P54-专业英语作业
1. Drug Development is a very complex process requiring a great deal of coordination and communication between a wide range of different functional groups.
中文翻译:药物开发是一个十分复杂的过程，需要在广泛的不同功能性团队之间进行大量的协调与沟通。
2. It is expensive, particularly in the later phases of clinical development, where studies involve hundreds of patients
这个过程（药物开发）这是昂贵的，特别是在临床开发的后期阶段，其中涉及到对数百名患者的研究。
3. It is currently estimated that the development of a new drug costs about $230million and takes somewhere between7and10years form initiation of preclinical development to first marketing.
目前估计,一种新药的开发成本约为2.3亿美元,并且从启动临床前的开发阶段到首次上市，需要花费7到10年
4. Drug development is a high-risk business; although the rate is increasing, only about one out of every ten new chemical entities studied in human beings for the first time will ever become a product. 药物开发是一个高风险的业务，尽管比率在不断上升，但是在完成了首次在人体研究中的每十个新化学实体中，大约只有一个能成为产品。
5.原文：As a drug candidate progresses through development the risks
of failure decrease as‘hurdles’ are overcome along the way.
翻译：随着候选药物开发的进行，失败的风险在前进夫人道路上，会像跨栏似的降低。
6.Typical reasons for failure include unacceptable toxicity , lack of efficacy , or inability to provide advantages over competitive products(Fig.1).
翻译：失败的典型原因包括：不可接受的毒性,缺乏功效,或不比竞争产品有优势。
7. Assessment of whether a drug candidate is likely to provide competitive advantages highlights the need first to have in place a set of product 'goals' or target product profile.
对候选药物是否可能提供有竞争性优势方面的评估，首先需要强调的是应达到一系列产品目标或目标产品的特性。
8、Particular attention should be paid to the differentiation from competitors.
应该特别注意竞争者（指药物）之间的差异。
9、This is becoming more and more critical with the increasing emphasis on limited formularies，healthcare costs，and pharmacoeconomics (discussed later in the chapter).
随着对有限的处方、医疗保健费用以及药品经济学的日益关注，这种情况变得越来越重要（本章稍后讨论）。
10. A target profile will define the indication (s) that a drug candidate will be developed for, along with goals such as once a day dosing, faster
onset of action, better side effect profile than a major competitor.
包括诸如每日一次给药、起效更快、比主要竞争者具有更低的毒副作用的特性等目标在内，药物开发的目的特性将定义候选药物被开发的疾病适应症。
11. The target profile can be refined and revised as a drug candidate moves through development and new data on the drug candidate or competitors become available.
随着候选药物的开发阶段的进展，以及候选药物或竞争药物新数据的获得，药物开发的目的特性可以再定义或修改。
12；The logical next steps are to define the development strategy, for example , which indications to develop first, which countries to aim to market the drug in and then to define the core clinical studies necessary to achieve regulatory approval and commercial success.
翻译：合乎逻辑的下一个步骤就是明确开发战略，例如，哪个疾病适应症要优先开发，以哪些国家作为药物的目标市场，然后确定能获得监管部门的批准和商业成功的必要核心临床研究。
13.原句：This chapter will describe the main activities required for successful development of a new drug.
翻译：本章将描述一个新药成功开发过程所需的主要活动。
14.原文：All these activities, many of which are interdependent, need to be carefully planned and co-ordinate
翻译：所有的这些动，其中许多都是相互依存的，需要认真规划和协调
15. Speed to market with collection of high quality data is critical for success
中文翻译: 快速向市场收集高质量的数据是成功的关键。
16. The path of activities which determine the time it will take to get to registration is called, in project management terms, the critical path. 确定需要测定花费的时间来获得登记的活动的步骤，以项目管理术语而言，被称为关键步骤。
17. It is vital to plan and prepare before studies begin and to monitor and manage problems so as to ensure that the critical path remains on schedule.
译：在研发开始之前，计划和准备，并监控和管理问题以及确保关键步骤如期进行，这是非常重要的，。
18.原文：With increased economic pressures and competitive intensity it is important for companies to explore ways to shorten this critical path 翻译：由于经济压力和竞争强度的增加，企业探索如何缩短这一关键步骤是重要的。
19.Running activities in parallel, or overlapping studies which would usually run sequentially , often involves an increase in risk but the dividends in time-saving can make such strategies worthwhile.
译文：并行开展这些活动，或将通常按顺序开展的研究进行重叠，往往会涉及到风险的增加；但节省时间的红利可以使这种战略值得这样做。
20.The critical path for development of a new drug generally runs thro ugh the initial synthesis of compound,subacute toxicology studies,and then the clinical program.
新药开发的关键步骤贯穿于化合物的初期合成、亚急性毒理学研究和随后的临床计划。
21.A chart showing the critical path activities for a typical drug candidate is shown in Fig
翻译: 一个展示典型的候选药物的关键步骤活动的图所示。
22、The following sections highlight the objectives and activities of drug development work.
下列各部分突出了和药物开发工作的具体目标和活动内容
23、Activities within each technical discipline are described broadly in chronological order.
在每个技术学科里的活动按时间先后排列的顺序大致作了介绍。
24．At any one time, work in the all these disciplines may be proceeding in parallel.
翻译：在任何时候，所有这些领域的工作可能是平行进行。
25.原文：The timing and outcome of much of the work has direct impact on work in other disciplines.
翻译：这些大多数工作的时序和所出成果对其他学科里的工作有着直接的影响。
26、The major phases of drug development are Preclinical (studies required before the compound can be dosed in humans), Phase I
(clinical studies usually in healthy human volunteers), PhaseⅡ
( initial efficacy and safety and dose finding studies in patients)，and PhaseⅢ(studies in several hundred patients).
药物开发的主要阶段是临床前期（化合物可给人体服药前的所需的研究）、I阶段（通常在健康志愿者身上的临床研究）、Ⅱ期（病人身上的初期疗效和安全性和治疗剂量调查研究）和Ⅲ期（在几百个病人的研究）。
27.原文：There then follows assembly of a marketing application dossier for subsequent review by country regulatory authorities.
翻译：然后附述一个由国家监管当局随后审查的上市申请档案的汇编。
28、Rapid development of a drug candidate is dependent on the availability of sufficient quantity of the compound.
候选药物的快速开发是取决于足够数量的化合物的可获得性。
29.The purity of compound needs to reach certain standards in order for it to be used in safety （toxicology),pharmaceutical, and clinical studies.
该化合物的纯度需要达到一定的标准，以便它用于安全性（毒理学）、药理学和临床的研究。
30.Initially , chemists will work on a small to medium scale to investigate production of the compound by several different methods so as to identify the optimum route for synthesizing the compound
最初，化学家将进行小到中等规模的研究，考察采用几种不同方法制备该化合物，
以便确定该化合物的最佳合成路线。
31原句:‘Optimun’ here may mean a combination of several factors, for example, most efficient, cheapest safe, or that producing minimal waste.
翻译:这里“最佳” 可能意味着多种因素的组合，例如，最有效，最便宜的安全，或产生最少的废物。
32. Analysis of the final product as well as intermediates and impurities plays a key role in identifying the best method of synthesis
最终产品和中间体及杂质的分析在确定最佳的合成方法起着关键作用
33.Development and validation of analytical methods are necessary to support process development and guarantee the purity of the drug su bstance
译：分析方法的开发和验证对于支持工艺开发和保证原料药的纯度是必要的。
34. In some cases levels of impurities may be unacceptably high and either improved purification procedures will need to be developed or the synthetic process may require significant alterations.
在某些情况下，杂质的含量可能高得令人无法接受，要么需要开发改进的纯化程序，要么需要对合成过程大量调整
35. The main aim is to ensure that the composition of compound is understood and that ultimately the material that is prepared is as pure as possible.
其主要目的是确保化合物的成分，最终所制备的物料尽可能的纯净。
36. As a drug candidate progresses through development, larger and larger amounts of compound are required
随着候选药物开发的进展，所需化合物的数量越来越多
37、The amount of material required for different tests will often depend on the actual potency and dosage form of the compound.
不同测试所需的物料的数量，往往取决于化合物的实际效力和剂型。
38. A pilot plant can be regarded as a mini-manufacturing set-up
中试工厂可以被看作是一个小型规模的制造机构。
39、before transferring to a pilot plant, extensive evaluation and testing of the chemical synthesis is undertake to ensure that any changes and hazards are minimized.
译：在转入中试工厂前，需要对化学合成进行广泛的评估和测试，以确保任何的改变和危害降至最低。
40．Procedures are optimized，particular attention being paid to developing environmentally acceptable ways of disposing of waste products.
（制备）程序要优化，特别注重开发环境可接受的处置废弃物的方法。
41、Commercial production of bulk drug substance for production of a drug，once approved and marketed，will likely take place on a larger scale or at a registered manufacturing plant.
翻译：一旦被批准和销售，药品生产所用的大量原料药，其商业化生产将可能采
取更大规模进行或在登记的制造工厂进行。
42、The dosage form of a drug is the form by which it is administered to the patient.
药物的剂型，是指病人服用药物的方式。
43There are a vast array of possible dosage forms ranging from transderal patches to inhalers to intranasal medicines
有大量从透皮贴片到滴鼻药的可能剂型。
44.The more common dosage forms include oral tablets or capsles ,or al liquids,topical ointments or creams,and injectables.
较常见的剂型包括口服片剂或胶囊、口服液、局部药膏或霜剂、和注射剂。45.The dosage form or forms chosen for a particular drug candidate will be defined in the target profile.
特定候选药物剂型或形态的选择会在将目标特性中被定义。
46.Sometimes a more simple dosage form, for example an oral solution, is chosen for early clinical studies in human beings.
有时，一个更简单的剂型，例如含片，会被选择来进行早期人类临床研究。47. This may save time and upfront costs at an early , high-risk stage of the drug development process.
在药物开发过程中早期、高风险的阶段，这（早期临床研究）可以节省时间和预付成本
https://www.doczj.com/doc/3117654061.html,ter clinical studies would use the expected marketed dosage form
后期的临床研究将用到预期要销售的剂型。
49.whatever the dosage form,the combination of drug and other mater ials which constitute it must fulfil criteria
无论是什么剂型，药物和其他（构成药物的）原料的组合必须符合标准。
50、One of the most important is that of adequate stability
最重要的标准之一是有足够的稳定性。
51.That means a predetermined potency level must remain after，for example，two or three years·
这意味着，预先确定的效力水平必须，例如，两年或三年后，能继续保持。52. The stability data generated on a dosage form will determine its shelf-life and recommended storage condition.
一种剂型所产生的稳定剂数据将决定它的保质期和推荐的储存条件。
53.Early in development the shelf-life may be limited to several months. 在开发的早期，其保质期可能仅限于数月。
54.This will not be a problem provided it is sufficient to cover use of th
e drug over the duration o
f the clinical study or studies.
翻译：只要药品的使用期限足以超过临床研究或研究的阶段，这（保质期）就不会是个问题。
55.Before a drug candidate is given to man,its pharmacological effects on major systems are often investigated in a number of species.
在候选药物给人服用之前，它关于主要系统的药理作用往往在大量的物种上进行了研究。
56.the body systems studied include cardiovascular ,respiratory ,and nervous systems ;the effects on gross behavior can also be studied
所研究的身体系统包括心血管系统，呼吸系统和神经系统；对总体行为的影响也会研究。
57、Experiments are sometimes conducted to see whether the drug candidate interferes with the actions of other medicines which, because of their specific effects or because of their common use, are likely to be taken concurrently with the drug candidate
进行实验有时是为了观察候选药物是否对其他药物的作用有干扰，由于这些药物的特殊的作用或者因为它们的普遍使用，它们可能要与候选药物同时服用。58．Any synergism or antagonism of drug effects should be investigated, and any necessary warning issued to clinical investigators.
应当对药物的任何协同作用或拮抗作用进行研究，任何必要的警告都应该告诉临床研究者。
59.It may be judged necessary to investigate such effects further in clinical studies , and any potential or proven drug interactions are likely to be noted in the product labeling for the drug
这可能会用来被判断在临床研究进一步研究这些作用的必要性，且任何潜在的或已被证明的药物相互作用都可能记录在药物的说明书上。
60. It may also be appropriate to identify a substance for possible use in the management of overdosage , particularly if the therapeutic margin of the drug candidate is small.
翻译：特别是如果该候选药物的治疗范围很小时，确定一种物质在过剂量的管理规范下的可能用法，这也可能是适当的。
62、The objective of animal toxicology testing, carried out prior to the administration of a drug to man, is to reject compounds of unacceptable toxicity and to identify potential target organs and timings for adverse effects of the drug.
在药品开给人服用前所开展的动物毒理学测试的目的，是为了排除不可接受的毒性化合物，识别潜在的靶器官和药物不良反应的时序。
63.This means that in early human studies these organs and tissues c an be monitored with particular attention.
这就意味着，在早期人类研究中这些器官和组织可以特别注意而得到监测。64. it is important to establish whether toxic effects are reversible or irreversible ,whether they can be prevented and if possible,the mechanism of the toxicological effects
对有毒作用是可逆的还是不可逆转的、它们是否可以预防的、（如果可能的话）毒理学作用机制的确定，是重要的。
65、It is also important to interrelate drug response to blood levels in humans and blood levels in various animals pecies.
使药物在人类的血中浓度和各种动物物种的血中浓度的响应建立相互关联也是重要的。
66. The toxicological studies required for the evaluation of a drug candidate in man will be relevant to its proposed clinical use in terms of, route of administration and duration of treatment of the clinical studies. 对于在人候选药物评价所需的毒理学研究，将与所推荐的临床应用时的给药途径和临床研究的治疗持续时间有关。
67.原文：The size and frequency of the doses and the duration of the toxicology studies are major determinants of permissible tests in man. 翻译：剂量的大小和使用频率，以及毒理学研究的持续时间是人体获准测试的主要决定因素。
68.Countries , including UK,USA, Australia, and Nordic countries, have regulatory guidelines which relate the duration of treatment allowed in man to the length of toxicity studies required in two species.
翻译：许多国家，包括英国、美国、澳大利亚和北欧国家，都有涉及在人类治疗持续时间和需要在两个物种中进行毒性研究时间长短的监管指南。
69. Points from the guidelines are referenced in the subsequent sections.
指南的要点引用在随后的章节里。
70. Initially, the pharmacological effects of increasing doses of the test substances are established in acute toxicity studies in small numbers of animals, generally using two routes of administration (one being that
used in man).
最初，增加测试物质剂量的药理作用建立于少量动物的急性毒性研究，一般采用两种给药途径（一种用于人体）。
71..Results provide a guide to the maximum tolerated doses in subsequent chronic toxicity tests, aid selection of does levels, and identify target organs.
翻译：（所得的）结果给随后的慢性毒性试验，提供了一个最大耐受剂量的参考值，有助于剂量水平的选择，以及确定靶标器官。
72.The main aim of the subsequent sub-acute toxicity tests is to determine whether or not the drug candidate is adequately tolerated after administration to animals for a prolonged period as a guide to possible adverse reactions in man.
随后的亚急性毒性试验的主要目的是确定候选药物在动物长期给药后是否有足够的耐受性，从而作为对人类可能产生的不良反应的参考。
73..Two to four week (daily dosing) studies are requird, using the same route of administration as in man, in two species (one non-rodent) prior to administration of the compound to man.
使用与人相同的给药途径，在先于人的该化合物的给药前，两个物种（一个为非啮齿类）的两到四个星期（每日剂量）的研究是必需的。
74:Three does levels are usually necessary : the low daily does should be a low multiple of the expected therapeutic does , and the highest does should demonstrate some toxicity.
翻译：三个剂量水平通常是必要的：每天的低剂量应是所期望的治疗剂量的低一数量级，最高剂量应显示出一定的毒性。
75.原文：A general guide for the evaluation of new chemical entities would be that toxicology studies of a minimum duration of14days are required to support single-does exposure of a new drug candidate in normal volunteers in phase1.
翻译：评价新化学实体的通用指南应该是一个为期14天以上毒理学研究需要支持正常的志愿者在第I阶段的单剂量接触一个新的候选药物。
76. Toxicology studies of30days duration are required to support clinical studies of7to10days duration.
翻译：7-10天的临床研究则需要30天的毒理学研究来支持
77.Clinical studies of greater than7to10days up to30days duration require the support of at least90days toxicology studies.
而超过7至10天直至30天的临床研究则需要有至少90天的毒理学研究来支持。
Clinical studies临床研究；toxicology studies毒理学研究
78.:These requirements illustrate the need to plan ahead in drug development
中文翻译: 这些要求应在计划药物开发之前就明确说明。
79、The duration and approximate timings for future clinical trials need to be considered well in advance in order to schedule and conduct
the appropriate toxicology studies to support the clinical program and avoid any delays.
未来临床试验的持续时间和大概的时序安排需要提前好好地深思熟虑，以便做好安排并进行适当的毒理学研究，以支持临床计划并避免任何延误。
80.原文：Two types of safety test are used to detect the ability of the drug candidate to produce tumours in man.
翻译：
两种类型的安全测试是用来检测候选药物在人体引起肿瘤的能力。
81.英语原文：The first are short—term in vitro
genotoxicity tests, for example bacterial tests.
译文：第一类是短期的体外遗传毒性试验，例如细菌试验。
82.The second are long-term animal carcinogenicity studies which are conducted in mice and rats; their length of often2years covers a larg e part of the lifespan of the animal第二类是在小鼠和大鼠身上进行的动物长期致癌性研究；他们往往在两年的时间长度覆盖了动物寿命的很大一部分。
83.原句:Mice and rats are used because of their relative知识，大大有助于解释研究结果。
85.long-term toxicology and carcinogenicity studies are conducted in order to obtain approval to test and finally to market a product for chronic administration to man.
翻译：开展长期毒理学和致癌性研究是为了获得试验的批准，并最终向市场推出
了人类长期服药的产品。
86、原文:These studies may need to start during the late preclinical phase in order to“support” the subsequent clinical program！
这些研究可能需要在临床前后期/早期临床阶段就开始，以“支持”随后的临床计划。
87.Long-term toxicity studies will normally include toxicity studies of six and twelve months duration in two species (one non-rodent)
长期毒性试验通常包括两个物种（一个为非啮齿类）的6-12个月持续时间的毒性研究。
88.原文：Any toxicity previously detected may be investigatd more close ,for example extra enzymes looked blood samples.
翻译：以前测试到的任何毒性会进行更密切地调查，例如在血液样本中观测到额外的酶。
89. Reproductive toxicology is that part of toxicology dealing with the effect of compounds on reproduction fertility , foetal abnormalities, post-natal development.
生殖毒理学则是指涉及化合物对繁殖能力、胎儿畸形，产后发育的影响的部分毒理学。
90. Prior to clinical studies in women of child-bearing age,
regulatory authorities require teratology data from two species(normally rat and rabbit ) as well as clinical data from male volunteers.
在育龄妇女的临床研究之前，监管部门要求有两个物种（通常是大鼠和家兔）以及男性志愿者的临床资料畸形学的数据。
91.No reproductive data are required prior to clinical studies in male subjects.
在男性受试者的临床研究之前，则不要求生殖方面的数据。
92.The effects of compounds on reproduction differ with the period of the reproductive cycle in which exposure takes place and studies are designed to look at these phases.
化合物对生殖的影响随着暴露发生的生殖周期而不同，要设计研究来观测这些阶段。
93、Teratology`'' studies are designed to detect foetal abnormalities，fertility studies to investigate the compounds' effect on reproductive performance，And peri- and post-natal studies to study the development of pups.
设计畸形学研究来检测胎儿畸形，生殖研究来调查化合物对繁殖性能的影响，产前和产后研究来研究幼崽的发育。
Unit 1 Production of Drugs About 5000 antibiotics have already been isolated from microorganisms，but of these only somewhat fewer than 100 are in therapeutic use. It must be remembered，however，that many derivatives have been modified by partial synthesis for therapeutic use;some 50，000 agents have been semisynthetically obtained from户lactams alone in the last decade. Fermentations are carried out in stainless steel fermentors with volumes up to 400 m3. To avoid contamination of the microorganisms with phages etc. the whole process has to be performed under sterile conditions. Since the more important fermentations occur exclusively under aerobic conditions a good supply of oxygen or air(sterile)is needed. Carbon dioxide sources include carbohydrates，e. g. molasses，saccharides，and glucose. Additionally the microorganisms must be supplied in the growth medium with nitrogen-containing compounds such as ammonium sulfate，ammonia，or urea，as well as with inorganic phosphates. Furthermore，constant optimal pH and temperature are required. In the case of penicillin G，the fermentation is finished after 200 hours，and the cell mass is separated by filtration. The desired active agents are isolated from the filtrate by absorption or extraction processes. The cell mass，if not the desired product，can be further used as an animal feedstuff owing to its high protein content. 关于5000抗生素已经分离出的微生物，但其中只有不到100有些治疗使用。必须记住，但是，许多衍生工具已被用于治疗使用部分合成修改;约50,000剂已被semisynthetically取得户内酰胺在过去十年孤独。发酵都是在不锈钢发酵罐出来的量高达400立方米。为了避免与噬菌体等微生物污染的全过程都必须在无菌条件下进行。由于更重要的发酵只发生在有氧条件下的氧气或空气好电源（无菌）是必要的。二氧化碳的来源包括碳水化合物，大肠杆菌克糖蜜，糖和葡萄糖。另外必须提供的微生物在与含氮如硫酸铵，氨水或尿素化合物生长介质，以及与无机磷酸盐。此外，不断最适pH和温度是必需的。在青霉素G的情况下，发酵完成200小时后，细胞的质量是由过滤分离。所需的活性剂是隔离的滤液吸收或提取工艺。大规模的细胞，如果不理想的产品，可进一步用作动物，由于其蛋白质含量高的饲料。 By modern recombinant techniques microorganisms have been obtained which also allow production of peptides which were not encoded in the original genes. Modified E. coli bacteria make it thus possible to produce A- and B- chains of human insulin or proinsulin analogs. The disulfide bridges are formed selectively after isolation，and the final purification is effected by chromatographic procedures. In this way human insulin is obtained totally independently from any pancreatic material taken from animals. Other important peptides，hormones，and enzymes，such as human growth hormone (HGH)，neuroactive peptides，somatostatin，interferons，tissue plasminogen activator (TPA)，lymphokines，calcium regulators like calmodulin，protein vaccines，as well as monoclonal antibodies used as diagnostics，are synthesized in this way. 利用现代微生物重组技术已获得这也让其中不是在原来的基因编码多肽的生产。改性大肠杆菌从而使可能产生A型和B -人胰岛素或胰岛素原类似物链。二硫键形成的选择性分离后，最终由色谱净化工序的影响。通过这种方式获得的人类胰岛素完全独立采取任何从动物胰腺材料。 其他重要肽，激素和酶，如人类生长激素（hGH），神经活性肽，生长抑素，干扰素，组织型纤溶酶原激活物（tPA），淋巴因子，如钙调节钙调蛋白，蛋白疫苗，以及作为诊断用单克隆抗体是合成了这种方式。 The enzymes or enzymatic systems which are present in a single microorganism can be used for directed stereospecific and regiospecific chemical reactions. This principle is especially useful in steroid chemistry. Here we may refer only to the microbiological 11-a- hydro xylation of progesterone to 11-a-hydroxyprogesterone，a key product used in the synthesis of cortisone. Isolated enzymes are important today not only because of the technical importance of the enzymatic saccharification of starch，and the isomerization of glucose to fructose，They are also significant in the countless test procedures used in diagnosing illness，and in enzymatic analysis which is used in the monitoring of therapy. A number of enzymes are themselves used as active ingredients. Thus preparations containing proteases (e. g. chymotrypsin，pepsin，and trypsin)，amylases and lipases，mostly in combination with synthetic antacids，promote digestion. Streptokinase and urokinase are important in thrombolytics，and asparaginase is used as a cytostatic agent in the treatment of leukemia. 这些酶或微生物在一个单一的酶系统，目前可用于立体定向和regiospecific化学反应。这个原则是有用的，尤其是在化学类固醇。在这里，我们只能引用的微生物十一水电黄体酮xylation至11人羟，一个关键的产品在可的松合成。隔离酶是重要的，不仅因为淀粉的酶法糖化技术重要性的今天，和葡萄糖异构果糖，他们也都在无数次试验在诊断疾病所用的程序显着，在酶的分析，在使用监测治疗。 数量的酶本身作为活性成分。因此，含有蛋白酶制剂（如糜蛋白酶，胃蛋白酶和胰蛋白酶），淀粉酶和脂肪酶的合成主要是在与抗酸药相结合，促进消化。链激酶和尿激酶溶栓是重要的，是天冬酰胺酶在治疗白血病细胞生长剂。 Finally mention must be made of the important use of enzymes as `biocatalysts’in chemical reactions where their
第一课 土木工程学土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。 土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。 土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。 领域。因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。 贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件（即计算机辅助设计，或者CAD）并对其进行管理。计算机成为了现代土木工程师的必备品，因为它使得工程师能有效地掌控所需的大量数据从而确定建造一项工程的最佳方法。 结构工程学。在这一专业领域，土木工程师规划设计各种类型的结构，包括桥梁，大坝，发电厂，设备支撑，海面上的特殊结构，美国太空计划，发射塔，庞大的天文和无线电望远镜，以及许多其他种类的项目。结构工程师应用计算机确定一个结构必须承受的力：自重，风荷载和飓风荷载，建筑材料温度变化引起的胀缩，以及地震荷载。他们也需确定不同种材料如钢筋，混凝土，塑料，石头，沥青，砖，铝或其他建筑材料等的复合作用。 水利工程学。土木工程师在这一领域主要处理水的物理控制方面的种种问题。他们的项目用于帮助预防洪水灾害，提供城市用水和灌溉用水，管理控制河流和水流物，维护河滩及其他滨水设施。此外，他们设计和维护海港，运河与水闸，建造大型水利大坝与小型坝，以及各种类型的围堰，帮助设计海上结构并且确定结构的位置对航行影响。 岩土工程学。专业于这个领域的土木工程师对支撑结构并影响结构行为的土壤和岩石的特性进行分析。他们计算建筑和其他结构由于自重压力可能引起的沉降，并采取措施使之减少到最小。他们也需计算并确定如何加强斜坡和填充物的稳定性以及如何保护结构免受地震和地下水的影响。 环境工程学。在这一工程学分支中，土木工程师设计，建造并监视系统以提供安全的饮用水，同时预防和控制地表和地下水资源供给的污染。他们也设计，建造并监视工程以控制甚至消除对土地和空气的污染。他们建造供水和废水处理厂，设计空气净化器和其他设备以最小化甚至消除由工业加工、焚化及其他产烟生产活动引起的空气污染。他们也采用建造特殊倾倒地点或使用有毒有害物中和剂的措施来控制有毒有害废弃物。此外，工程师还对垃圾掩埋进行设计和管理以预防其对周围环境造成污染。
PART 3 INDUSTRIAL PHARMACY Unit 11 Tablets (The Pharmaceutical Tablets Dosage Form) Role in Therapy The oral route of drug administration is the most important method of administering drugs for systemic effects. Except in cases of Insulin therapy，the parenteral route is not routinely used for self-administration of medications. The topical route of administration has only recently been employed to deliver drugs to the body for systemic effects，with two classes of marketed products: Nitroglycerin硝酸甘油酯for the treatment of angina心绞痛and scopolamine莨菪胺for the treatment of motion sickness晕动病，指晕车、晕船等. Other drugs are certain to follow，but the topical route of administration is limited in its ability to allow effective drug absorption for systemic drug action. The parenteral route of administration is important in treating medical emergencies in which a subject is comatose昏迷的or cannot swallow，and in providing various types of maintenance therapy for hospitalized patients. Nevertheless，it is probable that at least 90 % of all drugs used to produce systemic effects are administered投药，给药by the oral route. When a new drug is discovered，one of the first questions a pharmaceutical company asks is whether or not drug can be effectively administered for its intended effect by the oral route. If it cannot，the drug is primarily relegated to被降级到administration in a hospital setting or physician's office. If patient self- administration cannot be achieved，the sales of the drug constitute only a small fraction of what the market would be otherwise. Of drugs that are administered orally，solid oral dosage forms represent the preferred class of product. The reasons for this preference are as follows. Tablets and capsules represent unit dosage forms in which one usual dose of the drug has been accurately placed. By comparison相比之下，liquid oral dosage forms，such as syrups，suspensions，emulsions，solutions，and elixirs，are usually designed to contain one dose of medication in 5 to 30 ml. The patient is then asked to measure his or her own medication using a teaspoon， 第三部分工业药剂学 第11单元药片(医药的片剂剂型) 在治疗中的作用 口服给药途径是通过给药获得全身作用效果中最重要的方法。除了胰岛素疗法之外，肠外给药途径通常不用于（病人的）自主性用药。而局部给药途径则是在最近才被用来把药物送到体内从而产生全身作用。这种途径有两种上市产品：用于治疗心绞痛的硝酸甘油酯和用于治疗晕动病的莨菪胺。今后肯定还会有其他的药物相继出现，但是局部给药的途径在有效的药物吸收从而获得全身性药物作用方面仍有其局限性。在病人处于昏迷状态或病人不能吞咽的医疗急救处理中，肠外给药途径是很重要的，同时它也给住院的病人提供了各种不同类型的维持疗法。然而，可能至少有90%的被用于产生全身作用的药物是通过口服的途径给药的。当一种新的药物被研发出来的时候，制药公司问的第一个问题就是这种药物能否有效地通过口服给药途径来达到预期的效果。如果不能，那么这种药物就要被降级到医院或者医生的办公室里。如果病人的自主用药不能实现，那么（这种）药物的销量就会是能实现病人的自主用药的药物销量的很少一部分。在所有通过口服来给药的药物当中，固体口服制剂是（人们）偏爱的产品种类。其原因如下：药片和胶囊代表着单元剂量的形式，其中通常已经放置好了一个剂量的药物。相应地，液体口服制剂，比如说糖浆、悬浮液、乳剂、溶液和酏剂，则通常被设计成在5-30 ml （液体中）包含一个剂量的药物。病人会被要求用茶匙、调羹或其他测量装置来衡量他自己的用药量。病人自己用药时这种剂量测量方法，其误差范围通常
第一课土木工程学 土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。 土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。 土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。 领域。因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。 贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件（即计算机辅助设计，或者CAD）并对其进行管理。计算机成为了现代土木工程师的必备品，因为它使得工程师能有效地掌控所需的大量数据从而确定建造一项工程的最佳方法。 结构工程学。在这一专业领域，土木工程师规划设计各种类型的结构，包括桥梁，大坝，发电厂，设备支撑，海面上的特殊结构，美国太空计划，发射塔，庞大的天文和无线电望远镜，以及许多其他种类的项目。结构工程师应用计算机确定一个结构必须承受的力：自重，风荷载和飓风荷载，建筑材料温度变化引起的胀缩，以及地震荷载。他们也需确定不同种材料如钢筋，混凝土，塑料，石头，沥青，砖，铝或其他建筑材料等的复合作用。 水利工程学。土木工程师在这一领域主要处理水的物理控制方面的种种问题。他们的项目用于帮助预防洪水灾害，提供城市用水和灌溉用水，管理控制河流和水流物，维护河滩及其他滨水设施。此外，他们设计和维护海港，运河与水闸，建造大型水利大坝与小型坝，以及各种类型的围堰，帮助设计海上结构并且确定结构的位置对航行影响。 岩土工程学。专业于这个领域的土木工程师对支撑结构并影响结构行为的土壤和岩石的特性进行分析。他们计算建筑和其他结构由于自重压力可能引起的沉降，并采取措施使之减少到最小。他们也需计算并确定如何加强斜坡和填充物的稳定性以及如何保护结构免受地震和地下水的影响。 环境工程学。在这一工程学分支中，土木工程师设计，建造并监视系统以提供安全的饮用水，同时预防和控制地表和地下水资源供给的污染。他们也设计，建造并监视工程以控制甚至消除对土地和空气的污染。
土木工程专业英语课文原 文及对照翻译 Newly compiled on November 23, 2020
Civil Engineering Civil engineering, the oldest of the engineering specialties, is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities. 土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。 Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities. 土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。 The word civil derives from the Latin for citizen. In 1782, Englishman John Smeaton used the term to differentiate his nonmilitary engineering work from that of the military engineers who predominated at the time. Since then, the term civil engineering has often been used to refer to engineers who build public facilities, although the field is much broader 土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。 Scope. Because it is so broad, civil engineering is subdivided into a number of technical specialties. Depending on the type of project, the skills of many kinds of civil engineer specialists may be needed. When a project begins, the site is surveyed and mapped by civil engineers who locate utility placement—water, sewer, and power lines. Geotechnical specialists perform soil experiments to determine if the earth can bear the weight of the project. Environmental specialists study the project’s impact on the local area: the potential for air and
Take the road of sustainable development civil engineering Abstract: Civil Engineering is the oldest in human history "technical science" as a system of industrial activity, the essence of civil engineering production process, is a technical process Civil engineering is the construction of various facilities in science and technology, collectively, both refer to the construction of the object, that is built on the ground, underground, water facilities, a variety of projects, but also refers to the application of materials, equipment and carried out survey and design , construction, maintenance, repair and other technology. As an important basis for discipline, civil engineering has its important attributes: a comprehensive, social, practical, technical and economic and artistic unity. With the progress of human society and development, civil engineering has already evolved into large-scale comprehensive subject, and has many branches, such as: construction, railroad engineering, road engineering, bridge engineering, specialty engineering structures, water supply and drainage projects, port engineering, hydraulic engineering, environmental engineering and other disciplines. There are six professional civil engineering: architecture, urban planning, civil engineering, built environment and equipment engineering, water supply and drainage works and road and bridge projects. Civil engineering is a form of human activity. Human beings pursued it to change the natural environment for their own benefit. Buildings, transportations, facilities, infrastructures are all included in civil engineering. The development of civil engineering has a long history. Our seniors had left a lot of great constructions to us. For example, Zhao Zhou Bridge is the representative of our Chinese civil engineering masterpieces. It has a history of more than 1300 years and is still service at present. Civil engineering has been so rapid development of the period. A lot of new bridges have been constructed, and many greater plans are under discussion. China is a large county. And she is still well developing. However, civil engineers will be facing more complex problems. We should pay attention to the growing population and a lot of deteriorating infrastructures. We should prepare for the possibility of natural disasters. To meet grow needs in the
P54-专业英语作业 1. Drug Development is a very complex process requiring a great deal of coordination and communication between a wide range of different functional groups. 中文翻译:药物开发是一个十分复杂的过程，需要在广泛的不同功能性团队之间进行大量的协调与沟通。 2. It is expensive, particularly in the later phases of clinical development, where studies involve hundreds of patients 这个过程（药物开发）这是昂贵的，特别是在临床开发的后期阶段，其中涉及到对数百名患者的研究。 3. It is currently estimated that the development of a new drug costs about $230million and takes somewhere between7and10years form initiation of preclinical development to first marketing. 目前估计,一种新药的开发成本约为2.3亿美元,并且从启动临床前的开发阶段到首次上市，需要花费7到10年 4. Drug development is a high-risk business; although the rate is increasing, only about one out of every ten new chemical entities studied in human beings for the first time will ever become a product. 药物开发是一个高风险的业务，尽管比率在不断上升，但是在完成了首次在人体研究中的每十个新化学实体中，大约只有一个能成为产品。 5.原文：As a drug candidate progresses through development the risks
第一单元 课文 土木工程前言 或许，工程师对于人类文明形成所做出的贡献多于其他专业人才群体。在各个社会中，工程师的作用就是发展技术应用以满足实际需要。例如，应用电力系统向城市供电，应用水轮驱动水碾，应用人造心脏延长生命，等。向我们提供水、燃料、电力的系统，交通网络系统，通讯系统，以及带来其他方便的系统是工程技术应用的产物。尽管真正的工程师们在以上进步和人类幸福中所起的作用，但对他们所起作用的理解仍是不完全的。 工程是将知识转化为实际有效应用的技术，工程师则是在这样的转化中起关键作用的人。工程是服务人类的职业，人类环境是需要考虑的重要事项。通常，区分工程师和科学家一直存在困难，决定科学家的工作在哪里终止，工程师的工作从哪里开始也存在困难。 科学与工程中有联系的工作的基本区别在于它们的目的不同。科学家以发明为目的，而工程师坚持有效使用发明来满足人类的需要。例如，德国物理学家亨利奇·赫兹发现了无线电波，而古里耶尔莫·马克尼则利用无线电波发展了无线电信技术，这是一项工程奇迹。在相关科学家建立了核裂变的科学原理后，制造原子武器、建造核电厂的艰难工作则由电力、化学和机械工程师来完成。 土木工程是以向人类提供安全、舒适住所为目的的工程分支。住所是人类的基本需要之一，它由土木工程师负责提供。供水和灌溉系统的有效规划能增加一个国家的粮食产量。住所除了简单的掩蔽功能外，土木工程师还能将其建造来为居住者提供安宁、舒适的生活。世界上的工程奇迹——从塔形结构到今天的薄壳结构——都是土木工程发展的结果。道路、铁路、桥梁等交通网线是土木工程师的劳动果实，没有这样的交通网线，社会将不可能得到发展。 任何工程学科都是由各种专业分支构成的巨大领域，土木工程的主要专业分支如下： 1.结构工程 结构工程是土木工程的最重要专业分支，结构的建造需要有效的规划、设计和施工方法，以实现完整的建造目的。一般地，结构工程建造包含五个步骤： ●定位，并合理排列结构构件，形成确定的形式，以实现最佳的使用功能。 ●决定作用于结构上不同力的大小、方向和性质。 ●结构分析，弄清受上述作用力的结构构件的行为特征。 ●结构设计，以保证不同载荷作用下的结构稳定性。 ●结构施工，采用精心选择的材料，由熟练工人完成。 2.岩土工程 为了实现建筑于地面结构的有效功能，必须知道土的特征。岩土工程给出土的基本知识体系，这一分支涉及以下方面： ●土——“土力学”下的材料——的性质和行为特征。 ●结构、机器等基础的不同类型及其稳定性。 岩土工程也涉及基础的分析、设计和施工。 3.流体力学、水力学和水力机械
制药工程专业英语纸卷 一、Put the following into English.(20’) 生物碱中间体萃取胰岛素衍生物苯胺处方慢性的多肽配基 二、Put the following into Chinese.(20’) Hormone steroid penicillin metabolite chemotherapy in vitro affinity prescription chronic polypeptide 三、List drugs that are derived from traditional medicinal plants.(不少 于5个,10’) 四、Translation.(50’) 1.Artemisinin is an endoperoxide of the sesquiterpene lactone. The structure of this compound is too complex to be synthesised effectively. Artemisia is also found in many parts of the US, abundantly along the Potomac River in Washington DC, but the drug content of these varieties is only about half that of the Chinese variety. 2.This does not mean, however, that natural products or other agents are less important. They can serve as valuable lead structures, and they are frequently needed as starting materials or as intermediates for important synthetic products.
Developing drugs from traditional medicinal plants Over three quarters of the world's population relies mainly on plants and plant extracts for health care .Approximately one third of the prescription drugs in the US contain plant components, and more than 120 important prescription drugs are derived from plants. Most of these drugs were developed because of their use in traditional medicine. Economically, this represents $8000-10,000M of annual consumer spending. Recent World Health Organization (WHO) studies indicate that over 30 per cent of the world's plant species have at one time or another been used for medicinal purposes. Of the 250,000 higher plant species on Earth, more than 80,000 species are medicinal. Although traditional medicine is widespread throughout the world , it is an integral part of each individual culture. Its practice is based mainly on traditional beliefs handed down from generation to generation for hundreds or even thousands of years. Unfortunately, much of this ancient knowledge and many valuable plants are being lost at an alarming rate. The scientific study of traditional medicines and the systematic preservation of medicinal plants are thus of great importance. For quite a long time, the only way to use plant medicines was either direct application or the use of crude plant extracts. With the development of organic chemistry at the beginning of this century, extraction and fractionation techniques improved significantly. It became possible to isolate and identify many of the active chemicals from plants. In the 1940s, advances in chemical synthesis enabled the synthesis of many plant components and their derivatives. In western countries, it was thought that chemical synthesis of drugs would be more effective and economical than isolation from natural sources. Indeed, this is true in many cases. However, in many other cases, synthetic analogues are not as effective as their natural counterparts. In addition, some synthetic drugs cost many times more than natural ones. Inspired by these realisations, coupled with the fact that many drugs with complex structures may be totally impossible to synthesise, there is now a resurgent trend of returning to natural resources for drug development Important prescription drugs from plants Ephedrine is the oldest and most classic example of a prescription drug developed from a traditional medicinal plant. It is derived from Ma Huang , a leafless shrub. Used to relieve asthma and hay fever in China for over 5000 years, it was introduced into western medicine in 1924 by Chen and Schmidt. Ephedrine is an alkaloid closely related to adrenaline, the major product of the adrenal gland. Pharmacologically, Ephedrine is used