素（音位），这种文字是音素文字。（2页）
2．语素文字——文字的基本单位记录的是语言中的语素，这种文字是语素文字。（2）3．字种数——字形虽然不同，如表示的是同一个语素，这样得到的字数是字种数。（9）4．字频——字频就是汉字的使用频度，指在一定的历史时期内经抽样取得的文字资料里，每一个汉字使用次数与抽样资料总字数的比例。（33）
5．通用字——书写现代汉语一般要用到的字，也是出版印刷、辞书编纂、信息处理等的用字。（48）
6．常用字——书写现代汉语经常要用到的字，也就是频度和使用度高的字。（48）
7．拥字量——在一个确定的汉字字符集中，每种笔画数有多少个汉字，这是该笔画数的拥字量。
8．笔画——构成汉字的线条，是汉字构形的最小单位。
9．笔形——指笔画的形状。
10．部件——也叫字根、字元、字素，是由笔画组成的具有组配汉字功能的构字单位。11．独体字——由一个基础部件构成的字是独体字。
12．合体字——由两个或两个以上部件构成的字是合体字。
13．字符——分析汉字的内部结构，得到的基本构字单位是字符。（92）
14．记号——和整字在意义和读音上都没有练习的字符是记号。（93）
1．音素文字
文字基本单位记录的是音素，这样的文字就是音素文字。
2．语素文字
文字基本单位记录的是语素，这样的文字就是语素文字。
3．字种数
根据记录语素的多少统计出来的字数就是字种数。
4．字频
字频就是汉字的使用频度，是指在一定历史的历史时期内经抽样取得的文字资料中每个汉字使用次数与抽样资料总字数的比例。
5．通用字
通用字就是书写现代汉语一般要用到的字，也就是出版印刷、辞书编撰、信息处理等方面的用字。
1．拥字量：
答：在一个确定的汉字字符集中，每一种笔画数拥有的汉字数量就是该笔画数的拥字量。例如《现代汉语通用字表》一画的汉字有“一、乙”两个，笔画数1的拥字量就是2。
2．部件
答：部件是汉字外部结构分析得到的结构单位，由笔画组成，具有组配汉字功能，例如“种”由“禾、中”两个部件构成。
解题提示：解释这个名词，“在一个确定的汉字字符集中”不可缺少。
3．字符
答：字符是分析汉字内部结构得到的基本构字单位，例如“灯”中的“火、丁”都是字符。
4. 记号
答：记号是和整字的读音和意义都没有联系的字符，是字符的类别之一，例如“河”中的“可”。
5. 笔形
答：笔形指汉字笔画的形状，包括基本笔形和派生笔形两种，例如汉字笔画横的笔形是“一”
1．异读字：异读字就是多音同义字，指一个字有不同的读音，但表示的意义没有区别，比如“亚”字，标准音是去声，但不少人念上声，就是异读字。
2．多音字：多音字就是有多个读音，表示多项意义的汉字，也叫多音多义字。例如“和”有四个读音。
3．音级：音级就是根据音项的使用频率确定的级别，通常分为常读、次常读和罕读三级。4．同音字：读音相同而意义和形体都不相同的一组汉字就是同音字，例如“一、衣、依”。5．音序法：汉字的检字法之一，就是根据汉字的读音，按照汉语拼音字母顺序排列汉字先后顺序的方法。
1.现代汉字的规范化：
现代汉字的规范化主要包括字量、字形、字音、字序这四个方面，要实现汉字在这四个方面的规范化，就要做到“四定”：定量、定形、定音、定序。
2.政府规范：
是由政府主管部门发布的，一般带有强制性。
3.专家规范：
是由语言文字学家提出来的，不具有强制性，可是权威专家的规范意见对社会有很大的影响。
4.社会用字：
社会用字就是流通于社会，用于社会交际领域的字，面向公众，面向他人，包括出版印刷用字、影视屏幕用字、计算机用字和城镇街头用字。
5.四定：
四定就是汉字的定量、定形、定音、定序，是现代汉字规范化的主要内容。
1、文字——文字是记录语言的书写符号系统，是人类最重要的辅助性交际工具。
2、音素文字——这种文字记录的是语言中的音素，如英文、俄文。
3、音节文字——这种文字的每个字母记录的是语言里的一个音节，如日文。
4、语素文字——这种文字记录的是语言中的语素，如汉语。
5、字母——拼音文字或注音符号的最小的书写单位。
6、文化——有广义和狭义两种理解：
广义的文化指人类在社会实践中所创造的物质财富和精神财富的总和。
狭义的文化指社会的意识形态，以及与之相适应的制度和组织结构。
7、自源文字——凡是不依傍其它文字，独立创造出来的文字即是自源文字。
8、借源文字——凡是借鉴、参考或依傍其它文字而创造出来的文字即是借源文字。
9、汉字文化圈——指在汉字的基础上形成的汉民族文化所影响的区域，具体地说，
是指以中国为主体，包括韩国、日本、东南亚诸国在内的使用汉字的国家。
10、现代汉字——是指现代汉语用字，也就是现代白话文用字。
11、字频——就是汉字的使用频度，是指在一定的历史时期内经抽样取得的文字资料
里，每个汉字的使用次数与抽样资料总字数的比例。
12、汉字效用递减率——就是汉字出现的频度的不平衡规律，使用频率越高的汉字，
覆盖面越广，效用越好，使用频率越低的汉字，覆盖面越窄，效用越差。例如5千个汉字，使用频率列第一的汉字效用最高，以后的各个汉字，效用随使用频率的降低而递
减。效用和使用频率是成正比的。
13、笔画趋简率——是指构成汉字的笔画数是同汉字的使用频率密切相关，汉字使用
频率越高，构成汉字的笔画数越少，汉字使用频率越低，构成汉字的笔画数越多，字的使用频率和字的笔画数成反比。
14、字形数——就是根据字形，凡字形不同的汉字，不管音义是否相同，就算是不同的字，如：“国”和“国”就算两个字，这样得到的字数就是字形数。
15、字种数——不但看字形，还要看所表示的语素。字形虽不同，如果所表示的是
同一语素，就算一个字，这样得到的字数就是字种数。
16、字性——一个汉字的字性是由其记录的语素的性质决定的，要审定字性，就要
划清两条界线，一条是现代汉语用字和古代汉语专用字的界线，另一条是现代汉语用字和现代汉语方言用字的界线。
17、通用字——是书写现代汉语一般要用到的字，也是出版印刷、辞书编纂、信息处理等的用字。
18、常用字——就是经常要用到的字，也就是频度和使用度高的字。
19、专门用字——以社会某个特定的群体用字为对象的就是专门用字。如，扫盲用字、小学教育用字、对外汉语教学用字等。
20、溯源分析——是以这个字在产生时候的字形为对象所做的分析。（谢俊）
21.现状分析：是以当前楷书规范字形为对象所做的分析。(P64)
22.外部结构分析：是研究一个字怎样由最小的构形单位逐层组合为二为二维的方块汉字，包括组合成分和组合方式。（P64）
23.内部结构分析：是研究字形和字音、字义的关系，从而说明构字的理据，得出现代汉字的构字类型。（P65）
24.笔画：指构成汉字的线条，是汉字构形的最小单位。（P65）
25.用字量：指一个确定的汉字字符集中，每种笔画数有多少个汉字。（P66）
26.笔顺：是指书写汉字时下笔先后的顺序，是人们正确书写汉字的经验总结。（P72）
27.部件：也叫字根、字符、字素，它是由笔画组成的具有组配汉字功能的构字单位。（P74）
28.基础部件：指最小的不能再拆分的部件。（P78）
29.通用字：是指具有通用性，参加两个以上不同字形的构字的部件。（P79）
30.独体字：是由一个基础部件构成的字。（P86）
31.合体字: 是由两个或两个以上基础部件构成的字。（P86）
32.字符: 是由分析汉字的内部结构，得到的基本构字单位。（P92）
33意符：是和整字在意义上有联系的符号。（P93）
34音符：是和整字在读音上有联系的符号。（P93）
35记号：是和整字在意义和读音上都没有联系的符号。（P93）
36新六书：指现代汉字中三类字符搭配使用，构成现代汉字六种结构。(P93)
37记号字：由记号构成的字。
38.简化字:根据《汉字简化方案》简化的汉字。
39.繁体字: 跟简化字相应的笔画比较多的字。
40.异体字:读音意义相同而字形不同的字。（徐蕾）
41．异形词（P136）：也叫异体词，是指现代汉语书面语中并存并用的同音、同义而书写形式不同的词语。
42．政府标准（P137）：是由政府主管部门发布的，一般带有强制性。
43．专家标准（P137）：是由语言文字学家提出来的，不具有强制性，可是权威专家的规范意见对社会有很大的影响。
44．新国音（P144）：以北京语音作为国音的标准。这样决定的国音，后来被称为“新国音”。45．异读字（P146）：是多音多义字，也就是一个字有两个或两个以上的读音而表示的意义相同。
46．多音多义字（P152）：简称多音字，他的特点是一个字有两个或两个以上的读音，而不同的读音又联系着不同的意义。
47．音项（P153）：在辞书里面，多音多义字的每个读音叫音项。
48．音级（P153）：一个多音多义字的几个音项使用的频率不同，有高有低，据此可以分出音级来，共有三级：常读、次常读、罕读。
49．同音字（P160）：是指意义不同而读音相同的一组字。
50．部首法（P172）：包括立部和归部两个部分。立部指的是要建立哪些部，不建立哪些部；归部指的是如何确定一个字的部首，以便把这个字归入恰当的部。
51．部首（P168）：字典中用来代表相同类别的偏旁的叫部首。如：亻、冫。
52．音序法（P177）：就是按照字音来排列单字，以建立字序的方法。
53．音码输入法（P206）：实际上是拼音转变法，就是输入拼音由计算机自动转变为汉字。54．语音识别（P212）：通过与计算机连接的传声装置，把语音信号传输到计算机。利用语音分析技术，由计算机辨认识别后形成汉字内部码，这个过程叫汉语语音识别。
55．正字法（P219）：关于建立并推行字形规范的工作叫正字法。
56．规范汉字（P219）：主要是指新中国建立以来由政府发布的规范文件所规定的汉字。57．社会用字（P220）：指的是流通于社会、用于社会交际领域的字。
58．四定（P225）：现代汉字规范化主要包括字量、字形、字音、字序这四个方面，要实现汉字在这四个方面的规范化，就要做到四定：定量、定形、定音、定序。
59．书同文（P241）：将海峡两岸汉字统一为一体。
60．非汉字字符（P267）：除了汉字以外还有三种非汉字字符，阿拉伯数字、拉丁字母、标点符号。（赵赴起）
现代管理学名词解释 1、管理：在社会活动中，一定的人或组织所拥有的权力，通过一系列的职能活动，对人力、物力、财力及其他资源进行协调或处理，以达到预期目标的活动过程。 2、企业再造理论：20世纪90年代以来，西方国家兴起了企业再造运动，形成了“从毛毛虫变蝴蝶”的革命。 3、企业再造：是指企业在产品与服务质量、顾客满意度、生产与管理成本、员工工作效率等绩效评价的关键指标上能够得到显著改善，重新设计企业的经营、管理及运作方式。 4、红海：是指当前产业已存在的饱和市场，其利润前景暗淡，恶性竞争此起彼伏。 5、红海战略：是指竞争的结果，是传统的竞争战略，是一种“血腥”的、你死我活的战略。 6、蓝海：是指未曾开辟的新兴市场，这一市场中的客户需求与传统发生了重大变化，企业获得了利润高速增长的机会。 7、蓝海战略：新兴的战略，它要求企业把注意力从市场的供给放转向需求方，从关注并力图超越竞争对手转向为买方提供价值的飞跃，即不参与瓜分现有的日趋萎缩的市场，也不以竞争对手为标杆，而是努力扩大需求摆脱竞争。 8、决策：是指管理者根据对客观规律的认识，为一定的管理行为确定管理目标，制定并选择管理方案的过程。 9、战略决策：是指决策目标所要解决的问题都带有全局性、方向性，以及影响深远的决策。 10、战术决策：指为了达到组织所采取的程序、途径、手段和措施的决策。 11、程序化决策：指决策过程中的每一步骤都有规范化的固定程序，这些程序可以重复地利用于解决同类的问题。 12、非程序化决策：决策过程没固定程序和常规方法，解决的问题都是非重复出现的管理问题。 13、平时决策：指在一个相对稳定的时期，决策者针对各种管理问题所作出的决策。 14、危机决策：是指当组织的重大安全利益和核心价值观念受到严重威胁和挑战，组织生存处于危机时期，决策者作出的重要决策和应急反应。 15、初始决策：指决策者对从事某种活动或从事该种活动的方案所进行的初次选择。
《现代教育原理》名词解释及简答题模拟 名词解释模拟： 广义的教育 答案：是自有人类以来就产生的教育。教育是人类社会特有的一种社会现象，是培养人的一种社会活动。广泛地说，凡是有目的地增进人的知识技能、影响人的思想品德的活动，不管是有组织的或是无组织的、系统的或零碎的，都是教育。 学校教育 答案：是人类社会发展到一定历史阶段的产物。教育是教育者根据一定社会的要求和年轻一代身心发展的规律，对受教育者所进行的一种有目的、有计划、有组织地传授知识技能，培养思想品德，发展智力和体力的活动，通过这种活动把受教育者培养成为一定社会服务的人。 教育规律 答案：是教育现象与其他社会现象，以及教育现象内部各个构成要素之间本质的、必然的、内在的联系或关系。教育规律是对教育实践的深层次本质联系的反映，具有普遍性客观性和永恒性。 简答题模拟： 简述教育的本质特性。 （1）教育是人类社会特有的一种社会现象； （2）教育是人类社会特有的一种有意识的活动； （3）教育是人类社会特有的传递经验的形式； （4）教育是有意识的以影响人的身心发展为目标的社会活动。
在教育过程中受教育者的主体性表现有哪些？ 答案：答出以下任意5点即可得10分。 （1）受教育者是学校存在的主体。 （2）受教育者及其活动是学校职能部门及其管理的中心。 （3）受教育者是学校和教师评价的主体。 （4）受教育者是教育任务完成的主体。 （5）受教育者的身心发展特点制约着教师的教。 （6）每一个受教育者都有他们各自的独立性、选择性、需要性和创造性，有他们个人的兴趣、爱好和主观能动性。 简述现代学制的发展趋势。 答案：答出以下任意5点即可得10分。 （1）教育社会化与社会教育化； （2）重视早期教育； （3）初等教育入学年龄提前，义务教育年限延长； （4）寻求普通教育与职业技术教育的最佳结合； （5）高等教育出现多级层次，学校类型多样化； （6）以终身教育思想为指导，实现教育制度一体化，发展继续教育。 简述为什么要开展素质教育与其特征有哪些。 答案：（1）为什么要进行素质教育：
现代语言学 一绪论 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants. 3 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
Compounding is a process of word formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. The word formed in this way is called compound Blending is a process of word formation by which a word is created by combining parts of other words. Words formed in this way are called blends. From morphological viewpoints, there are four types of blending: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms, depending on the pronunciation of the words. Initialisms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as lettersEEC: European Economic Community Acronyms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as words:OPEC: Organisation of Petroleum Export Countries According to Leonard Bloomfield’s point of view, a word is a minimum free form, that is to say, the smallest form that may appear in isolation. There are two types of linguistic forms: one is the bound form, the other is the free form. A bound form is one which cannot occur on its own as a separate word, e.g. the various affixes: de-, -tion, -ize, etc. A free form is one which can occur as a separate word. For example, the word lovely contains the free form love and the suffix –ly. The suffix –ly in the word lovely, of course, i s not a free for m, because it cannot stand by itself. So we call it a bound form. A word is a minimum free form The morpheme can be considered as the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 1)Morphemes are commonly classified into two forms according to their character: one is free form, and the other is bound form. 2)Free morphemes自由词素are morphemes which can occur as separate words. That is to say, a free morpheme can stand alone as a word. 3)Bound morphemes粘着词素are morphemes which cannot stand alone as words. They are mainly affixes. That is to say, a bound morpheme is one that must appear with at least one other morpheme, bound or free in a word. 4)2) Morphemes may be classified into two categories according to their lexical and grammatical relationships: 5)lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemesLexical morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words Grammatical morphemes are morphemes used to express grammatical relationships between a word and its context, such as plurality or past tense There are three types of words according to morphology:Simple words,Compound words,Complex words Conversion Conversion is a main type of word-formation assigning the base to a different word
教育学综合名词解释汇总 名词解释： 1、教育先行：教育先行就是要求教育要面向未来，使教育在适应现存生产力和政治经济发展水平的基础上，适当超前于社会生产力和政治经济的发展，其中一是教育投资增长速度应当超过经济增长速度；二是在人才培养上要兼顾社会主义现代化建设近期与远期的需要，目标、内容等方面适应超前。 2、教育目的的社会本位论：社会本位的教育目的论的基本主张是以社会的稳定和发展为教育的最高宗旨，教育目的应当依据社会的要求来确定。代表人物：涂尔干、孔德等。 3、终身教育：它在20世纪60年代中期星期，70年代产生广泛影响，主要代表人物是法国的朗格郎。终生教育强调教育史贯穿人的整个一生及人的发展各个阶段的持续不断的过程；终生教育的主要任务是养成学习的习惯和继续学习所需的各种能力。 4、教师专业性发展：教师专业化是指教师的专业知识、专业能力和职业道德品质的成长发展的过程，也是教师职业具有自己独特的职业要求和职业条件，成为专业人员并在教学中逐步成熟的发展过程。这个过程包括两个方面的内容：教师职业专业化和教师教育专业化。其中教师职业专业化只能是通过教师教育专业化来实现。 5、先行组织者：奥苏贝尔提出的。是先于学习任务呈现的一种引导性材料，它的抽象、概括和综合水平高于学习任务，并且与认知结构中原有的观念和心的学习任务相关联。其目的是为新的学习任务提供观念上的固着点，增加新旧知识之间的可辨别性，以促进学习的迁移。 6、五育并举的教育方针：在全国第一次教育讨论会上,蔡元培明确提出新的教育方针,提出“五育并举”的思想。包括军国民教育（军国民教育即军事体育）、公民道德教育即德育、实利主义教育（实利主义教育即智育）世界观教育、美感教育（美感教育亦称美育）。。“五育”并举的教育就是德智体美和谐发展的教育，是符合当时历史发展要求的，是对封建教育及半殖民到半封建教育宗旨的否定，在教育思想史上也是一个巨大的进步。从人才培养看，也符合人的全面发展的教育规律。 7、苏格拉底法：苏格拉底在教学中形成了具有自己特色的方法，一般称为“苏格拉底法”，苏格拉底将它称为“产婆术”。苏格拉底法可以分为四个部分：讥讽、助产术、归纳和下定义。所谓“讥讽”，就是在谈话中让对方谈出自己对某一问题的看法，然后揭露出对方谈话中的自相矛盾，使对方承认自己对这一问题实际上一无所知。所谓“助产术”，就是用谈话法帮助对方把知识回忆起来，就像助产婆帮助产妇产出婴儿一样。所谓“归纳”，是通过问答使对方的认识能逐步排除事物的个别的特殊的东西，揭示出事物的本质的普遍的东西。从而得出事物的“定义”。这是一个从现象、个别到普遍、一般的过程。 8、《初等教育法》：1870年，英国国会正式颁布“初等教育法”(Elementary也称福斯特法案)。这是英国国民教育制度正式形成的标志。 ⑴提出在全国各地5-12岁普及义务教育； ⑵国家仍然保留国民教育，特别是初等教育辅助权，监督权； ⑶将全国分成若干学区，每学区建立可征收税收，地方教育局领导地方教育，承认英国私立教育机构，认为这是国家教育的一种类型； ⑷宗教科目与世俗科目分离。 9、学习动机：是指激发个体进行学习活动、维持已引起的学习活动并致使行为朝向一定的
3.What are the branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? (语言学的主要分支是什么。每个分支的研究对象是什么？) Linguistics mainly involves the following branches: 1)General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study 2)Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication 3)Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication 4)Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words 5)Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences 6)Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language. 7)Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in the context of use 8)Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society 9)Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind. 10)Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. 11)Other related branches are anthropological linguistics(人类语言学), neurological linguistics（神经语言学）, mathematical linguistics （数学语言学）, and computational linguistics（计算机语言学）. 4.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? (现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？) Traditional grammar is prescriptive（规定性）; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive（描述性）; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not. 5.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic（共时性）or diachronic（历时性）? Why? (The description of language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.) Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. Unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view. 6.Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writing? Why?在现代语言学里说话或写作哪一个有优先权？为什 么呢？ Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken language for the following reasons: First, speech precedes writing. The writing system is always a later invention used to record the speech. There are still some languages that only have the spoken form. Then, a larger amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing. Third, speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language. 7.Saussure 是如何区分语言langue和言语parole的？ (The distinction between langue and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words.) Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. 8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用performance各指什么？ (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance.) Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc… Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard (偶然的). 9.How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance? And what is their difference?索绪尔是如何区分语言和言语类似乔姆斯基的区分能力和表现？和它们的区别是什么？ Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out one aspect of language for serious study. They differ in that Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 10.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?你认为应该怎样用一个良好的，全面的定义来总结语言的特征？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. First of all, language is a system, i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it refers to. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages. The term “human” is meant to specify that language is human-specific. 11.What features of human language have been specified by Charles Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system? 人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？ 1.Arbitrariness（任意性）: (课本答案：a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of) It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the total number. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2.Productivity（创造性）: （课本答案：creativity: animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send）Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con?struction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those they have never said or heard before. 3.Duality（二重性）: （课本答案：a feature totally lacking in any animal communication）It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or dou?ble articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. 4.Displacement（移位性）: （课本答案：no animal can “talk” about things removed from the immediate situation）Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
第一章word 1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 第三章formation 1 1. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 2. Allomorph --- Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are know as allomorphs. 3. Free morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes which are independent of other morphemes. 4. Bound Morphemes --- They are morphemes which cannot occur as separate words. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. 7. Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are known as inflectional morphemes. 8. Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word. 11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12. Stem --- a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. 第四章formation 2 1. Affixation --- affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. 2. Prefixation --- is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Suffixation--- is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. 3. Compounding（Compositon）-- is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. 4. Conversion-- is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. 5. Blending-- is the formation of new words by combined by parts of two words or a word plus a plus a part of another word. 6. Clipping- is the formation of new words by shortening a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remain instead.