International Journal of Management Vol. 29 No. 1 Part 1 Mar 2012 159 The Effect of Strategic Marketing Planning Behaviour on the Performance of Small- to Medium-Sized Firms
Gabriel O Ogunmokun
United States University of the Virgin Islands
Elaine Chen Hsin Tang
Academy of World Business, Australia
According to the literature very few small enterprises survive the long-term. However, despite the continuing interest in the concept of strategic marketing planning, very little research has been done particularly in Singapore to examine whether the level of performance in small to medium sized business organizations is related to the extent to which the components of the strategic marketing planning process are carried out in small to medium sized businesses. This paper aims to present the results of a study that addressed whether there are significant differences in the extent to which small to medium sized business organizations in Singapore with a high level of performance versus those with a low level of performance carried out the various activities of the strategic marketing planning process.
Introduction
Although strategic marketing planning practitioners and theorists have been writing for many years about the importance of strategic marketing and the benefits to be derived by organizations from the utilization of strategic planning process (Armstrong and Kotler 2011; Bergeron and Rivard 2003; Cravens 2008; Cravens and Piercy 2006; David 2009; Greenley 1986; Johnson et al 2008; Kotler and Keller 2009; McCarthy 2009; Morgan, McGuinness and Thorpe 2000; Paley 2006; Parnell 2000; Perreault et al 2008; Pride and Ferrell 2010; Rajaratnam and Chonko 1995; Stanton, 2008) very little research has been done to examine whether the level of performance of small to medium sized business organizations in Singapore is related to the extent to which the components of the strategic marketing planning process are carried out by the small to medium sized businesses in Singapore. This paper presents the result of a study that was designed to address whether there are significant differences in the extent to which small to medium sized business organizations in Singapore with a high level of performance versus those with a low level of performance carried out the various strategic marketing planning activities.
What is a Strategic Marketing Plan?
According to Perreault et al (2008), strategic marketing planning means finding attractive opportunities and developing profitable strategies that specifies a target market and related marketing mix. Kotler and Keller (2009) and Armstrong and Kotler (2011), stressed that a strategic marketing plan involves laying out the target markets and the value proposition that will be offered, based on the analysis of the best market opportunities. The marketing plan is the central instrument for directing and coordinating the marketing effort of an organization and the content of a marketing plan includes laying out current situation,
160 International Journal of Management Vol. 29 No. 1 Part 1 Mar 2012 setting objectives, strategies, action program, budgets, implementation and control. The purpose of a strategic plan, according to Johnson et al (2008), is to specify what business an organization is in and the direction it is going. Cravens (2008), emphasized that the environment and all functional areas of a business, such as finance, marketing, personnel are to be taken into consideration during the strategic marketing planning process.. Cravens (2008) views the strategic marketing planning process as consisting of the following key steps: analysing the environment, designing a marketing strategy, formulating a marketing program, and implementing and controlling the marketing program. David (2009) and Cravens (2008) identify environmental analysis, objective setting, strategy design, and implementation and control in the strategic planning process.
A review of the major prescriptive literature about the strategic marketing planning process (Armstrong and Kotler 2011; Cravens 2008; Cravens and Piercy 2006; Cravens, David 2009; Johnson et al 2009; Kotler and Keller 2009; McCarthy 2009; Paley 2006; Parnell 2000; Perreault et al 2008; Pride and Ferrell 2010; Rogers 2001; Stanton 2008) shows that the process contains either implicitly or explicitly, the following components: Environmental Analysis; Setting Goals and Objectives; Formulating Marketing Strategy; Action Programs; Implementation and Control. This paper therefore examines whether there are significant differences in the extent to which small to medium sized business organizations in Singapore with a high level of performance versus those with a low level of performance carried out the various activities that are in the strategic marketing planning process. Small to medium sized enterprises are used in this study because according to Yeo (2007), although the small to medium sized enterprises’ contribution to Singapore’s economy is about 46% of Singapore’s GDP and 51% of local employment, only few small enterprises survive the long-term. Therefore, knowing if the performance of SMEs in Singapore is influenced by their strategic marketing planning practices may help SMEs consultants and association in encouraging SMEs to have strategic marketing plans for their organizations.
Methodology
Respondents for this study were owners/mangers of small to medium sized enterprises in Singapore that were not foreign-controlled and/or a subsidiary of another company. The samples were selected from the following two different directories: the directory of the Association of Small and Medium Enterprises Singapore (ASME) and KOMPASS Singapore. Each of the two directories contained information including the number of employees in each company, industry classification, key person(s) to contact, address and telephone number.
Regarding the definition of small to medium sized business organizations, Singapore SME Portal (2008) defines SMEs in Singapore as having not more than 200 employees, having at least 30% local equity, and having fixed productivity assets (defined as net book value of factory building, machinery and equipment) not exceeding $15 million. As a result, in the selection process, organizations that employed more than 200 employees
International Journal of Management Vol. 29 No. 1 Part 1 Mar 2012 161 or that were not independently owned and operated were first screened out from the list of companies to be sampled for this study. From the remaining organizations in the two directories, the systematic sampling technique was used to select 500 companies. Organizations that were subsidiaries of other organizations were also not included in the 500 organizations selected for the study. The primary reason for using the systematic method was due to its “economic efficiency” because it could be applied with little difficulty, accomplished in a relatively short time period and at a moderate cost (Burns and Bush 1995). Furthermore, because this method employed a random starting point, according to Burns and Bush (1995), it assured sufficient randomness in the systematic sampling to approximate a known and equal probability of any small to medium sized enterprise being selected into the sample.
The primary data for this study was obtained via a self-administered mailed questionnaire. The questionnaire was pre-tested and subsequently revised before it was mailed out to 500 small to medium sized businesses in Singapore. Various methods such as pre-notification, incentives and follow-ups interviews were employed to improve response rate. Reminder letters were sent out approximately three weeks after the questionnaires were first sent out to firms that had not replied. Overall, of the 500 small to medium sized enterprises invited to participate in this study, 144 questionnaires were returned. However 13 of these questionnaires were deemed “unusable” because businesses for 10 of these questionnaires did not meet the definition of locally owned small and medium sized enterprises; a further 3 were rejected due to a substantial number of missing item responses. This resulted in a total of 131 usable questionnaires, yielding a low response rate of 26.2%. Although the response rate is low, it is considered satisfactory in that it is better than those attained by some previous studies. For example, Hooley et al. (1984) had a 14% response rate and Greenley and Bayus’ (1994) only had an 11% response rate.
A follow-up telephone interview of 20 non-respondents was conducted. Fourteen respondents attributed the cause of non-response to a lack of time while the rest of the six respondents indicated that they were not interested in participating in this study because they were too busy. None of those respondents, who were interviewed, reported difficulty in understanding or completing the questionnaire as a reason for non-response. To determine whether the characteristics of respondents differ from those of non-respondents, the information from a follow-up telephone interview of 20 non-respondents showed that, at 5 per cent significance level, the characteristics of non-respondents concerning firm size, total sales turnover, industry type, age of the firm, and the products/serviced offered did not differ significantly from those of respondents.
Classification of small to medium sized businesses into organizations with low level and high level performance
Since performance is a complex multi-dimensional variable that could be measured in a variety of ways, there is no universally acceptable best way to measure it, (Dess and Robinson 1984; Fredrickson and Mitchell 1984, Lysonski and Pecotich 1992) as no method of performance measurement is without limitations. Some of the most popular measures are economic/financial in nature. For example, return on assets, sales
162 International Journal of Management Vol. 29 No. 1 Part 1 Mar 2012 growth, profit margins, return to shareholders, etc. Several authors (Chakravarthy 1986; Dyson and Foster 1980; Greenley 1986; Ramanujam and Venkatraman 1987; Watkins 2003), put forward non-financially orientated measures in terms of intangible benefits provided by planning. For example, improvement in motivation and the integration of diverse functions. Therefore, given the lack of consensus on the optimal measure of organisational performance, this study followed the recommendation of Walker and Ruekert (1987), and used the following effectiveness and efficiency measures of performance dimensions.
The effectiveness dimension relates to the success of an organisation’s products, services and activities in relation to those of its competitors. It is commonly measured by items such as relative sales growth, and market share (Walker and Ruekert 1987). For this study, the effectiveness dimension was determined through two measurements that aimed to capture the respondents’ perception of their performance relative to their competitors on various dimensions. This was done in this study, by asking respondents to indicate their organization’s profitability, sales growth and sales volume relative to their major competitors. For the measurement, a five-point interval scale (with 1 representing “a lot worse” and 5 representing “a lot better”) was used. With regard to the second measurement of the effectiveness dimension, respondents were asked to estimate relative market share as suggested by Capon et al. (1988) within their respective industries, using a nominal scale that required respondents to choose the most appropriate market share percentage.
There are a number of reasons for using relative measurements. First and foremost, relative measures enable respondents to answer the questions without revealing confidential sales and profit information. Secondly, although these performance instruments were based on self-assessed measures, considerable support for their validity had been established by other research studies which provided empirical evidence that these subjective measures were as accurate as objective measures of performance (Dess and Robinson 1984; Sapienza et al. 1988, Tan and Litschert, 1994). Thirdly, according to Pearce et al. (1987), using performance measurements that were “relative to competitors” may allow for greater comparability especially across different marketing planning levels, and industries.
The second performance dimension identified by Walker and Ruekert (1987) is that of efficiency. It refers to the outcome of a business’ programs in relation to the resources employed in implementing them. Common measures of this dimension include profitability and return on investment (Walker and Ruekert 1987). With respect to this performance dimension, two measurements were specifically employed for the study. First of all, respondents were asked to indicate their profitability status, that is, whether organisations are “making profit”, “breaking even” or are “not making profit”. The second measurement asked respondents to indicate their current annual sales revenue, based on a number of alternatives ranging from “less than $50,000” to “$2 million and above”. Non-specific questions were deemed appropriate as respondents were reluctant to divulge their actual financial performance results for this study.
International Journal of Management Vol. 29 No. 1 Part 1 Mar 2012 163 Therefore, in order for an organization in this study to be classified as an organization with a high level of performance, the organization must be: making a profit, achieving moderate or rapid sales growth, performing a lot better than its competitors in terms of profitability, sales growth and sales volume, and having a market share of 20 per cent of more. Using the above performance classification criteria resulted in 49 enterprises classified as organizations with a high level of performance, and 82 enterprises classified as organizations with a low level of performance.
Findings
Strategic Marketing Planning Activities Performed
The result of asking firms to indicate the extent to which they carried out each of the strategic marketing planning process activities (on a 5 - point scale where 1= carried out to a small extent and 5= carried out to a great extent), revealed significant differences between organizations with a low level of performance and organizations with a high level of performance (at 0.10 level of chi-square statistic). More organizations with a high level of performance cited carrying out the following strategic marketing planning process activities to a greater extent than organizations with a low level of performance.
- Gathering of external information
- Setting of objectives in the area of profits
- Setting of objectives in the area of market share
- Setting of objectives in the area of pricing
- Setting of objectives in the area of promotion
- Setting of objectives in the area of distribution
- Developing an action plan to achieve objectives
- Reviewing and monitoring of results of planning
For example, the majority (63.3 per cent) of the organizations with a high level performance, compared to 47.6 per cent of organizations with a low level of performance, “gathered information” to a great extent on factors outside their organizations when planning. The majority (75.5 per cent) of the organizations with a high level of performance set objectives in the area of profits as compared to only 26.8 per cent of organizations with a low level of performance that set objectives in the area of profit. Thirty nine per cent of organizations with a low level of performance claimed to review and monitor results of their planning to a great extent, compared to the majority (61.2 per cent) of organizations with a high level performance indicated that they conducted this activity to a great extent (see table 1).
However, the analysis revealed no significant differences between organizations with a high level of performance and organizations with a low level of performance in the
164 International Journal of Management Vol. 29 No. 1 Part 1 Mar 2012 extent to which they carried out the following strategic marketing planning process activities (see table 1).
- Gathering information on the organization itself
- Conducting a SWOT analysis
- Setting objectives in the area of sales
- Setting objectives in the area of products/services
- Identifying who the organization’s main customers are
- Developing a positioning strategy for the organization
Table 1: Strategic Marketing Planning Process Activities Performed
Organisations with a low level of performance that carried out the following activities to a great extent when planning
N = 82
Organisations
with a high level
of performance
that carried out
the following activities to a
great extent
when planning
N = 49
Chi-
square
test
Sig.
Level
N%N%
Gather information on factors outside
the organisation2947.63163.30.08 Gather information on the organisation
itself3137.82040.8N.S. Conduct a SWOT analysis2935.41938.8N.S. Set objectives in the area of sales4453.73265.3N.S. Set objectives in the area of profits4453.73775.50.01 Set objectives in the area of market
share2226.82346.90.02 Set objectives in the area of pricing3036.62755.10.04 Set objectives in the area of products/
services3643.92857.1N.S. Set objectives in the area of promotion1720.71734.70.08 Set objectives in the area of distribution1720.71734.70.08 Identify who the organisation’s main
customers are 2429.31326.5N.S. Develop a positioning strategy for the
organisation3947.62755.1N.S. Develop an action plan 3846.33367.30.02 Review and monitor results of planning3239.03061.20.01 N.S. = No significant difference at 0.10 level
International Journal of Management Vol. 29 No. 1 Part 1 Mar 2012 165 Formalization of Strategic Marketing Planning Activities
The data regarding the extent to which the strategic marketing planning process activities performed by these organizations were written down were found to be related to the level of performance. The result of asking firms to indicate the extent to which the strategic marketing planning process activities carried out were written down (on a 5 - point scale where 1=written down to a small extent and 5=written down to a great extent), revealed significant differences between organizations with a low level of performance and organizations with a high level of performance (at 0.10 level of chi-square statistic). More organizations with a high level of performance cited writing down to a great extent the following aspects of their strategic marketing plans as compared to organizations with a low level of performance (see table 2).
Table 2: Planning activities written down
Organisations with a low level of performance that wrote down the following to a great extent
N = 82
Organisations
with a high level
of performance
that wrote down
the following to
a great extent
(N = 49
Chi-
square
test
Sig.
Level
N%N% Business Mission2631.72653.10.02 Marketing objectives in the area of sales3441.52653.1N.S. Marketing objectives in the area of profit3441.52449.0N.S. Marketing objectives in the area of
market share1619.51632.70.09 Marketing objectives in the area of
pricing2125.61836.7N.S. Marketing objectives in the area of
products/services2530.52244.90.10 Marketing objectives in the area of
promotion1518.31326.5N.S. Marketing objectives in the area of
distribution1619.51632.70.09 Summary of the organisation’s strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats2024.41020.4N.S. Product and/or service development2834.11836.7N.S. Pricing4352.43163.3N.S. Promotional Activity2125.61530.6N.S. Distribution1923.21224.5N.S. Action Plan3441.52244.9N.S. Methods for reviewing and monitoring
the results of marketing strategies & plans2125.61734.7N.S. N.S. = No significant difference at 0.10 level
166 International Journal of Management Vol. 29 No. 1 Part 1 Mar 2012
- Business mission
- Marketing objectives in the area of market share
- Market objectives in the area of products/services
- Marketing objectives in the area of distribution
For example, 53.1 per cent of organizations with a high level of performance indicated that “business mission” was documented to a great extent, as compared to 31.7 per cent of low level performers who claimed to do the same. Less than 20 per cent of low level performers wrote down the “marketing objectives in the area of market share” and the “marketing objectives in the area of distribution” to a large degree, as opposed to 32.7 per cent of high level performers (see table 2).
However, the data in table 2 regarding the extent of documenting the organisation’s strategic marketing planning activities, showed no significant differences between the organizations with a high level of performance versus those with a low level of performance concerning the extent to which the following were written down: marketing objectives in the areas of sales, profit, pricing, promotion; summary of the organization’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats; product and/or services development, pricing; promotion, distribution, action plan and methods for reviewing and monitoring the results of marketing strategies and plans.
Implementation of Strategic Planning
As shown in table 3, the activities conducted by respondents when implementing their strategic marketing plans showed significant differences between the low level and high level performers. It shows that the extent to which organizations state the activities to be implemented; define the deadlines for implementing their strategies; allocate the time in which the strategies are to be implemented; and provide incentives for employees to carry out their strategies when implementing strategic marketing plans are related to the level of performance.
For example, more than a half (55.1 per cent) of high level performers claimed to “state the activities to be implemented” to a great extent when implementing their marketing plans, while less than a third (31.7 per cent) of low level performers carried out this activity to the same degree. Also, more high level performers (55.1 per cent), than low level performers (35.4 per cent), “define deadlines for implementing the strategies” to a great extent when implementing marketing strategies. About 35 per cent of high level performers “provide incentives for employees to carry out the strategies effectively” compared to only 20.7 per cent of low level performers who pursued this implementation activity to the same extent (see table 3).
International Journal of Management Vol. 29 No. 1 Part 1 Mar 2012 167
Summary and Conclusion
This study found that the extent to which the strategic marketing planning activities performed by these small to medium sized business organizations were written down is related to the level of performance. Organizations with a high level of performance tend to write down to a great extent their business mission, marketing objectives in the area of market share, products/services and distribution compared to the organizations with a low level of performance.
Moreover, this study also found that the extent to which firms carried out the various strategic marketing planning process activities (such as gathering external information, Table 3: Strategic Planning Implementation
Organisations with a low level of performance that carried out the following implementation activities to a great extent N
= 82
Organisations
with a high level
of performance
that carried out
the following implementation activities to a
great extent
N = 49
Chi-
square
test
Sig.
Level
N%N%
State the activities to be implemented2631.72755.10.01 Define the deadlines for implementing
the strategies2935.42755.10.03 Allocate the time in which these
strategies are to be implemented2834.12449.00.09 Assign people who are to be responsible
for implementing these strategies3846.32857.1N.S. Specify how the strategies are to be
implemented3239.02244.9N.S. Allocate financial resources needed to
implement these strategies3137.81836.7N.S. Communicate to employees when and
how the strategies will be carried out3643.92449.0N.S. Provide incentives for employees to
carry out the strategies effectively1720.71734.70.08 Consistent monitoring to ensure that all
activities are coordinated4048.82653.1N.S. N.S. = No significant difference at 0.10 level
168 International Journal of Management Vol. 29 No. 1 Part 1 Mar 2012 setting profit objectives, as well as setting objectives in areas such as market share, pricing, promotion, distribution, developing an action plan for achieving objectives, and monitoring the results of planning) is related to the performance of these small to medium sized business organizations in Singapore. The study also found that the claim by the respondents that their firms carried out to a great extent many of the strategic marketing planning activities were cited more frequently by organizations with a high level of performance as compared to organizations with a low level of performance.
The data regarding the activities conducted by respondents when implementing their strategic marketing plans showed significant differences between the low level and high level performers. It shows that the extent to which organizations define the deadlines for implementing their strategies; allocate the time in which the strategies are to be implemented; and provide incentives for employees to carry out the strategies when implementing their strategic marketing plans are related to the level of performance. The results of this study tend to support the literature that stresses the positive effect of strategic marketing planning on business performance (Armstrong and Kotler 2011; Bergeron and Rivard 2003; Bradley 2003; Cravens 2008; Cravens and Piercy 2006; Cravens, Lamb and Crittenden 2002; David 2009; Johnson et al 2009; Kotler and Keller 2009; McCarthy 2009; Paley 2006; Parnell 2000; Perreault et al 2008; Pride and Ferrell 2010; Rogers 2001; Stanton 2008) The lesson for small to medium sized businesses who strive to improve business performance is that they should engage in performing the various strategic marketing planning process activities covered in this study. Such a plan could be used to guide their operations, to learn from market feedback and to improve their performance.
However, because of the small sample size used for this study and the low response rate, a similar study on a much larger scale should be conducted to investigate further the validity of the findings of this study. Future research can also examine whether the level of performance is related to the type of strategy pursued by small to medium sized business organizations.
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当今时代是一个自动化时代，交通灯控制等很多行业的设备都与计算机密切相关。因此，一个好的交通灯控制系统，将给道路拥挤、违章控制等方面给予技术革新。随着大规模集成电路及计算机技术的迅速发展，以及人工智能在控制技术方面的广泛运用，智能设备有了很大的发展，是现代科技发展的主流方向。本文介绍了一个智能交通灯系统的设计。该智能交通灯控制系统可以实现的功能有：对某市区的四个主要交通路口进行监控；各路口有固定的工作周期，并且在道路拥挤时中控中心能改变其周期；对路口违章的机动车能够即时拍照，并提取车牌号。在世界范围内，一个以微电子技术，计算机和通信技术为先导的，以信息技术和信息产业为中心的信息革命方兴未艾。而计算机技术怎样与实际应用更有效的结合并有效的发挥其作用是科学界最热门的话题，也是当今计算机应用中空前活跃的领域。本文主要从单片机的应用上来实现十字路口交通灯智能化的管理，用以控制过往车辆的正常运作。 The times is a automation times nowadays , traffic light waits for much the industry
equipment to go hand in hand with the computer under the control of. Therefore, a good traffic light controls system , will give road aspect such as being crowded , controlling against rules to give a technical improvement. With the fact that the large-scale integrated circuit and the computer art promptness develop, as well as artificial intelligence broad in the field of control technique applies, intelligence equipment has had very big development , the main current being that modern science and technology develops direction. The main body of a book is designed having introduced a intelligence traffic light systematically. The function being intelligence traffic light navar's turn to be able to come true has: The crossing carries out supervisory control on four main traffic of some downtown area; Every crossing has the fixed duty period , charges centre for being able to change it's period and in depending on a road when being crowded; The motor vehicle breaking rules and regulations to the crossing is able to take a photo immediately , abstracts and the vehicle shop sign. Within world range, one uses the microelectronics technology , the computer and the technology communicating by letter are a guide's , centering on IT and IT industry information revolution is in the ascendant. But, how, computer art applies more effective union and there is an effect's brought it's effect into play with reality is the most popular topic of conversation of scientific community , is also that computer applications is hit by the unparalleled active field nowadays. The main body of a book is applied up mainly from slicing machine's only realizing intellectualized administration of crossroads traffic light , use opera tion in controlling the vehicular traffic regularity.
地理位置 位于墨西哥大学城以南的库库尔坎（Kukulcan），是玛雅文化前古典期晚期（公元前800年——公元前200年）中部高原文化的重要文化遗址之一，“库库尔坎”的原意是“舞蹈唱歌的地方”，或表示“带有羽毛的蛇神”。 建筑结构 “库库尔坎”金字塔是我们现在看到的早期墨西哥金字塔是一座用土筑成的 九层圆形祭坛，高29米 ，周边各宽55米多，周长250米左右，最高一层建有一座6米高的方形坛庙，库库尔坎金字塔高约30 米，四周环绕91 级台阶，加起来一共364级台阶，再加上塔顶的羽蛇神庙，共有365阶，象征了一年中的365 天。台阶的两侧宽达1米的边墙，北边墙下端，有一个带羽行的大蛇头石刻，蛇头高1.43米，长达1.80米，宽1.07米，蛇嘴里吐出一条大舌头，颇为独特。 这座古老的建筑，在建造之前，经过了精心的几何设计，它所表达出的精确度和玄妙而充满戏剧性的效果，令后人叹为观止：每年春分和秋分两天的日落时分，北面一组台阶的边墙会在阳光照射下形成弯弯曲曲的七段等腰三角形，连同底部雕刻的蛇头，宛若一条巨蛇从塔顶向大地游动，象征着羽蛇神在春分时苏醒，爬出庙宇。每一次，这个幻像持续整整3 小时22 分，分秒不差。这个神秘景观被称为“光影蛇形”。 每当“库库尔坎”金字塔出同蛇影奇观的时候，古代玛雅人就欢聚在一起，高歌起舞，庆祝这位羽毛蛇神的降临。 库库尔坎金字塔，是玛雅人对其掌握的建筑几何知识的绝妙展示，而金字塔旁边的天文台，更是把这种高超的几何和天文知识表现得淋漓尽致。 建造工艺 在没有金属工具、没有大牲畜和轮车的情况下，古代玛雅人却能够开采大量重达数十吨的石头，跋山涉水、一路艰辛地运到目的地，建成一个个雄伟的金字塔。金字塔最高的可达70米，其规模之巨大、施工难度之高，令人吃惊。 古代玛雅的金字塔和古埃及的金字塔在建筑形式上有着明显的不同。埃及的金字塔的塔顶是尖的，而玛雅金字塔却是平顶，塔体呈方形，底大顶小，层层叠叠，塔顶的台上还建有庙宇；在用途上也不一样：埃及金字塔是法老的陵墓，而玛雅的金字塔除个别外，一般是用来祭祀或观察天象的。除金字塔外，玛雅人还兴建了不少功能性强，技艺高的民用建筑，主要有：房屋（包括庙宇、府邸、民居等）、公共设施（球场、广场、集市等）、基础设施（桥梁、大道、码头、堤坝、护墙等）和水利工程（水渠、水库、水井、梯田）等。
英文 Because of the rapid development of our economy resulting in the car number of large and medium-sized cities surged and the urban traffic, is facing serious test, leading to the traffic problem increasingly serious, its basically are behaved as follows: traffic accident frequency, to the human life safety enormous threat, Traffic congestion, resulting in serious travel time increases, energy consumption increase; Air pollution and noise pollution degree of deepening, etc. Daily traffic jams become people commonplace and had to endure. In this context, in combination with the actual situation of urban road traffic, develop truly suitable for our own characteristics of intelligent signal control system has become the main task. Preface In practical application at home and abroad, according to the actual traffic signal control application inspection, planar independent intersection signal control basic using set cycle, much time set cycle, half induction, whole sensor etc in several ways. The former two control mode is completely based on planar intersection always traffic flow data of statistical investigation, due to traffic flow the existence of variable sex and randomicity, the two methods have traffic efficiency is low, the scheme, the defects of aging and half inductive and all the inductive the two methods are in the former two ways based on increased vehicle detector and according to the information provided to adjust cycle is long and green letter of vehicle, it than random arrived adaptability bigger, can make vehicles in the parking cord before as few parking, achieve traffic flowing effect In modern industrial production,current,voltage,temperature, pressure, and flow rate, velocity, and switch quantity are common mainly controlled parameter. For example: in metallurgical industry, chemical production, power engineering, the papermaking industry, machinery and food processing and so on many domains, people need to transport the orderly control. By single chip microcomputer to control of traffic, not only has the convenient control, configuration simple and flexible wait for an advantage, but also can greatly improve the technical index by control quantity, thus greatly improve product quality and quantity. Therefore, the monolithic integrated circuit to the traffic light control problem is an industrial production we often encounter problems. In the course of industrial production, there are many industries have lots of traffic equipment, in the current system, most of the traffic control signal is accomplished by relays, but relays response time is long, sensitivity low, long-term after use, fault opportunity increases greatly, and adopts single-chip microcomputer control, the accuracy of far greater than relays, short response time, software reliability, not because working time reduced its performance sake, compared with, this solution has the high feasibility. About AT89C51 (1)function characteristics description: AT89C51 is a low power consumption, high performance CMOS8 bit micro-controller, has the 8K in system programmable Flash memory. Use high-density Atmel company the beltpassword nonvolatile storage technology and manufacturing, and industrial 80S51 product instructions and pin fully compatible. Chip Flash allow program memory in system programmable, also suitable for conventional programmer. In a single chip, have dexterous 8 bits CPU and in system programmable Flash, make AT89C51 for many embedded control application system provides the high flexible, super efficient solution. AT89C51 has the following standard function: 8k bytes Flash, 256 bytes RAM, 32-bit I/O mouth line, the watchdog timer, two data pointer, three 16 timer/counter, a 6 vector level 2 interrupt structure, full-duplex serial port, piece inside crystals timely clock circuit. In addition, AT89C51 can drop to 0Hz static logic operation, support two software can choose power saving mode. Idle mode, the CPU to stop working, allowing the RAM, timer/counter, serial ports, interruption continue to work. Power lost protection mode, RAM content being saved, has been frozen, microcontroller all work stop, until the next interruption or hardware reset so far. As shown in
交通信号灯 当今，红绿灯安装在各个道口上，已经成为疏导交通车辆最常见和最有效的手段。社会的发展，人们的消费水平不断的提高，私人车辆不断的增加。人多、车多道路窄的道路交通状况已经很明显了。所以采用有效的方法控制交通灯是势在必行的。PLC 的智能控制原则是控制系统的核心，采用PLC把东西方向或南北方向的车辆按数量规模进行分档，相应给定的东西方向与南北方向的绿灯时长也按一定的规律分档. 这样就可以实现按车流量规模给定绿灯时长，达到最大限度的有车放行，减少十字路口的车辆滞流，缓解交通拥挤、实现最优控制，从而提高了交通控制系统的效率. PLC的应用正在不断地走向深入，同时带动传统控制检测日新月益更新。它具有结构简单、编程方便、可靠性高等优点，已广泛用于工业过程和位置的自动控制中。由于PLC具有对使用环境适应性强的特性，同时其内部定时器资源十分丰富，可对目前普遍使用的“渐进式”信号灯进行精确控制，特别对多岔路口的控制可方便地实现。因此现在越来越多地将PLC应用于交通灯系统中。 同时，PLC本身还具有通讯联网功能，将同一条道路上的信号灯组成一局域网进行统一调度管理，可缩短车辆通行等候时间，实现科学化管理。在实时检测和自动控制的PLC应用系统中，PLC往往是作为一个核心部件来使用。 .. 21世纪，PLC会有更大的发展。从技术上看，计算机技术的新成果会更多地应用于可编程控制器的设计和制造上，会有运算速度更快、存储容量更大、智能更强的品种出现；从产品规模上看，会进一步向超小型及超大型方向发展；从产品的配套性上看，产品的品种会更丰富、规格更齐全，完美的人机界面、完备的通信设备会更好地适应各种工业控制场合的需求；从市场上看，各国各自生产多品种产品的情况会随着国际竞争的加剧而打破，会出现少数几个品牌垄断国际市场的局面，会出现国际通用的编程语言；从网络的发展情况来看，可编程控制器和其它工业控制计算机组网构成大型的控制系统是可编程控制器技术的发展方向。目前的计算机集散控制系统DCS中已有大量的可编程控制器应用。伴随着计算机网络的发展，可编程控制器作为自动化控制网络和国际通用网络的重要组成部分，将在工业及工业以外的众多领域发挥越来越大的作用。
库库尔坎金字塔位于墨西哥尤卡坦半岛北部，是曾经古玛雅人留下的文明遗址。 库库尔坎在玛雅文化中是带羽蛇神的意思，被誉为是太阳的化身，即太阳神。羽蛇神主宰着晨星、发明了书籍、立法，而且给人类带来了玉米，还代表着死亡和重生，也是祭司们的保护神。古典时期，玛雅“真人”手持权杖，权杖一端为精致小形、中间为小人的一条腿化作蛇身、另一端为一蛇头。到了后古典时期，出现了多种变形，但基本形态完全变了，成为上部羽扇形、中间蛇身下部蛇头的羽蛇神形象。 羽蛇神与雨季同来，而雨季又与玛雅人种玉米的时间相重合，因而羽蛇神又成为玛雅农人最为崇敬的神明。在玛雅人眼中羽蛇神与犬神有同样高的地位 在现今留存的最大的玛雅古城奇岑－伊扎，库库尔坎金字塔屹立其中。它的每个面有91级台阶，4个面象征一年四季，共364级台阶，加上塔顶的神殿共365级，象征一年365天。4个边缘分别代表春分、秋分、夏至和冬至。在金字 塔的北面两底角雕有两个蛇头。每年春分、秋分两天，太阳落山时，可以看到蛇头投射在地上的影子与许多个三角形连套在一起，成为一条动感很强的飞蛇。好像从天空中游向大地，栩栩如生。春分蛇由上至下出现，仿佛从神庙中爬出来一样，秋分则由下至上出现，像是爬进去一样。只有每年的这两天里才能看到这一奇景。所以，现在它已经成为墨西哥的一个著名旅游景点。而在当年，玛雅人可以借助这种将天文学与建筑工艺精湛地融合在一起的直观景致，准确把握农时。与此同时，也准确把握崇拜羽蛇神的时机。考古学家在玛雅神庙下方发现神秘的坑洞，进一步的考察发现，坑洞是自然形成的，延伸大约34米，深度为20米 左右。最新的消息指出，神秘下方的洞穴可连接到其他洞穴或者地下湖泊，同时具有深层次的宗教意义，在玛雅文化中处于非常重要的地位。这座寺庙名称为Kukuerkan，即库库尔坎金字塔，这是中美洲最著名的古文明遗址之一，是玛雅文明的巅峰之作。那么金字塔下方的洞穴为何会存在呢，具有何种宗教意义？ 考古学家发现玛雅人在1000年前建造了金字塔，位于一个巨大的天然深坑 上，他们相信建立在深坑顶部的建筑是宗教信仰的一部分，因为库库尔坎金字塔内有一尊玛雅蛇神，或者认为是有羽毛的蛇，它是玛雅人非常崇拜的蛇神。由于蛇神需要水，因此神殿下方是一个被填满水的深坑，水流的运行由北向南。考古学家通过一种新的探测技术对神殿下方的结构进行研究，发现了深坑的存在，探测器能够探测到岩石结构走向，分辨出水流和岩石的相对位置。
2019年(春)六年级美术下册第1课《追寻文明的足 迹》说课教案人美版 教材分析： 本课是“欣赏`评诉”领域的内容。世界文化遗产是人类进步的闪光足迹，是全世界共同的财富。通过本课的欣赏活动，让学生了解人类的智慧和壮举，了解不同历史时期的文化现象，从而引发学生对人类文化遗产的关注，激发学生的求知欲。 教学内容与目标： 认知： 1、知道什么叫文化遗产，能说出7处-10处世界文化遗产。 2、能够对世界文化遗产的保护有正确的认识。 情意： 1、让学生认识到文化遗产是人类共同的财富，增强保护文化遗产的意识和方法。 2、学习了解各个国家不同时期的文明足迹，尊重不同文化背景下的文化现象，接纳多元文 化，拓展国际视野。 能力： 1、能够运用美术知识制作宣传栏，传播世界文化遗产知识。 2、能够收集世界文化遗产的相关资料，初步认识、了解自己感兴趣的文化遗产。 教学重点与难点： 重点： 1、通过资料阅读、课上交流等途径，认识7处—10处世界文化遗产，较细致的了解2处— 3处世界文化遗产。 2、能够从文化遗产的历史背景、审美价值、社会影响、经典特征等方面，介绍2处—3处 世界文化遗产。 难点：有步骤、有层次的介绍2处—3处世界文化遗产。 学习材料： 资料、剪刀、彩纸等 教学过程： 一、了解不同背景的世界文明遗迹 1、课前将学生分成四个组：阿布辛拜勒神庙（非洲）、库库尔坎金字塔（美洲）、法隆寺 （亚洲）、奥林匹亚遗址（欧洲） 每个学生根据书中的问题，查找最下边的 一行图片资料。 （1）《掷铁饼者》、《竞技表演》是哪方面的内容？用的是什么手法？ （2）阿布辛拜勒神庙建造于什么地方、什么时代、有什么特点？ （3）库库尔坎金字塔的所在地、建造时间、艺术特色。说一说它和埃及金字塔有什么相同与不同之处？ （4）法隆寺的建筑特点，它和中国的塔有什么相同与不同之处？ 教学意图：培养学生收集信息、整理信息的能力，以及小组合作、探究的意识。 二、欣赏分析多元的世界文化遗产
关于交通的英语作文带翻译 英语作文是学习英语重要的一个环节，那你想知道有关交通的英语作文要怎么写吗?下面为大家带来关于交通的英语作文带翻译，欢迎大家学习! 关于交通的英语作文1 Today we school organization we listen to the traffic safety knowledge lecture, we all feel very deep. Let us deeply understand; Obey the traffic rules and regulations, and cherish their own lives. When we sit on the car is, must remember to fasten your seat belt. Although I have nothing to do, but if you meet the emergency brake, we can bump at the end, even can fly out. Not afraid of ten thousand, maybe one thousand, do not take the seat belt I at ordinary times, through the police s uncle showed us the picture of the traffic accident and explain, I feel I must get rid of the bad habit of not wearing a seatbelt, I also want to remind same father and mother to fasten your seat belt. We are on the bus, can t put his head out of the window. I have heard about a 19 year old girl deaths due to stick your head out of the window. Although I do not, but I suddenly feel very terrorist, it knows it must remind everyone abide by traffic regulations. We will abide by the traffic light s instructions. Don t be running a red light, you know; Green light can wait, life can t again! We should cherish life. When we pedestrians to cross the road, we have to walk the zebra crossing. Don t have: it doesn t matter, the car will let me! This kind of thought. At the same time we should observe the road on both sides of the car. Everybody watch out, comity, can reduce the number of traffic accidents. Yeah! The traffic safety knowledge, may be some people know, some people don t know. Since everyone learn now, then we will obey the traffic rules and regulations, and together to cherish their own lives.
(完整word版)人美版六年级美术试题 亲爱的读者： 本文内容由我和我的同事精心收集整理后编辑发布到文库，发布之前我们对文中内容进行详细的校对，但难免会有错误的地方，如果有错误的地方请您评论区留言，我们予以纠正，如果本文档对您有帮助，请您下载收藏以便随时调用。下面是本文详细内容。 最后最您生活愉快 ~O(∩_∩)O ~
六年级美术试 一、填空。. 1、《哪吒闹海》是一幅__壁_画，作者张仃在这幅画中运用了中国传统壁画表现手法，又借鉴了构图的理念，在色彩、造型等方面都进行了成功的探索。 2、拉斯科洞窟的岩画是人类最早的绘画。 3、法隆寺是世界上最古老的木建筑之一。 4、装饰画偏重表现形式的装饰画偏重表现形式的装饰性，不强调真实光影和透视关系，注重色彩的象征性及整体的和谐，多以夸张、变形、简洁的手法，给人以明快、强烈的艺术美感。 5、农民画家敢于把牛画的艳丽，显示了他们对色彩生活丰富的想象力和对的无限热爱。 6、雕版印刷三大特点:主板线稿多块色板鬃毛刷。 7、我们曾学过纸版画对印版画粉印版画拓印版画等许多版画制作方法。 8、肌理是指由于材料的不同配列、组成和构造而使人得到的触觉质感和质地。手感触感织法性质纹理等说法都可包含在肌理之中。 9、第一部动画片是《一张滑稽面孔的幽默姿态》，第一部有声动画片是《威利号汽船》，第一部彩色动画片《白雪公主，第一部三维动画片是《玩具总动员》。 10、传统民间门神形象中取自《封神演义》的是赵公明和燃灯道人。 11、许多文化遗产是、文字、绘画、建筑、遗址、口传方式记录下来的，非物质文化遗产是不用文字以民间戏曲为主的活态文化，如各民族的文字绘画建筑遗址口传方式民间戏曲舞蹈神话传说节日礼仪刺绣玩具剪纸面花皮影等。 12、抓髻娃娃是我国北方民间剪纸中一个典型的形象，它既象征着性生命
毕业设计（外文翻译） 英文题目 PLC-based design of traffic lights 中文题目基于PLC的交通灯设计 系（院）自动化系 专业电气工程与自动化 学生姓名 学号 2009022388 指导教师 职称讲师 二〇一三年六月
PLC-based design of traffic lights Abstract: One kind of traffic light control system using programmable logic controller (PLC), via software control traffic lights run automatically. In the system, the original line is the program instead of the relay, programmable logic controller (PLC) system hardware and software resources to be fair use. Normal operation and emergency transport for a detailed description and from the East and West emergencies can be mutually linked. Traffic signal systems and two seven-segment digital display in the countdown order; also discussed in detail the wiring of the hardware and PLC ladder. Traffic lights at the crossroads of the remote monitoring system design configuration software MCGS, real-time monitoring of traffic lights, greatly improving the reliability of data transmission. At the same time, we can configure the traffic lights to change the status of photographs. Keywords: switching power,supply protection, circuit system design
六年级 美术(电子备课) 于颖 目录: 六年级下册: 第1课追寻文明的足迹 第2课探访自然的器官 第3课装饰色彩 第4课装饰画 第5课彩球的设计 第6课城市雕塑 第7课各种材料来制版 第8课装饰柱 第9课精彩的戏曲 第10课戏曲人物 第11课画故事 第12课动画片的今夕 第13课拟人化的动漫形象 第14课留给母校的纪念 第15课我的成长记录 第16课剪纸中的古老记忆 第17课绣在服装上的故事
第18课复制与传播 学情分析: 本学期我教的就是六年级三个班的美术课,随着学生年龄的增长、生理、身心健康的不断发展,学生们对美术的要求有所不同,对美术知识、技能的掌握程度也不同。她们更多地追求现实的、真实的东西或喜欢目前流行的“动漫”,对此进行大量的临摹在绘画技巧上显得成熟,线条也十分流畅,但画风呆板,表现欲下降,缺少童趣。但她们对色彩有辨别能力,把握物体形状的能力很强,乐于动手,对手工制作课充满了极高的热情。对美具有了较高的欣赏能力。 这学期就是她们迈入初中的过渡时期,既要努力响应学生目前的兴趣爱好,又要深入浅出地灌输客观的美术学科理论知识,与初中知识进一步接轨,将平时教给学生的初中知识更加明朗化介绍给学生,使她们从儿童绘画到少年绘画的转型,更重视有欣赏内容与工艺设计教学,即学生的创造能力上的培养,其实就就是对儿童想象力的深化,转变为更理论性含量的创造能力。 知识要点: 该教材贴近学生的心理,符合学生的年龄特点,每课的主题都有美术带来的有趣的惊喜。六年级美术教材一共分为19课。每一课都侧重于“造型·表现”、“设计·应用”、“欣赏·评述”、“综合·探索”四个学习领域中的一个方面,同时也有不少系列的课,教学内容前后联系比较紧密,非常适合学生较深入地做一个专题。并且有些教学内容还设计成了案例学习、问题学习与项目学习,这就要求我们老师应多引导学生进行主动的探究学习,增加学生集体合作的机会。其次本册教材继续体现了人美版教材的可操作性强、贴近生活、关注美术文化的渗透与注重学生学习兴趣的培养等特点。 “造型·表现”:在教学中,让学生运用形、色与肌理等美术语言,选择合适自己的各种工具、材料,记录与表现所见所闻、所感所想的事物,发展美术创作能力,传递自己的思想与情感。 “设计·应用”:运用对比与与谐、对称与均衡、节奏与韵律等组合原理,了解一些简单的创意、设计方法与媒材的加工方法,进行设计与装饰,美化身边的环境。“欣赏·评述”:欣赏认识自然美与美术作品的材料、形式与内容等特征,通过描述、分析与讨论等方式,了解美术表现的多样性,能用一些简单的美术术语,表达自己对美术作品的感受与理解。 “综合·探索”:结合学校与社区的活动,以美术与科学课程与其她课程的知识、技能相结合的方式,进行策划、制作、表演与展示,体会美术与环境及传统文化的关系。 【授课内容】1、追寻文明的足迹 【课时建议】1课时 【教程目标】 知识与技能:知道什么叫文化遗产,能说出7-10处世界文化遗产。能够对世界文化遗产的保护有正确的认识。 过程与方法:通过资料阅读、课上交流等途径,认识了解2处-3处世界文化遗产;能够从文化遗产的历史背景、审美价值、社会影响、经典特征等方面,介绍2-3处世界文化遗产。 情感、态度与价值观:通过本课学习,认识到文化遗产就是人类共同的财富,增强保护文化遗产
大连交通大学 题目智能交通信号灯模拟控制系统设计 学生姓名方飞班级 1401 指导教师林盛专业机械工程学号 20142140 完成日期 2014 年 12 月 26 日
智能交通信号灯模拟控制系统设计 方飞 （大连交通大学机械工程学院辽宁大连116028） 摘要：随着社会经济的增长，人民日益增长的物质文化要求，机动车数量以几何倍数在增长，各大城市交通压力日益加大。行人和非机动车闯红灯、争道、抢道现象仍非常严重，全民交通安全意识有待提高！这就导致了交通的堵塞，据纽约时报报道，中国的交通情况处于倒数行列。为了改善这种交通堵塞情况，本文通过了解关于城市交通流的形成过程的介绍与对交通拥堵现象的形成与传播过程的分析，应对城市交通拥堵的对策与方法的介绍。本论文通过分析城市交通现状及其形成的原因，对对城市交通的建设与管理和国内外大城市道路交通管理的一些实例进行了简单的介绍，针对这种情况，制作出一种全新的智能交通信号灯的模拟控制系统设计，它能根据现实中的车流量来改变交通信号灯的时间显示，从而达到改善交通堵塞的情况。希望可以对我国城市交通建设与管理的策略给予一些建议和启示。 关键字：交通堵塞智能交通信号灯模拟管理
1 引言 城市是人类的最大遗产和人类文化的最大成就。中国的城市交通在近几十年中得到了不可忽视的迅猛发展，但拥堵还是不可忽视的现状。 一是交通基础设施投资和建设过度集中。在改革之后，我国各个大中小城市 的基础设施建设都有了不小的发展，尤其是在面对着美国次贷危机的威胁形式 下，我国党中央国务院为保证经济平稳，特别加大了对锅里基础设施的投入，而 交通运输也是主要对象之一。但是过于密集投资和建设也会带来负面影响。二是 私家车出行迅速增长。自12世纪开始，国际汽车市场全面开放，汽车价格也一 降再降，加上国家大力支持私人购车，近几年我国私家车数量迅速增长，造成城 市交通严重拥挤。三是城市人口剧增。随着城市化的发展，城乡一体化的进程加 快，城市人口剧增，各种矛盾也明显和计划，首当其冲的就是城市交通问题，这 种问题甚至形成了“超级城市病”，体现在交通拥堵日益严重，生态坏境日益恶 化，城市居民幸福感下挫等方面，而交通堵塞是其中最为严重的问题之一。四是 坏境和交通事故频繁。汽车数量增加导致了能源问题和坏境问题，公民出行便利 和国家能源紧张之间的矛盾在不停的激化。 针对上述的种种缘由，通过林盛老师的课，我充分认识到中国的交通需要改 善已经是迫在眉睫，所以在老师的指导下，实地观察，在图书管里查找资料设计 出一个智能的交通信号灯模拟系统控制。此模拟系统控制利用的原理是：当十字 路口的绿灯即将变成红色时，从机的超声波收发器会发射出超声波，如果在五十 米外还有车在等待过马路，这时信号会被接受，然后被传送到从机的主控制器里， 然后由MAX485把TTL电平转换成符合RS-485传输电气特性的电信号，电信号传 递给主机的主控制器，从而控制显示屏和时间显示器，让绿灯时间延时20秒， 进而达到缓解交通堵塞的情况。 2 论文简述 本论文是通过实地观察，然后再结合实际，查找资料，给出了一种新型的交 通信号灯模拟控制系统设计方案。 2.1意义： 本次的机电系统控制设计能够根据实时车流量，实时且灵活的调控绿灯的通 行时间，灵活的增大了车辆在路口遇见绿灯的几率，减少道路交通堵塞情况，更 便于车辆的通行，有利于道路交通的优化，为人们节约了在路口等红灯的时间， 提高了人们的生活节奏。
智能交通信号灯 摘要：信号控制是一种必要的措施以确保的质量和安全,交通循环。现在的信号控制的进一步发展具有极大的潜力来减少运行时间、车辆、事故成本和整车排放。检测的发展和计算机技术改变了交通信号控制从定时开环规定自适应反馈控制。目前的自适应控制方法,像英国、瑞典MOV A SOS)和英国(孤立的信号(area-wide又控制),采用数学优化与仿真技术来调整信号波动的时间观察到的交通流实时的。优化是通过改变时间和周期长度的绿色的信号。在area-wide交叉口控制偏移是之间也发生了变化。已经开发为几种方法确定最优周期长度和最小延迟在十字路口,但基于不确定性和严格的交通信号控制的本质,全局最优是不可能找到的。 1．引文：由于越来越多的公众意识的环境影响道路交通许多当局现在所追求的政策来:，管理供求?拥挤，影响模式和路径选择?;贯彻“三个代表”重要思想,提高公共汽车?有轨电车和其他公共服务车辆;设施提供更好的、更安全,骑自行车和行人的道路使用者等脆弱;降低汽车排放?、噪声和视觉入侵;为所有道路改善安全?用户群。 在自适应交通信号控制的弹性增强的增加的数量在周期层叠的绿色阶段,从而使数学优化非常复杂和困难。因为这个原因,自适应信号控制在大多数情况下不是建立在精确的优化上,而是建立在绿色的扩展原理。在实践中,遵循的均匀性是最主要的交通信号控制安全的原因。这一规定的限制的周期时间和相位的安排。因此,在实践中是交通信号控制的针对性的解决方案和调整的基础上由交通规划者。现代可编程信号控制器以大量的可调参数是非常适合这一过程。对于好的结果,一个经验丰富的策划人和微调领域中是必要的。模糊控制已经被证明是成功的,在这些问题中,精确的数学建模是困难的或不可能的,但一名有经验的人可以控制的工艺操作。因此,交通信号控制是一种适合于任务特别为模糊控制。事实上,最古老的文化之一的潜力的例子是一个模拟的模糊控制在一个inter-section交通信号控制的两个单向的街道。即使在这个非常简单的情况下,模糊控制是至少在作为一个良好的传统的自适应控制。一般而言,模糊控制是发现在复杂问题都优于用多目标决策。在交通信号控制多种交通流竞争来自同一时间和空间,而且不同的优先选择往往不同交通流或车辆组。此外,优化标准,包括几个同时喜欢平均和最大车辆和行人延误、最大队列长度和百分比停止的车辆。所以,它很可能是很有竞争力的模糊控制在复杂真实的十字路口的地方传统的优化方法的使用是有问题的。 2．模糊逻辑：介绍了模糊逻辑,并成功地应用于大范围的自动控制任务。最大的好处模糊逻辑是有机会模型与不确定的模糊决策。此外,模糊逻辑有能力理解语言指令和控制策略的基础上产生的先验的沟通。这一点在利用模糊逻辑来控制理论的基础上,是模仿人类专家控制的知识,而不是为了构建过程本身。的确,模糊控制已经被证明是成功的,在这些问题中,精确的数学建模是困难的或不可能的,但一名有经验的操作员可以控制的过程。一般而言,模糊控制是发现在复杂问题都优于多目标决策。 目前,有大量的基于模糊推论系统技术。不过它们当中的主要部分,受含糊不清的根基;即使它们大都是古典数学方法表现更好,他们还带有黑色的盒子,如德模糊化,这是很难证明数学或逻辑的。例如,如果-然后模糊规则,它们在核心的模糊推理系统,经常报道的工作方式,是Ponens概括规则推理机制的经典,但随便起来就不是这样的,这之间的关系,这些规则和多值逻辑是任何已知的复杂和人工。此外,专家系统的性能应相当于人类专家:它应该得到同样的结果,专家给,但提醒当控制问题是如此模糊,专家是不确定适当的行为。现有的模糊专家系统很少满足这第二种情况。 然而,很多研究观察,模糊推理的方法是基于相似。Kosko,举个例子,写的模糊隶属……代表的相似性定义对象特性的imprecisely。以这句话严重,我们学习系统的多值等价,即模糊相