原文
Heat treatment of metal
The generally accepted definition for heat treating metals and metal alloys is “heating and cooling a solid metal or alloy in a way so as to obtain specific conditions or properties。”Heating for the sole purpose of hot working (as in forging operations）is excluded from this definition．Likewise，the types of heat treatment that are sometimes used for products such as glass or plastics are also excluded from coverage by this definition．
Transformation Curves
The basis for heat treatment is the time—temperature-transformation curves or TTT curves where，in a single diagram all the three parameters are plotted．Because of the shape of the curves，they are also sometimes called C-curves or S-curves．
To plot TTT curves，the particular steel is held at a given temperature and the structure is examined at predetermined intervals to record the amount of transformation taken place．It is known that the eutectoid steel (T80) under equilibrium conditions contains，all austenite above 723℃，whereas below，it is the pearlite．To form pearlite,the carbon atoms should diffuse to form cementite．The diffusion being a rate process,would require sufficient time for complete transformation of austenite to pearlite．From different samples，it is possible to note the amount of the transformation taking place at any temperature．These points are then plotted on a graph with time and temperature as the axes．Through these points，transformation curves can be plotted as shown in Fig.1 for eutectoid steel．The curve at extreme left represents the time required for the transformation of austenite to pearlite to start at any given temperature．Similarly，the curve at extreme right represents the time required for completing the transformation．Between the two curves are the points representing partial transformation。The horizontal lines Ms and Mf represent the start and finish of martensitic transformation.
Classification of Heat Treating Processes
In some instances,heat treatment procedures are clear—cut in terms of technique and application．whereas in other instances，descriptions or simple explanations are insufficient because the same technique frequently may be used to obtain different objectives．For example, stress relieving and tempering are often accomplished with the same equipment and by use of identical time and temperature cycles．The objectives，however，are different for the two processes．The following descriptions of the principal heat treating processes are generally arranged according to their interrelationships．
Normalizing consists of heating a ferrous alloy to a suitable temperature （usually 50°F to 100°F or 28℃to 56℃) above its specific upper transformation temperature．This is followed by cooling in still air to at least some temperature well below its transformation temperature range．For low-carbon steels，the resulting structure and properties are the same as those achieved by full annealing；for most ferrous alloys, normalizing and annealing are not synonymous.
Normalizing usually is used as a conditioning treatment，notably for refining the grains of steels that have been subjected to high temperatures for forging or other hot working operations. The normalizing process usually is succeeded by another heat treating operation such as austenitizing for hardening, annealing，or tempering.
Annealing is a generic term denoting a heat treatment that consists of heating to and holding at a suitable temperature followed by cooling at a suitable rate。It is used primarily to soften metallic materials, but also to simultaneously produce desired changes in other properties or in microstructure。The purpose of such changes may be, but is not confined to, improvement of machinability, facilitation of cold work （known as in—process annealing)，improvement of mechanical or electrical properties, or to increase dimensional stability。When applied solely to relive stresses, it commonly is called stress-relief annealing, synonymous with stress relieving.
When the term “annealing”is applied to ferrous alloys without qualification, full annealing is applied. This is achieved by heating above the alloy’s transformation temperature, then applying a cooling cycle which provides maximum softness. This cycle may vary widely，depending on composition and characteristics of the specific alloy。
Quenching is a rapid cooling of a steel or alloy from the austenitizing temperature by immersing the work piece in a liquid or gaseous medium. Quenching medium commonly used include water，5％brine, 5％caustic in an aqueous solution，oil, polymer solutions，or gas （usually air or nitrogen)。
Selection of a quenching medium depends largely on the hardenability of material and the mass of the material being treating (principally section thickness)。
The cooling capabilities of the above-listed quenching media vary greatly。In selecting a quenching medium，it is best to avoid a solution that has more cooling power than is needed to achieve the results, thus minimizing the possibility of cracking and warp of the parts being treated. Modifications of the term quenching include direct quenching, fog quenching, hot quenching，interrupted quenching，selective quenching，spray quenching, and time quenching。
Tempering. In heat treating of ferrous alloys, tempering consists of reheating the austenitized and quench-hardened steel or iron to some preselected temperature that is below the lower transformation temperature (generally below 1300 ℃or 705 ℃). Tempering offers a means of obtaining various combinations of mechanical properties。Tempering temperatures used for hardened steels are often no higher than 300 ℃（150 ℃). The term “tempering" should not be confused with either process annealing or stress relieving。Even though time and temperature cycles for the three processes may be the same，the conditions of the materials being processed and the objectives may be different。
Stress relieving。Like tempering, stress relieving is always done by heating to some temperature below the lower transformation temperature for steels and irons. For nonferrous metals，the temperature may vary from slightly above room temperature to several hundred degrees, depending on the alloy and the amount of stress relief that is desired。
The primary purpose of stress relieving is to relieve stresses that have been imparted to the workpiece from such processes as forming，rolling, machining or welding。The usual procedure is to heat workpiece to the pre-established temperature long enough to reduce the residual stresses (this is a time—and temperature-dependent operation）to an acceptable level；this is followed by cooling at a relatively slow rate to avoid creation of new stresses。
The generally accepted definition for heat treating metals and metal alloys is “heating and cooling a solid metal or alloy in a way so as to obtain specific conditions or properties." Heating for the sole purpose of hot working （as in forging operations) is excluded from this definition．Likewise，the types of heat treatment that are sometimes used for products such as glass or plastics are also excluded from coverage by this definition．
Transformation Curves
The basis for heat treatment is the time—temperature-transformation curves or TTT curves where，in a single diagram all the three parameters are plotted．Because of the shape of the curves，they are also sometimes called C-curves or S—curves．
To plot TTT curves，the particular steel is held at a given temperature and the structure is examined at predetermined intervals to record the amount of transformation taken place．It is known that the eutectoid steel (T80）under equilibrium conditions contains，all austenite above 723℃,whereas below，it is pearlite．To form pearlite，the carbon atoms should diffuse to form cementite．The diffusion being a rate process,would require sufficient time for complete transformation of austenite to pearlite．From different samples，it is possible to note the amount of the transformation taking place at any temperature．These points are then plotted on a graph with time and
temperature as the axes．Through these points，transformation curves can be plotted as shown in Fig.1 for eutectoid steel．The curve at extreme left represents the time required for the transformation of austenite to pearlite to start at any given temperature．Similarly，the curve at extreme right represents the time required for completing the transformation．Between the two curves are the points representing partial transformation. The horizontal lines Ms and Mf represent the start and finish of martensitic transformation.
Classification of Heat Treating Processes
In some instances，heat treatment procedures are clear—cut in terms of technique and application．whereas in other instances，descriptions or simple explanations are insufficient because the same technique frequently may be used to obtain different objectives．For example，stress relieving and tempering are often accomplished with the same equipment and by use of identical time and temperature cycles．The objectives，however，are different for the two processes．The following descriptions of the principal heat treating processes are generally arranged according to their interrelationships．
Normalizing consists of heating a ferrous alloy to a suitable temperature (usually 50°F to 100°F or 28℃to 56℃）above its specific upper transformation temperature．This is followed by cooling in still air to at least some temperature well below its transformation temperature range．For low—carbon steels，the resulting structure and properties are the same as those achieved by full annealing；for most ferrous alloys，normalizing and annealing are not synonymous.
Normalizing usually is used as a conditioning treatment, notably for refining the grains of steels that have been subjected to high temperatures for forging or other hot working operations。The normalizing process usually is succeeded by another heat treating operation such as austenitizing for hardening，annealing, or tempering.
Annealing is a generic term denoting a heat treatment that consists of heating to and holding at a suitable temperature followed by cooling at a suitable rate。It is used primarily to soften metallic materials, but also to simultaneously produce desired changes in other properties or in microstructure. The purpose of such changes may be，but is not confined to, improvement of machinability, facilitation of cold work (known as in-process annealing），improvement of mechanical or electrical properties, or to increase dimensional stability. When applied solely to relive stresses, it commonly is called stress-relief annealing，synonymous with stress relieving。
When the term “annealing" is applied to ferrous alloys without qualification, full annealing is applied. This is achieved by heating above the alloy’s transformation temperature，then applying a
cooling cycle which provides maximum softness。This cycle may vary widely，depending on composition and characteristics of the specific alloy.
Quenching is a rapid cooling of a steel or alloy from the austenitizing temperature by immersing the workpiece in a liquid or gaseous medium. Quenching medium commonly used include water，5％brine，5％caustic in an aqueous solution, oil, polymer solutions, or gas (usually air or nitrogen）。
Selection of a quenching medium depends largely on the hardenability of material and the mass of the material being treating （principally section thickness)。
The cooling capabilities of the above-listed quenching media vary greatly。In selecting a quenching medium, it is best to avoid a solution that has more cooling power than is needed to achieve the results, thus minimizing the possibility of cracking and warp of the parts being treated. Modifications of the term quenching include direct quenching，fog quenching, hot quenching, interrupted quenching, selective quenching, spray quenching，and time quenching。
Tempering. In heat treating of ferrous alloys, tempering consists of reheating the austenitized and quench—hardened steel or iron to some preselected temperature that is below the lower transformation temperature （generally below 1300 ℃or 705 ℃）. Tempering offers a means of obtaining various combinations of mechanical properties. Tempering temperatures used for hardened steels are often no higher than 300 ℃（150 ℃). The term “tempering”should not be confused with either process annealing or stress relieving. Even though time and temperature cycles for the three processes may be the same, the conditions of the materials being processed and the objectives may be different.
Stress relieving. Like tempering, stress relieving is always done by heating to some temperature below the lower transformation temperature for steels and irons. For nonferrous metals，the temperature may vary from slightly above room temperature to several hundred degrees，depending on the alloy and the amount of stress relief that is desired。
The primary purpose of stress relieving is to relieve stresses that have been imparted to the workpiece from such processes as forming, rolling，machining or welding。The usual procedure is to heat workpiece to the pre-established temperature long enough to reduce the residual stresses (this is a time—and temperature—dependent operation）to an acceptable level; this is followed by cooling at a relatively slow rate to avoid creation of new stresses.
The generally accepted definition for heat treating metals and metal alloys is “heating and cooling a solid metal or alloy in a way so as to obtain specific conditions or properties.”Heating for the sole purpose of hot working (as in forging operations) is excluded from this definition．Likewise，the types of heat treatment that are sometimes used for products such as glass or plastics are also excluded from coverage by this definition．
Transformation Curves
The basis for heat treatment is the time—temperature—transformation curves or TTT curves where，in a single diagram all the three parameters are plotted．Because of the shape of the curves，they are also sometimes called C—curves or S-curves．
To plot TTT curves，the particular steel is held at a given temperature and the structure is examined at predetermined intervals to record the amount of transformation taken place．It is known that the eutectoid steel （T80）under equilibrium conditions contains，all austenite above 723℃，whereas below，it is pearlite．To form pearlite，the carbon atoms should diffuse to form cementite．The diffusion being a rate process，would require sufficient time for complete transformation of austenite to pearlite．From different samples，it is possible to note the amount of the transformation taking place at any temperature．These points are then plotted on a graph with time and temperature as the axes．Through these points，transformation curves can be plotted as shown in Fig。1 for eutectoid steel．The curve at extreme left represents the time required for the transformation of austenite to pearlite to start at any given temperature．Similarly，the curve at extreme right represents the time required for completing the transformation．Between the two curves are the points representing partial transformation。The horizontal lines Ms and Mf represent the start and finish of martensitic transformation。
Classification of Heat Treating Processes
In some instances，heat treatment procedures are clear—cut in terms of technique and application．whereas in other instances，descriptions or simple explanations are insufficient because the same technique frequently may be used to obtain different objectives．For example, stress relieving and tempering are often accomplished with the same equipment and by use of identical time and temperature cycles．The objectives,however，are different for the two processes．The following descriptions of the principal heat treating processes are generally arranged according to their interrelationships．
Normalizing consists of heating a ferrous alloy to a suitable temperature （usually 50°F to 100°F or 28℃to 56℃）above its specific upper transformation temperature．This is followed by
cooling in still air to at least some temperature well below its transformation temperature range．For low—carbon steels, the resulting structure and properties are the same as those achieved by full annealing；for most ferrous alloys，normalizing and annealing are not synonymous。
Normalizing usually is used as a conditioning treatment，notably for refining the grains of steels that have been subjected to high temperatures for forging or other hot working operations。The normalizing process usually is succeeded by another heat treating operation such as austenitizing for hardening, annealing, or tempering.
Annealing is a generic term denoting a heat treatment that consists of heating to and holding at a suitable temperature followed by cooling at a suitable rate。It is used primarily to soften metallic materials, but also to simultaneously produce desired changes in other properties or in microstructure。The purpose of such changes may be，but is not confined to, improvement of machinability, facilitation of cold work （known as in—process annealing），improvement of mechanical or electrical properties，or to increase dimensional stability。When applied solely to relive stresses, it commonly is called stress-relief annealing, synonymous with stress relieving.
When the term “annealing”is applied to ferrous alloys without qualification, full annealing is applied。This is achieved by heating above the alloy’s transformation temperature, then applying a cooling cycle which provides maximum softness. This cycle may vary widely，depending on composition and characteristics of the specific alloy.
Quenching is a rapid cooling of a steel or alloy from the austenitizing temperature by immersing the workpiece in a liquid or gaseous medium. Quenching medium commonly used include water, 5％brine，5% caustic in an aqueous solution, oil，polymer solutions，or gas （usually air or nitrogen）。
Selection of a quenching medium depends largely on the hardenability of material and the mass of the material being treating （principally section thickness）。
The cooling capabilities of the above—listed quenching media vary greatly。In selecting a quenching medium，it is best to avoid a solution that has more cooling power than is needed to achieve the results, thus minimizing the possibility of cracking and warp of the parts being treated。Modifications of the term quenching include direct quenching，fog quenching，hot quenching, interrupted quenching, selective quenching, spray quenching，and time quenching.
Tempering。In heat treating of ferrous alloys，tempering consists of reheating the austenitized and quench-hardened steel or iron to some preselected temperature that is below the lower transformation temperature （generally below 1300 ℃or 705 ℃）。Tempering offers a means of obtaining various combinations of mechanical properties. Tempering temperatures used for hardened
steels are often no higher than 300 oF （150 ℃)。The term “tempering”should not be confused with either process annealing or stress relieving。Even though time and temperature cycles for the three processes may be the same，the conditions of the materials being processed and the objectives may be different。
Stress relieving。Like tempering，stress relieving is always done by heating to some temperature below the lower transformation temperature for steels and irons. For nonferrous metals, the temperature may vary from slightly above room temperature to several hundred degrees, depending on the alloy and the amount of stress relief that is desired。
The primary purpose of stress relieving is to relieve stresses that have been imparted to the workpiece from such processes as forming, rolling, machining or welding. The usual procedure is to heat workpiece to the pre—established temperature long enough to reduce the residual stresses (this is a time-and temperature-dependent operation）to an acceptable level；this is followed by cooling at a relatively slow rate to avoid creation of new stresses.
金属热处理
对于热处理金属和金属合金通常接受的定义是“通过加热和冷却金属或合金的方式，以便获得特定的条件或属性。”以热加工为唯一目的的加热处理(如锻造处理)并不包含在这个定义范围内.例如,玻璃或塑料制品这种热处的类型也被排除在这个定义范围之外。
转变曲线
依据热处理的理论基础,所得到的时间—温度 - 转变曲线或TTT曲线图，这种曲线图全都是由三个参数所绘制的。因为曲线的形状特点,也被称为C-曲线或S —曲线.
绘制TTT曲线, 给定一个特定钢的温度和结构，保持在预定的时间间隔检查记录转换发生的量。已知的是，共析钢在平衡条件下（T80）含有量， 723℃以上是奥氏体,下面是珠光体，为了形成珠光体,碳原子扩散形成渗碳体，形成过程是一个扩散的过程，需要足够的时间完成珠光体到奥氏体的转变，对于不同的样品，可能要注意转换在任何温度下发生的数量，然后绘制一个以时间和温度为坐标轴的图。通过这些点,曲线可以绘制成共析钢图，在左边的曲线表示奥氏体到珠光体在任何给定的温度开始转变所需要的时间。同样，在曲线的最右边代表所需完成转换的时间。两点间的曲线代表的是部分转换的点的时间。水平线的MS和MF代表马氏体相变开始与结束。
热处理工艺工程的分类
在某些情况下,热处理程序在技术和应用方面是明确清晰的。否则在其他情况下，简单的解释说明或描述是不够的，因为同样的方法经常可以用来达到不同的目的。例如，消除应力回火往往完成使用同样的设备、同样的时间和温度循环。然而对于目标是两个不同的进程.
以下描述的主要热处理工艺一般是根据它们之间的相互关系安排的。
正火是由铁类合金加热到适当的温度（通常为50°F至100°F或28℃至56℃）高于它的特定上限变形温度。其次是在空气中静止冷却至转变温度范围某些温度。对于低碳钢,所得到的结构和性能与完全退火达到相同；对于铁合金，正火和退火不是同义词。
正火通常作为预处理，尤其是精炼已进行锻造或其他热加工工艺中高温下钢的晶粒。正火过程通常是由另一个热处理操作之后采取的,如奥氏体化淬火，退火或回火.
退火在热处理中是一个通用的术语，定义是加热并保持在适宜的温度,然后以合适的速度冷却.它主要用于金属材料软化,但也同时用于在其他属性或是在微观
结构产生的变化。这种变化的目的可能是，但不仅限于,改善切削加工性，冷工作便利(被称为中间退火),机械或电气性能的提高，或增加尺寸稳定性。如果仅仅用
于消除应力，它通常被称为去应力退火，消除应力的代名词.
当术语“退火”是适用于无限制的铁合金，完全退火应用被采取了。这是通过加热合金的相变温度以上，然后冷却循环，获得了最大的柔软性。这个周期可能有很大的不同,这取决于其具体的组成和合金的特点。
淬火是从奥氏体化温度的钢或合金的浸渍工件在液体或气体介质中的快速冷却的过程。淬火介质常用的有水，5％盐水，5%的碱性水溶液，油,聚合物溶液，或气体（通常为空气或氮气）。
淬火介质的选择很大程度上取决于材料的淬透性和被处理(主要取决于截面厚度)材料的质量.
上述淬火介质的冷却能力相差很大。在选择淬火介质时，最好避免有更多的冷却能力比达到预期效果所需的解决方案，从而最大限度地降低处理零件开裂或翘曲的可能性。术语淬火的类型包括直接淬火，淬火雾，热淬火，分级淬火，选择性淬火,喷雾淬火，时间淬火。
回火。在铁合金的热处理回火中,回火加热炉的奥氏体和淬火硬化钢或铁的一些预选的温度低于下转变温度(一般低于1300℃或705℃）组成。回火提供获得各种综合机械性能的方法.用于淬火钢的回火温度通常不高于300℃（150℃).回火这个词与中间退火和去应力退火是不同的。尽管这三个过程的时间和温度周期可能是相同的,这些材料被处理的条件和目的可能会有所不同。
去应力退火。像回火,去应力退火总是加热到钢和铁最低转变温度以下温度进行。有色金属，温度可能从稍高于室温到几百度范围内，取决于合金和消除应力所需要的量。
应力消除的主要目的是为了缓解工件在成形，轧制，加工或焊接过程中产生的的应力.通常的过程是加热工件到预先设定的温度足够长的时间，以减少残余应力(时间和温度取决于加热的过程）到所要求的水平，随后以相对慢的速度冷却，以避免出现新的应力。
模具热处理外文翻译文献 (文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译) 原文： Heat Treatment of Die and Mould Oriented Concurrent Design Abstract: Many disadvantages exist in the traditional die design method which belongs to serial pattern. It is well known that heat treatment is highly important to the dies. A new idea of concurrent design for heat treatment process of die and mould was developed in order to overcome the existent shortcomings of heat treatment process. Heat treatment CAD/CAE was integrated with concurrent circumstance and the relevant model was built. These investigations can remarkably improve efficiency, reduce cost and ensure quality of R and D for products. Key words:die design; heat treatment; mould Traditional die and mould design,mainly by experience orsemi—experience，is
中英文对照资料外文翻译文献 Metal machining knowledge 1 Mechanical processing system From the whole process of mechanical manufacturing, the most basic components of machine part, also is the first to produce qualified parts, and then assembled into components, again from zero, parts assembly into machine, therefore, manufactured to meet the requirements of the various parts of processing machinery is main purpose, and in the vast majority of material machining is a metal material, so the machining is mainly to a variety of metal cutting. Parts of the surface is usually several simple surface such as plane, cylindrical surface, conical surface, forming surface and spherical, combination, and the
surface of the part is through a variety of machining method, in which the metal cutting machine tool with the workpiece and tool coordination relative movement of resection of part machining surplus materials, access to in shape, size and surface quality are compatible with the requirements of this process is called the metal cutting processing. Metal cutting processing, often as part of the final processing method, it needs to use metal cutting tools to process parts, between them to determine the relative motion and bear great cutting force, usually in the metal cutting machine tool for processing, parts and tools required by machine tool fixture and tool and machine tool for reliable connection they do the relative motion, drive, realize the cutting process, the metal cutting machine tool, cutting tool, fixture and workpiece machining closed system called mechanical processing system, the metal cutting machine tool processing machinery parts mechanical work, supporting and providing dynamic action; cutting tool direct action of parts machining; machine tool fixture used on parts positioning and clamping, the correct position of processing. The chapter on machining process system four part is analyzed, the mechanical parts of the processing of the whole process. 2 Cutting motion and parameters 2.1 Cutting movement Metal cutting processing, workpiece machining process is processed object in general, any one of the workpiece are composed of rough processing to finished product process, in this process, to make the tool on the workpiece machining to form various surfaces, must make the tool and workpiece relative motion is generated, this in metal cutting processing must be relative motion is known as the cutting movement. To lathe processing outer cylindrical surface as an example, Figure 2-1 shows a turning movement, cutting layer and formed on the workpiece surface. Figure 2-1 turning movement, cutting layer and formed on the workpiece surface Cutting motion can be divided into the main movement and feed movement of the two kind. （1）Main movement
金属学及金属工艺专业学术38 轧机mill 79 自动automatic 39 应变strain 80 塑性plastic 翻译必备词汇40 断裂fracture 81 温度场temperature 编号中文英文41 晶粒grain 82 非晶amorphous 1 设计design 4 2 有限finite 8 3 扩散diffusion 2 性能properties 4 3 精度precision 8 4 曲线curve 44 耐磨wear 85 缺陷defects 3 温度temperature 4 应用application 4 5 冷却cooling 8 6 热轧hot 5 工艺process 4 6 误差error 8 7 铸件casting 6 焊接welding 4 7 磨损wear 8 8 时效aging 7 应力stress 48 凝固solidification 89 制造manufacturing 8 腐蚀corrosion 49 数值numerical 90 齿轮gear 9 强度strength 50 有限元finite 91 加热heating 10 合金alloys 51 工艺参数parameters 92 零件parts 11 组织microstructure 52 磨削grinding 93 冷轧cold 12 参数parameters 53 设备equipment 94 残余应力residual 13 激光laser 54 仿真simulation 95 等离子plasma 14 变形deformation 55 计算机computer 96 耐磨性wear 15 加工machining 56 寿命life 97 基体matrix 16 热处理heat 57 刀具tool 98 金刚石diamond 58 韧性toughness 99 钛合金alloy 17 模拟simulation 18 机床machine 59 显微组织microstructure 100 真空vacuum 19 材料material 60 焊缝weld 101 数控机床machine 20 不锈钢stainless 61 氧化oxidation 102 测定determination 21 金属metal 62 厚度thickness 103 焊接工艺welding 涂层coating 63 镁合金magnesium 104 铁素体ferrite 22 23 力学性能mechanical 64 优化optimization 105 钢板steel 24 硬度hardness 65 残余residual 106 振动vibration 25 铝合金alloy 66 形状shape 107 晶界grain 26 疲劳fatigue 67 奥氏体austenite 108 热处理工艺treatment 27 机理mechanism 68 摩擦friction 109 钢中steel 28 数控nc 69 淬火quenching 110 成分composition 29 轧制rolling 70 退火annealing 111 接触contact 30 模具die 71 陶瓷ceramic 112 马氏体martensite 31 软件software 72 相变transformation 113 再结晶recrystallization 32 铸造casting 73 挤压extrusion 114 离子ion 33 高温temperature 74 耐蚀corrosion 115 扫描电镜sem 34 铸铁iron 75 界面interface 116 加热炉furnace 35 成形forming 76 电弧arc 117 脉冲pulse 36 切削cutting 77 测量measurement 118 快速rapid 37 裂纹crack 78 电化学electrochemical 119 喷涂spraying
外文原文 Metal heat treatment Metal heat treatment is a kind of craft to heat pieces of metals at the suitable temperature in some medium and to cool them at different speed after some time. The metal heat treatment is one of the important crafts in the machine-building, comparing with other technologies, the heat treatment seldom changes the form of the work pieces and chemical composition of the whole .it improve the serviceability of the work piece through changing their micro- work pieces, chemical composition, or surface. Its characteristic is improving inherent quality of work pieces which can not be watched by our eyes. In order to make the metal work piece have mechanics , physics and chemical property which are needed, besides the use of many materials and various kinds of crafts which are shaped , the heat treatment craft is essential. Steel is a wide-used material in the mechanical industry, its complicated micro-composition can be controlled through the heat treatment , so the heat treatment of the steel is a main content of the metal heat treatment . In addition aluminium, copper, magnesium, titanium and their alloys also can change their mechanics , physics and chemical property through the heat treatment to make different serviceability. During the process of development from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age and to the Iron Age, the function of the heat treatment is gradually known by people. As early as 770 B.C.~222 B.C., the Chinese in production practices had already found the performance of the copper and iron changed by press and temperature . White mouthfuls of casting iron’s
金属材料与热处理论文关于金属材料的论文： 金属材料与热处理工艺关系的探讨 摘要：本文以实验现象及数据为依据，客观分析了热处理工艺中预热、温度及应力与金属材料组织、性能等之问的关系。 关键词：金属材料：热处理；关系 中图分类号TGl文献标识码A文章编号 1674-6708(2010)29-0122-02 0、引言 工业生产中，许多金属材料为最大限度地发挥材料潜力，需要提高其机械性能。在设计工作中，正确制定热处理工艺可以改变某些金属材料的机械性能。而不合理的热处理条件，不仅不会提高材料的机械性能，反而会破坏材料原有的性能。因此，设计人员在根据金属材料成分及组织确定热处理的工艺要求时，应准确分析金属材料与热处理工艺的关系，合理安排工艺流程，才能得到理想的效果。 1、金属材料结构及基本组织 在工业生产中，广泛使用的金属有铁、铝、铜、铅、锌、镍、铬、锰等。但用得更多的是它们的合金。金属和合金的内部结构包含两个方面：其一是金属原子之间的结合方式；其二是原子在空间的排列方
式。金属的性能和原子在空间的排列配置情况有密切的关系，原子排列方式不同，金属的性能就出现差异。金属材料热处理过程是将金属工件放在一定的介质中加热到适宜的温度，并在此温度中保持一定时间后，又以不同速度在不同的介质中冷却，通过改变金属材料表面或内部的显微组织结构来改变其性能的一种工艺。因此，对某些金属或合金来说，可以用热处理工艺来改变它的原子排列，进而改变其组织结构，控制其机械性能，以满足工程技术的需要。不同的热处理条件会产生不同的材料性能改变效果，下面就金属的材料的某些性能来分析其与热处理工艺的关系，以便更好的提高材料的机械性能。 2、金属材料与热处理工艺的关系 2.1金属材料的切削性能与热处理预热的关系 金属材料加工的整个工艺流程中，如果切削加7-7-艺与热处理工艺之间能相互沟通，密切配合，对提高产品质量将有很大好处。在金属切削过程中，由于被加工材料、切削刀具和切削条件的不同，金属的变形程度也不同，从而产生不同程度的光洁度。预先热处理主要是应用于各类铸、锻、焊工件的毛坯或半成品消除冶金及热加工过程产生的缺陷，并为以后切削加工及热处理准备良好的组织状态。从而保证材料的切削性能、加工精度和减少变形。提高零件的切削性能。各种材料的最佳切削性能都对应有一定的硬度范围和金相组织。齿坯材料在切削加工中，当齿柸硬度偏低时会产生粘刀现象，在前倾面上形
对利用三元添置中子衍射得到的纳米级FeCo合金远程有序关系的探究 1.简介 由于具有非常高的饱和磁化强度和居里温度，FeCo合金在工业上是一种重要的工程材料。这些合金在软磁材料的应用中发挥了重要作用，例如发电机和电动机。进一步应用的例子是变压器磁芯，磁驱动传动器，高场磁体的磁极以及电磁阀。在工业的大部分应用当中，面临的挑战是在保持磁性能的同时，如何提高FeCo合金的拉伸强度和韧性。曾经尝试过的方法有改变合金设计（比如加入一些镍，钒，铌，钽，铬，钼三元金属）、进行退火处理或是采用先进的变形处理。然而，在现代应用中，要求有更好的力学、磁学性能。 近几年来，由于对现代发电机和配电设备需求的增加，科学家在FeCo合金方面的研究兴趣与日俱增。特别是在极端环境下，对电气应用的要求非常严格。另一方面，针对FeCo合金的结构和物理性能，尤其是针对它的纳米结构系统提出了有趣的问题。 得益于低钴FeCo合金（钴占到质量分数的17%到35%）的发展，在满足所需的磁性能的同时，合金的成本才得以降低。此外，较低的Co含量能够提高合金的延展性和韧性。 合金的力学性能和温度所决定的晶体结构有直接的联系。在高温时，Fe、Co两元素随机分布在体心立方晶格上（图1 A2型结构）。Co的含量占到29%到70%，这种无序的结构在低温状态下是不稳定的。当温度低于远程无序的临界温度Tc时，Fe、Co将会被分配到两个相互穿插的原始立方晶格当中，并形成一个有序的B2型结构。
图1 二元合金FeCo的相图。所讨论的三元合金的区域示意图。 B2型结构的合金有一些典型的特点。比如说，“反结构”和“三点”机制产生的点缺陷能够导致晶格空位。无序的B2型结构合金表现出波浪滑移，而局部无序型合金表现出平面滑移。有序—无序之间的转变影响了FeCo合金的力学性能，比如合金韧性的改变、更脆的无序相、有序相等。另外，磁性影响了结构的稳定性，造就了FeCo合金的有序性。比如，在富铁FeCo合金中，磁有序稳定了体心立方结构，也稳定了来源于铁磁性B2相的有序性。 FeCo体心立方结构合金中的另一个典型的超晶格结构是BiF3结构（DO3型）。这个结构中，立方晶体的顶点被铁原子占据，而结构的中心则被铁、钴原子交替占据。中心铁钴原子形成原始立方超结构晶格，其晶格常数是原始DO3晶格常数的两倍。描述合金结构需要三个原始立方晶格。衍射模式和B2结构有相同的反射（hkl）。当Co含量为30%左右的合金加热到Tc~610℃时，B2结构经历了一个有序—无序转变（图1）。这种转变是可逆的，样本经过几个小时老化以后，将会对有序过程造成非常小的改变。然而，在有序状态下，许多这些合金太脆以至于经不起常规冷轧或锻造过程。 加入类似铂，钯，铱，钌，铑、铼的重金属，似乎使合金在应用上的性能要求超过成本成为可能。FeCo合金相对较高的溶解度会造成固溶强化作用，添加重金属正是通过这种固溶强化作用来提高合金力学性能的。 我们已经调查了Fe70Co30, Fe67Co30Pt3, Fe67Co30Pd3, Fe67Co30Mn3, Fe67Co30Ir3, and Fe67Co30Re3这六种合金的成分，并且知道了从室温（RT）到超过Tc的高温条件下的有序--无序转变。三元元素的占位在不同的文献当中是有所争议的，举个例子，在FeCo-V合金当中，莫穆斯堡尔光谱研究表明钒原子占据了晶格中铁原子的位置，而威廉姆斯等人则认为钒原子主要进入了Co原子晶格位置。在我们的研究当中，我们探究三元元素FeCo合金的特性，比较这些元素对临界有序温度（Tc）的影响、区域的大小以及远程有序的程度。 2、实验 六个合金铸块（Fe70Co30, Fe67Co30Pt3, Fe67-Co30Pd3, Fe67Co30Mn3, Fe67Co30Ir3, and Fe67Co30Re3）的制备是在真空感应熔炉中熔解，再在1000摄氏度下热处理48小时，然后炉冷却直至室温。每个铸块在950摄氏度0.2Gpa 的热等静压下养护4小时，然后再慢冷至室温。将这些铸块加工成直径25.4毫米、厚度5毫米的圆片用来进行X衍射实验，还要加工成直径6毫米、长度40毫米的圆柱体用来进行中子衍射实验。用放射性Cu Ka进行X衍射实验，探究所有的FeCoX合金(X = Pt, Pd, Mn, Ir, Re)的特性。
中英文对照外文翻译 (文档含英文原文和中文翻译) 原文: Heat Treatment of Steel Types of Heat Treating Operations Five Operations are detailed in this lesson as the basis of heat treatment. Explanations of these operations follow. Full annealing Full annealing is the process of softening steel by a heating and cooling cycle, so that it may be bent or cut easily. In annealing, steel is heated above a transformation temperature and cooled very slowly after it has reached a suitable temperature. The distinguishing characteristics of full annealing are: (a) temperature above
the critical temperature and (b) very slow cooling, usually in the furnace. Normalizing Normalizing is identical with annealing, except that the steel is air cooled; this is much faster than cooling in a furnace. Steel is normalized to refine grain size, make its structure more uniform, or to improve machinability. Hardening Hardening is carried out y quenching a steel, that is, cooling it rapidly from a temperature above the transformation temperature. Steel is quenched in water or brine for the most rapid cooling, in oil for some alloy steels, and in air for certain higher alloy steels. After steel is quenched, it is usually very hard and brittle; it may even crack if dropped. To make the steel more ductile, it must be tempered. Tempering Tempering consistes of reheating a quenched steel to a suitable temperature below the transformation temperature for an appropriate time and cooling back to room temperature. How this process makes steel tough will be discussed later. Stress relieving Stress relieving is the heating of steel to a temperature below the transformation temperature, as in tempering, but is done primarily to relieve internal stress and thus prevent distortion or cracking during machining.
金属热处理heat treatment 金属热处理是将金属工件放在一定的介质中加热到适宜的温度，并在此温度中保持一定时间后，又以不同速度冷却的一种工艺。 金属热处理是机械制造中的重要工艺之一，与其他加工工艺相比，热处理一般不改变工件的形状和整体的化学成分，而是通过改变工件内部的显微组织，或改变工件表面的化学成分，赋予或改善工件的使用性能。其特点是改善工件的内在 质量，而这一般不是肉眼所能看到的。 为使金属工件具有所需要的力学性能、物理性能和化学性能，除合理选用材料和各种成形工艺外，热处理工艺往往是必不可少的。钢铁是机械工业中应用最广的材料，钢铁显微组织复杂，可以通过热处理予以控制，所以钢铁的热处理是金属热处理的主要内容。另外，铝、铜、镁、钛等及其合金也都可以通过热处理改变其力学、物理和化学性能，以获得不同的使用性能。 在从石器时代进展到铜器时代和铁器时代的过程中，热处理的作用逐渐为人们所认识。早在公元前770～前222年，中国人在生产实践中就已发现，铜铁的性能会因温度和加压变形的影响而变化。白口铸铁的柔化处理就是制造农具的重 要工艺。 公元前六世纪，钢铁兵器逐渐被采用，为了提高钢的硬度，淬火工艺遂得到迅速发展。中国河北省易县燕下都出土的两把剑和一把戟，其显微组织中都有马氏 体存在，说明是经过淬火的。 随着淬火技术的发展，人们逐渐发现淬冷剂对淬火质量的影响。三国蜀人蒲元曾在今陕西斜谷为诸葛亮打制3000把刀，相传是派人到成都取水淬火的。这说明中国在古代就注意到不同水质的冷却能力了，同时也注意了油和尿的冷却能力。中国出土的西汉(公元前206～公元24)中山靖王墓中的宝剑,心部含碳量为0. 15～0.4%，而表面含碳量却达0.6%以上，说明已应用了渗碳工艺。但当时作为个人“手艺”的秘密，不肯外传，因而发展很慢。 1863年，英国金相学家和地质学家展示了钢铁在显微镜下的六种不同的金相组织，证明了钢在加热和冷却时，内部会发生组织改变，钢中高温时的相在急冷时转变为一种较硬的相。法国人奥斯蒙德确立的铁的同素异构理论，以及英国人奥斯汀最早制定的铁碳相图，为现代热处理工艺初步奠定了理论基础。与此同时，人们还研究了在金属热处理的加热过程中对金属的保护方法，以避免加热过程中 金属的氧化和脱碳等。 1850～1880年，对于应用各种气体(诸如氢气、煤气、一氧化碳等)进行保护加热曾有一系列专利。1889～1890年英国人莱克获得多种金属光亮热处理的专 利。 二十世纪以来，金属物理的发展和其他新技术的移植应用，使金属热处理工艺
附录一 外文翻译 原文： Heat Treatment The understanding of heat treatment is embraced by the broader study of metallurgy. Metallurgy is the physics, chemistry, and engineering related to metals from ore extraction to the final product. Heat treatment is the operation of heating and cooling a metal in its solid state to change its physical properties. According to the procedure used, steel can be hardened to resist cutting action and abrasion, or it can be softened to permit machining. With the proper heat treatment internal stresses may be removed, grain size reduced, toughness increased, or a hard surface produced on a ductile interior. The analysis of the steel must be known because small percentages of certain elements, notably carbon, greatly affect the physical properties. Alloy steel owe their properties to the presence of one or more elements other than carbon, namely nickel, chromium, manganese, molybdenum, tungsten, silicon, vanadium, and copper. Because of their improved physical properties they are used commercially in many ways not possible with carbon steels. The following discussion applies principally to the heat treatment of ordinary commercial steels known as plain carbon steels. With this process the rate of cooling is the controlling factor, rapid cooling from above the critical range results in hard structure, whereas very slow cooling produces the opposite effect. If we focus only on the materials normally known as steels, a simplified diagram is often used. Those portions of the iron-carbon diagram near the delta region and those above 2% carbon
The following descriptions of the principal heat treating processes are generally arranged according to their interrelationships． Normalizing consists of heating a ferrous alloy to a suitable temperature(usually50°F to100°F or28℃to56℃)above its specific upper transformation temperature．This is followed by cooling in still air to at least some temperature well below its transformation temperature range．For low-carbon steels,the resulting structure and properties are the same as those achieved by full annealing；for most ferrous alloys,normalizing and annealing are not synonymous. Normalizing usually is used as a conditioning treatment,notably for refining the grains of steels that have been subjected to high temperatures for forging or other hot working operations.The normalizing process usually is succeeded by another heat treating operation such as austenitizing for hardening,annealing,or tempering. Annealing is a generic term denoting a heat treatment that consists of heating to and holding at a suitable temperature followed by cooling at a suitable rate.It is used primarily to soften metallic materials,but also to simultaneously produce desired changes in other properties or in microstructure. The purpose of such changes may be,but is not confined to,improvement of machinability,facilitation of cold work(known as in-process annealing),improvement of mechanical or electrical properties,or to increase dimensional stability.When applied solely to relive stresses,it commonly is called stress-relief annealing,synonymous with stress relieving. When the term“annealing”is applied to ferrous alloys without qualification,full annealing is applied.This is achieved by heating above the alloy’s transformation temperature,then applying a cooling cycle which provides maximum softness.This cycle may vary widely,depending on composition and characteristics of the specific alloy. Quenching is a rapid cooling of a steel or alloy from the austenitizing temperature by immersing the work piece in a liquid or gaseous medium.Quenching medium commonly used include water,5% brine,5%caustic in an aqueous solution,oil,polymer solutions,or gas(usually air or nitrogen). Selection of a quenching medium depends largely on the hardenability of material and the mass of the material being treating(principally section thickness). The cooling capabilities of the above-listed quenching media vary greatly.In selecting a quenching medium,it is best to avoid a solution that has more cooling power than is needed to achieve the results, thus minimizing the possibility of cracking and warp of the parts being treated.Modifications of the term quenching include direct quenching,fog quenching,hot quenching,interrupted quenching, selective quenching,spray quenching,and time quenching.
附录 1 英文及翻译 Heat Treating of metals Heating For this discussion, I will take you through the hardening process that I use on a high carbon steel blade, but first a few asides. When you place the steel in the fire it begins to gain heat. The steel will begin to give off visible color just above 900F it will continue to pick up color until it reaches a point where it seems to hang. It is still gaining heat, but it is undergoing an internal transformation from its cold structure into a metastable condition called austenite. This point at which it seems to hang is called decalescence and it represents the bottom of the critical temperature. It usually begins around 1335F In carbon steel depending on the carbon content. Once it passes through this point, the crystal structure of the steel changes as the ferrite reacts with some of the carbide and begins to pool into austenite. As the temperature increases more of the austenite will begin to form in other places and continue until it reaches a point 10 or 15 degrees above the critical temperature where all of the ferrite should be consumed. At this point the steel should consist of austenite and undissolved carbides. The austenite grains start from a small nucleus and continue to grow until they impinge on other growing grains. The initial grain size is established at this point and if the excess carbide is in large quantities it will maintain this size with little increase, pinned by the carbide. You can see this transformation if you watch the steel carefully and bring the steel up slowly. The Japanese talked about watching the shadows on the blade and quenching when the shadows turned to liquid. If you take the blade out of the fire at this point and watch the colors drop, you will notice a point where the steel will brighten even as it is cooling. On a tapered cross section like a knife blade it will appear to travel up from the edge to the spine of the blade. This is call