任务型阅读专题（三）
怎样做词性句型转换题
任务型阅读要求考生根据阅读文章提供的信息用恰当的词语完成与短文相关的图表，并有一定字数的限制。主要考察学生获取信息的能力（对应信息查找题）、组织信息的能力（对应信息转换题）和概括表达信息能力（对应信息归纳题）。任务型阅读中的题型主要包括原词重现，固定搭配，词性句型转换，归纳概括四大类. 我们就词性句型转换来谈谈解题步骤，解题技巧。
解题步骤：先框架后细节，先定位后定性
一般根据题目特点，可分为以下三步：
1）略读—快速浏览抓住文章中心大意以及文章的结构(借助所给图表结构）。
2）细读—带着问题，找到文章对应点，分析整理归纳信息并且准确表达信息。
3）复读—复读文章，反复揣摩所填之词是否符合文章内容，其拼写是否正确。
解题技巧：一同意词，同意句转换，即练习将一种词转换成另一种该词的同意词类，表达的意思跟原句一样，只要在文中找到关键词即可。例如：
1 原文：Studying is like climbing a mountain and you should take one step at a time
转换成：Language learning is ______to mountain climbing . Take one step at a time and you will fulfill your dream
2 原文：A regular exercise routine can provide relatively quick positive
转换成：______ out regularly , which will keep you motivated
二原词变形: 做此类题首先要理解题意，其次仔细比较原句和题目，明白出题人的意图，只要找出题眼就不难得出答案。
1 原文：Shortly after he reached the peak, Simpson fell through an overhanging edge of snow and
broke his leg
转换成：After _____ the peak , he fell and broke his leg
2 原文：Do not delay or make up any excuses because you fail to complete your daily task
转换成：Do not delay or make up any excuses for your ____to complete your daily task
三句义转述：做此类题首先要理解题意，其次仔细比较原句和题目，找到另外一种说法跟原句意思相近的，然后再根据情境，填词，注意词的形式的变化
1原文：We express our attitude in our words and actions
转换成: We express our attitude by______ and behaving
2原文: The more humor and laughter in your life , the less stress you’ll have
转换成: Filling your life with____ and laughter , which will do good to your health
四词性的变化：此类题目主要是一些词性的变化，形容词到副词，动词到名词，名词到动词，名词到形容词，大部分都是一些固定搭配，平时要注意躲积累这
些高频词或词组。
1原文By building houses for poor people and helping them be responsible for their lives 转换成：Habitat builds houses for the poor and helps them to take ______ for their own lives .
2原文This cyclone Nargis had been one of the strongest to have ever occurred , reaching a death number of nearly 150000.
转换成：The 2008 cyclone called Nargis had been one of the strongest , leaving
nearly 150000 people_____
3原文All of these terrible disasters that were unavoidable
转换成：These terrible disasters couldn’t be ______
4原文：Attending such programs can often improve retention(记忆力) rates for children so that they are better prepared for the school year to come
转换成：Children can not only have fun in summer camps but also make _____ for the coming school year.
任务型阅读中的高频词：
1.使某人能够做enable / allow sb to do
2.不能做某事fail to do
3.绝非易事no easy job
4.避免做avoid doing
5.包括……including sth= sth included
6.导致result in= lead to=contribute to=bring about = cause= give rise to
7.符合需求meet/ satisfy / suit one’s needs/ wants/ demands/ requirements
8.充分利用make the most of=make the best(use) of= make full use of
9.依靠depend on=be dependent on
10.建立在……基础上be based on
11.做某事有困难have difficulties with sth
have difficulty / trouble (in) doing sth
12.参与participate in =get/be involved in
13.献身于，投入于devote ….t o sth/doing
14.一刻，四分之一quarter
十年decade
一个世纪century
15.和……相似be similar to .熟悉……be familiar with
17.重要/有价值/有用/有帮助
be of importance/ significance/ value/ use/ help= be important/ significant/ valuable/ useful/ helpful
18.在……帮助下with the help o f =with the aid/ assistance of….
19.在某人许可之下with one’s permission
20.开始存在come into being/ existence
21.影响……have a…effect on = affect
22.被……取代be replaced by/ with
23.在上升中be increasing/ rising=be on the increase/ rise
在减少中be decreasing/declining/ dropping=be on the decrease/ decline
24.除了做……别无选择have no choice/ alternative/ option but to do
25.对……负责；是……成因be responsible for= take responsibility for
26.对……有害do harm to= be harmful to
27.对……有好处be good for=do good to=be beneficial to = be of benefit to.= benefit sb/ sth
28.对……造成威胁be a threat to sth = be dangerous to ….
29.意识到be aware / conscious of
提高意识raise/ increase one’s awareness of
30.有机会利用/进入have access to….
31.和……相等；胜任于be equal to…
32.有规律的/地regular(ly)
33.舒适的/地comfortable-comfortably
34.大多数the majority of the students= most of the students = most students
35.占多数in the majority
占少数in the minority
36.大的百分比a large percentage of…
37.毁坏(v) destroy 毁坏(n) destruction
38.可得到的available
39.建立set up=found=establish
组成form a team/ band
40.消失(v)disappear 消失(n) disappearance
41.对…感到自豪be proud of=take pride in
42.描述(v) describe 描述(n) description
43.起……作用play a role in…
44.保持平衡keep a balance
45.考虑……consider …..= take….into consideration/ account
46.和……有联系be related to= relate to=be linked with/ to= be connected with/ to = be
associated with
47.以纪念/以对某人表示敬意in honor of
48.以庆祝in celebration of 49.一开始in the beginning
在……开始at the beginning of…
50.使某人想起；提醒某人注意remind sb of sth
51.和……和谐相处live in harmony with = live harmoniously with
52.对……造成损害do /cause damage to..
53.成本高at high cost
54.以认可……in recognition of….
55.阻止某人做prevent / stop/ keep sb from
56.保持健康keep fit/ healthy
57.鼓励某人做encourage sb to do
在某人鼓励之下under one’s encouragement
在某人指导之下under one’s guidance
58.成功地做manage to do= succeed in doing
59.受伤(v) injure 受伤(n) injury 受伤(adj) injured
60.遭受……suffer from….
61.被限制到be limited to n/ doing 一个……的限制a limit to…
61.人们普遍接受…It is widely(=generally) accepted that.
我认为……是可接受的I think it acceptable that…
62.获得成功achieve success;
达到目的achieve one’s goal
63.除了..之外还有in addition to= besides= apart from=as well as…
除了..没有apart from=except=but =other than
64.在……方面取得进步make progress=an advance in sth
65.对……厌倦be bored with=be tired of=be fed up with
66.谨慎（n）caution 谨慎(adj) cautious
67.结合（v）combine 结合(n) combination
68.和sb交流communicate with=have communication with
69.对….自信be confident of…=have confidence in…
70.由……组成consist of= be made up of
71. 对…作出贡献make contributions to=contribute to..
72.被控制住be controlled =be under control
73.处在灭绝的危险中in danger of dying out
74.为某人树立榜样set an example to sb
75.符合某人的期待come/ live up to one’s expectations
76.面对……be faced with= face
77.成长(v) grow 成长(n) growth
78.缺少实际经验lack practical experience =be lacking in …..= be short of…… 因为缺少….for lack of….
79.身心健康physical and mental health= be healthy physically and mentally
80.积极的positive 消极的negative
81.现象phenomenon→phenomena
82.受某人欢迎be popular with/among 欢迎(n) popularity
83.使某人满意satisfy 满意(n) satisfaction
84.全心全意为人民服务serve the people heart and soul
85.社会(n) society 社会的(adj) social
86.各种各样的varieties of=a variety of= various +名词（动词）vary
87.某人/某事可能be likely to do
88.实现realize sth=turn sth into reality
89.随着……发展with the development of..
90.A不同于B A differs from B= A is different from B
91.改善，提高(n) improvement
任务型阅读专项练习和答案 一、英语任务型阅读 1．阅读信息，为每段选择恰当的标题。 Here is a page from a magazine named Future. Read the following information about things that may happen in the future. ________⑴Cars will run on solar power（太阳能）or electricity and will be much cleaner. They will be much safer. For example, if you are too close to another car or if you are driving dangerously, your car will slow down by itself. ________⑵Because there won't be any spare land, new cities will have to be built in the sea. Some cities on water will have two levels. People will live on the upper level, and the lower level will be used for traffic, shops and factories. ________⑶Biotechnology will make food better and healthier. Plants that are not affected by insects or illnesses will be developed. The taste of fruits and vegetables will be better and food will be kept longer. ________⑷New technology will be used to make TVs that are only 5cm thick. They will have pictures that are as clear as photos. Electrical appliances will be quieter and will be controlled by computer. They will also use 50% less power. ________⑸Many new ways to cure illnesses will be successful by using products of genetic engineering （基因产品）. Cures will be found for the flu and the common cold. However, some new illnesses will appear. 【解析】【分析】文章大意：介绍了未来社会在能源交通，城市建设，生物技术以及医药方面的一些变化。 A. Better and healthier food will be developed with the help of biotechnology. 在生物技术的帮助下，将开发出更好、更健康的食品。 B. TVs made by new technology are not only 5cm thick but also as clear as photos. 新技术生产的电视机不仅有5厘米厚，而且像照片一样清晰。 C. Cars will be much cleaner and safer if they run on solar power or electricity. 如果汽车使用太阳能或电力，将会更加清洁和安全。 D. Some new illnesses will appear though many new ways to cure illnesses will be successful. 一些新的疾病将会出现，尽管许多治疗疾病的新方法将会成功。 E. The future cities will be built in the sea because of less land. 未来的城市将建在海里，因为陆地较少。 （1）根据文中语句Cars will run on solar power（太阳能）or electricity and will be much cleaner. 提示可知，此段讲述的是新能源汽车的优点，故选C。
2020届二轮复习阅读理解专项训练（任务型阅读） 1 任务型阅读(共10小题；每小题1分, 满分10分) 请认真阅读下面短文, 并根据所读内容在文章后表格中的空格里填入一个最恰当的单词。注意：请将答案写在答题卡上相应题号的横线上。每个空格只填一个单词。 China Using Mobile Apps to Follow Spread of Coronavirus People in China are using apps on mobile phones to follow and perhaps help slow the spread of the new coronavirus, COVID-19. Some of the apps provide the latest information about areas hit by the virus, while others collect data on infected persons. The Chinese government is working with two of the country’s largest technology companies to keep track of the disease. The two, Alibaba Group and Tencent Holdings, created color-based systems that record the health of individuals and identify carriers of the coronavirus. In February, Alipay, a payment app operated by Alibaba, released a system that uses colored QR Codes to show the health of people in the city of Hangzhou. A QR code is a sign a smartphone can read with its camera. Once the sign is recognized, the phone takes the user directly to an internet link with information about a subject. After completing the questionnaire, users receive a mobile phone message. It includes a color-based QR Code that relates to the health situation they described. Users with a red code are told to quarantine themselves for 14 days and continue reporting their condition by using Alibaba’s DingTalk messaging app. Users with a yellow code are told to stay in quarantine for 7 days, while those with a green code can travel freely. Chinese state media said the Alibaba system would be deployed at train stations, along major roads and other travel checkpoints. They added that the system is also being used in some neighborhoods. People are asked to show QR Codes when entering their apartment buildings. Customers are asked to do the same before entering the local supermarket. Alipay said it was working with the government to expand the system nationwide. Tencent, which operates China’s popular messaging app WeChat, reported the launch of a similar QR Code-based tracking system. Tencent developed the system with help from China’s National Development and Reform Council, which is currently in use in the southern city of Shenzhen. Officials said they expected it to be deployed to other parts of Guangdong province soon. Even before the latest systems were announced, many Chinese were already using mapping and travel apps in an effort to avoid areas with coronavirus infections. One of the apps, developed by WeChat, uses official reports to identify places in the cities of Shenzhen and Guangzhou where coronavirus cases have been confirmed.
（一）), one friend says to the other, If any 森林Two friends are going through the forest() comes out from behind the trees, I will stay with you and help you. “The 野兽beast(other friend says, “I will help you too, if any beast comes near you.”After a little time comes out from behind the trees, At once （熊）there is a great noise , and a big bear one of the friends runs and gets up in a tree. The other friend is fat; he can not get up in a tree. He lies down at the foot of the tree. He says to himself, The bear will think I am him. It thinks （闻）dead. “The bear comes near him; it puts its nose down and smellsthe man is dead, so it goes away. The other friend comes down from the tree, and says, What did the bear say to you when it put its mouth so near to your ear?”The friend answers, the bear said, 'if a friend runs away from you when you need his help most, 敨椠?潮??敲污映楲湥??? 阅读并回答问题1. Where are the two friends? _____________________________________________ 2. What does the thin friend do when a big bear comes out? _____________________________________________ 3. What does the bear think after it smells the fat man? _____________________________________________ 4. Are they real friends? _____________________________________________ 5. What friends are real ones? _____________________________________________ 14 / 1 ）（2 A volunteer is someone who performs or offers to perform a service out of his own free the International Year of the 自愿), often without payment. The year 2 001 was will( V olunteer. 2005 was the UK Year of the V olunteer.) or other medical research. (A) Some 临床试验Some volunteer for clinical trials( may even donate their bodies to scientific research after their death.An online volunteer is a person who spends time and effort with an organization through an online connection, (B) rather than in person. A great number of people from around the world are online volunteers. Online volunteers can provide help in many fields. The practice of offering online help goes by other names.There are many opportunities for people to donate their services using the internet. Online volunteers can do (C) a variety of tasks. Young or old, anyone can s pend his spare time online offering some help as an online volunteer. Are you ready to be an online volunteer? 下列各题。根据短文内容完成 1. What is a volunteer? _________________________________________ 2. How can an online volunteer
一、高中英语任务型阅读 1．Directions: Read the passage carefully. Fill in each blank with a proper sentence given in the box. Each sentence can be used only once. Note that there are two more sentences than you need. Self-Care Strategies for College Students Most college students don't put self-care at the top of their to do lists. When you're caught up in the whirlwind (旋风) of classes, extra-curricular, work, friendship, and final exams, it's easy to ignore a task that doesn't come with a deadline (even if that task is simply “taking care of yourself”). Embrace the excitement and intensity of college life, but remember that maintaining your physical, mental, and emotional health is essential to your success and well-being. ________ Instead, take time out to take care of yourself with some of these self-care strategies. Get Away for Some Alone Time. If you live with roommates, privacy can be hard to come by, so make it your mission to find a peaceful place on campus to call your own. ________ Take a Mindful Walk Around Campus. When you're strolling to class, try this mindfulness exercise to center yourself and destress. ________ Feel free to people-watch, but pay attention to sensory details too, like the smell of a nearby barbecue or the sensation of pavement under your shoes. Take note of at least five beautiful or intriguing things you notice along your route. You might find yourself feeling a little calmer by the time you reach your destination. Stage a Sleep Intervention. How much sleep do you really get each night? ________ By doing that, you'll begin the process of repaying your sleep debt and establishing healthy new sleep habits. Don't buy into the myth that the less you're sleeping, the harder you're working. Your mind and body need consistent sleep to operate at optimum levels – you simply can't do your best work without it. Download a New Podcast. Take a break from the books, grab your headphones, and listen to some immersive mysteries, compelling interviews, or laugh-out-loud comedy. There are thousands of podcasts covering almost every subject imaginable, so you're sure to find something that interests you. A. As you walk, pay close attention to your surroundings. B. Make a plan to get off campus and explore your surroundings. C. If you're averaging seven hours or less, commit to sleeping at least eight hours tonight. D. If you're feeling stressed or overwhelmed, don't punish yourself by pushing your mind and body to their limits. E. A comfortable corner in the library and even an empty classroom are perfect places to relax and recharge. F. Actually, it is possible to shorten sleep time by up to 1 hour without the risk of sleep deprivation (剥夺) if you know how to have high quality sleep. 【答案】 D；E；A；C
英语英语任务型阅读专项习题及答案解析及解析 一、英语任务型阅读 1．以下是去英国旅游的5个常见的问题，方框里是对这5个问题提出的建议，请为每一个问题选择最合适的建议，并将答案的字母编号填写在题前的括号内。 （2）Enjoy yourselves by all means. But please don't make unnecessary noise. （3）Traffic. Be careful when you cross the road. （4）It is against the law（法律） to throw away waste material in public（公共的）places. （5）If you need any kind of help, you can get in touch with the local（本地的） police station. 【答案】（1）B （2）D （3）C （4）F （5）E 【解析】【分析】 A. Always wear your most comfortable clothes when going on long journeys.当你旅行的时候，总是要穿最舒服的衣服。 B. You may not buy alcohol（酒精）in England if you are under 18 years old, nor may your friend buy it for you.如你年龄不到十八岁你不可以买酒精，你的朋友也不可以为你买。 C. The traffic moves on the left side of the road in England. Use the crossings for walking.在英国交通靠左行驶，经过十字路口步行。 D. We ask you to respect（尊重）other people who may wish to be quiet particularly （特别） at night.我们请你尊敬那些尤其在晚上希望安静的人。 E. The police will be pleased to help you.警察会乐意帮助你。 F. When you have something to throw away, please put it in your pocket or in your bag and take it home, or put it in a rubbish bin.当你有东西要扔的话，把它装进口袋里或者书包里带回家，或者扔进垃圾箱里。 （1）句意：你应该注意喝的东西。这一句和B句的低于18岁的人不允许买酒精相关，故答案是B
上海市中考英语英语任务型阅读理解专题练习(附答案) 一、英语任务型阅读 1．根据短文内容，完成问题。 Pakistani girl Malala Yousafzai is the youngest ever to win the Nobel Peace Prize. She has become the voice of girls throughout the world. Born in Swat Valley in Pakistan in 1997, Malala lived a quiet life until 2009, when the Taliban(塔利班), an Islamic organization of violence(暴力) took control of her village. ① . They believed educating girls was against Islam. But Malala didn't agree. She wouldn't give up her education and kept going to school. ② "What is wrong with us girl students? We want all girls to get their schools back," she wrote. Her hard work encouraged many young girls in Swat Valley. ③ On Oct.9, 2012, when Malala was taking a bus home, a Taliban man got on the bus with a gun in his hand. A bullet immediately hit her in the face. Luckily, the shot didn't kill her. She was taken to a hospital in the UK. The shot didn't kill her courage, either. ④ Her courage made her famous. She has spoken at the United Nations, met world leaders and written a book named I Am Malala. OnOct.10, 2013, the EP awarded Malala the top human rights prize. They said," She is an icon(符号) of courage for all teenagers who dare to follow their aspirations(愿望)." ①________②________③________④________ （2）What may be the best title for this passage? A. Dreans of peace B. A gun shot in Pakistan C. Voice of courage D. Education rights for girls 【答案】（1）B；D；A；C （2）C 【解析】【分析】主要讲了巴基斯坦女孩尤萨夫扎伊是有史以来获得诺贝尔和平奖最年轻的人。她不放弃教育，一直学习，她的艰辛工作鼓励着许多女孩，已成为全世界女孩勇气的声音。 （1）A. However, her actions also put her in danger.然而，她的行为也使她处于危险之中。 B. They stopped girls from getting an education.他们阻止女孩接受教育。 C. Now she is still calling for education rights for girls.现在她仍在呼吁女孩享有受教育的权利。 D. And she started to write a blog against the Taliban.她开始写一篇反对塔利班的博客。 ①根据后句They believed educating girls was against Islam.可知他们认为教育女孩是违背伊
必备英语任务型阅读专项练习题及答案详解 一、英语任务型阅读 1．阅读下面短文，回答问题。 There are some things that are almost impossible to say to our close friends — especially if we want （A） them to be our friends for life. Are you wondering what problems others have? "I can't stand your other friends." （B）My best friend, Kate, sometimes hangs out with some people that I really don't like. I think they have a bad influence on her, and she only spends time with them because they are "cool". Could you tell me if I should bring the matter up with her, or if it would be better for me to keep quiet? I don't want to lose her as a friend. — Linda "I won't help you cheat." My closest friend, Kim, has lost interest in school and studying. He says he's bored with the whole thing, so he often asks me whether I'll let him copy my homework. By now I've said no, but he keeps asking me. I told him, "I think we'll get in trouble." but he just laughed and told me not to worry. I don't want to put my grades at risk, but I'm afraid to face my friend about this, so I just keep avoiding the topic. How can I get him to stop asking? I was wondering if you could give me some suggestions for dealing with my problem. — Mike "No, I CAN'T do that for you!" Anna is my best friend. We get along with each other well, but she is asking me to do things for her all the time. "Could you help me pick out some new clothes? Would you mind if I borrowed your bike? Can you look after my apartment while I'm away?" And these are just a few examples. I've said yes so many times that now I'm afraid I'll hurt her feelings if I say no. Any ideas? — Amy （1）从文中找出（A）处划线单词 them 所指代的内容。 （2）从文中找出与 "I was thinking whether you could help me out with your suggestions." 意思相同或相近的句子。 （3）将文中（B）处划线句子My closest friend, Kim, has lost interest in school and studying.翻译成汉语。 （4）根据上下文，补全句子。 Kate only spends time with some people that Linda really doesn't like because________. （5）回答问题。What does Kim often want to do? （6）完成任务。Please give Amy ONE idea. 【答案】（1）close friends （2）I was wondering if you could give me some suggestions for dealing with my problems.（3）我最亲密的朋友Kim已经对学校和学习失去了乐趣。 （4）they are cool （5）He often wants to copy my homework. （6）You should communicate with her.
九年级英语任务型阅读练习 （一）阅读短文，根据要求完成下面各小题。 Is it hard for you to get up early and get ready for classes? Some students at Winter Park High School just quickly get up and go to class in their own bedrooms. Of course, their teachers and classmates do not see them because all their class work is on the computer. The Florida High School, the state's only on-line school, has 250 students who are taking classes at home by computers. “I'm a lot more comfortable at home,”said Luke Levesque, a 16-year-old who is taking a computer class on line. He thinks (A) the school's computer lab is so noisy that he can't study well.”Home is much better,”he says. Students in this first on-line program take classes in math, American government, chemistry, computer, and Web-page design. They also have to go to regular( 正规的) school to attend other classes. When a student is ready to begin in class, he or she (B) _______the computer, reads the teacher's instructions, and begins working on the lesson for the day. What happens if a student has a question for the teacher? Or the teacher wants to say something about the work a students is doing? The student and the teacher talk to each other every day through e-mail or by telephone. Is it easy for students to cheat on tests(考试作弊) when they're working at home ? (C) The teachers have already thought about this. They make students take their final exams in person in the classroom. “You see most of the same things on-line that you see in a regular classroom,”says teacher Linda Hayes. If this first on-line program goes well, in three years Florida High School students will be able to take all their classes by computer. When that happens, students will be able to get their high school diplomas(毕业证书) without having to (D) 走进教室。 1.将划线部分(A)改写成the school's computer lab is _______ noisy for _______ to study well. 2.在(B)的空白处填入一个适当的词语______________________ 3.将划线部分(C)译成汉语________________________________ 4.将划线部分(D)译成英语________________________________ 5.在文中找出能够说明主题的短语
任务型阅读理解专练 （3） A Page From Li Meng’s Diary Thursday, January 23 Sunny Today I was so happy to know that I did quite well in my last week’s science exam. Thanks to Daniel, he taught me a new way of going over lessons. It is called “map idea”. Because of the map idea, I’ve learned how to find out the main idea in every lesson. And in my mind I can draw a map of all the important knowledge I need to remember. It’s really good. I can remember so much in that way. I never thought of changing the way of my study before. I was always complaining about my poor memory, but now my memory has become good because of the map idea. It made my study much easier and more enjoyable. I realized learning how to learn well is the most important for us students. 96. There was a science exam in Li Meng’s class . 97. Daniel taught Li Meng a good way to study. That is . 98. Li Meng complain about his bad memory. 99. Li Meng has learned a new way of lessons. 100. It is the most important how to learn well. （4） Dear Miss Li, I’d like to thank you for sending money to “Animal Helpers”,an organization set up to help diabled people.For sure you have helped make it possible for me to have "Lucky", who has filed my life with pleasure. “Lucy” is a specialy trained dog for the disabled.It is a good name for him because I feel very lucky to have him. Being blind, deaf, unable to use my hands easily are the challenges I face. "Lucky" helps me open and shut the doors,even answer the telephone.He cheers me up a lot. I’l send you a photo of him if you like,and Icould show you how he helps me too one day.And I thank you again for supporting "Animal Helpers". It is important that this organization does not run out of money. Your donation is greatly appreciated and the money is well used to help disabled people like me. Best wishes, Liz Smith 71.Liz Smith is a__________man who is__________to see or hear. 72."Lucky" is the__________of a specialy__________dog. 73."Animal Helpers" is an organization that was__________up to__________the disabled. 74.Liz Smith will__________Miss Lia a photo of the dog and__________her how "Lucky" helps him. 75.LizSmith wrote this letter to__________Miss Li for her__________to Animal Helpers. （5）