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英美文化概况 第六章 英国教育(上)中文翻译

英美文化概况 第六章 英国教育(上)中文翻译
英美文化概况 第六章 英国教育(上)中文翻译

目录

一、导言 (2)

二、中世纪的英格兰教育——教会机构的教育功能以及接受教育的社会阶层 (2)

三、文艺复兴时期的教育 (5)

四、十八世纪——何谓正确的英文 (8)

第六章英国教育

一、导言

当今的英国教育体制非常复杂,包括多种类型的学校及教育方式。这种复杂性源自英国的保守主义。政府改变教育体制时,往往添加一些新的要素,对现有的体制做些修补,而不是推倒一切,破旧立新。

虽然本章题为“英国教育”,但着重探讨英格兰的教育。威尔士和苏格兰的教育体制受不同的宗教和社会价值观影响,与英格兰的体制稍有差异。本章介绍英国当今教育机构和规章制度的演变,特别关注如下问题的答案:何人应当接受教育?何人为教育付费?何为教育的目标?

二、中世纪的英格兰教育——教会机构的教育功能以及接受教育的社会阶层

1066年的诺曼征服之前,只有贵族家庭的男童能接受正规教育,承担这些教育工作的是当时屈指可数的学校,或者一些巡回家庭教师。1066年后,征服者威廉建立了全新的政府官僚体系,而且他与官僚化的罗马天主教会关系密切,需要更多有文化修养的牧师和政府办事人员。

中世纪时期,欧洲接受罗马天主教会的统一领导。教会是知识和教育的监管人,而且是文化人的主要雇主。当时有文化的定义是能阅读书写拉丁文,而不是英语。拉丁文是罗马帝国的通用语言,没有以之为母语的人群,但所有重要的欧洲著作都是拉丁文。拉丁文的重要性在现代英语的书面语中都有所体现;英语有许多源自拉丁文的词汇。中世纪期间的英格兰以及欧洲其它地区,年轻男子如果想在教会、法律业或者政府机构求职,就必须会读写拉丁文。由于只有教会能提供正规的拉丁文教育,最有文化的人都是教会机构的成员。这些成员被称为clerics(教士;神职人员)。当时的商人或者政府官员,如果想写信或者做记录,就得聘请一名教士。现代英语里的clerk(办公文员)一词,就源自cleric(教士)。

1、接受教育的条件,教育费用以及教育目标

1)谁能接受教育?

当时的学校和学徒制提供的正规教育,主要对象是中产阶级家庭的子弟,以及贵族家

庭里除长子之外的子弟。农家子弟要辛勤劳作,父母无法送他们上学。贵族家庭把长子送到另一个贵族家庭接受培训,学习礼仪和格斗。正规教育只提供给占人口比例非常小的少数人。

2)谁付费?——捐助者和家长

教会开办的学校,部分资金通常来自富人的慈善捐款。在那个时代,人们认为慈善捐款有助于捐助者死后上天堂。这些捐赠用于建立包括中学和大学在内的学校。

但大体而言,当时教育的责任还是由孩子的家庭承担。大多数父母没有送孩子上学。孩子们往往跟随父母劳作,学会各种技能。农家子弟跟随父亲在田地里,磨坊里,或者匠铺里干活。农家女跟随母亲纺织毛线,织布,烤面包,酿制啤酒,照看奶牛和家禽,煮饭,照顾弟妹,看管菜园子。中上层阶级的女童也要跟随母亲学习,虽然这些女童或许还可以有机会学习读写家人使用的语言(主要是英文,法文,威尔士文,或者爱尔兰和苏格兰使用的盖尔语)。

那些能送儿子上学的家庭,支付学费有几种不同的方式。富裕的家庭直接支付学费。其它家庭利用与教会或贵族家庭的关系获取奖学金学位。家庭缺钱或者没有关系的男孩,即使很聪明,也很少有机会能上学,甚至也无法自学,因为当时书籍非常稀有昂贵,而且只有教会以及受过教育的人才使用拉丁文。

3)教育目标

中世纪的欧洲人不赞同社会变革,因此教育并不视为社会进步的手段。儿童都是为接替父母的地位而接受各种培训。当时的农民确实期望以正规教育提高子女的社会地位,但贵族甚至惧怕这种社会地位的变化。如果富裕的农民尽其所能供儿子上学,儿子也很少有机会利用所接受的教育。通常情况下,可供给接受教育的农家子弟的唯一职位就是做当地的神父。神父职位的工资很低,而且没有政治权力。此外,由于神父不能结婚或者合法生育,因此整个家庭的社会地位也无法提升。即使如此,这样的教育机会甚至还遭到贵族阶层的反对。他们试图颁布各种法律,禁止所有的农民接受教育,虽然结果不了了之。封建教会和封建贵族沆瀣一气,维持当时的社会现状。

2 、教育机构:学徒制和高校

中世纪建立的很多教育机构,包括学徒制和大学,虽然形式变化很大,但至今仍然存在。

1)学徒制

通常住在市镇里的手工业者可以代儿子签署一份学徒制法律合约。父亲给儿子选择一门手艺,比如纺织或者木工,然后与行会的一位师傅签署一份法律合约。父亲付钱给师傅,然后师傅给孩子提供住宿和培训。孩子听从师傅使唤,跟随师傅学习,学艺6到7 年后获得满师学徒工地位,得到一份微薄的薪水。最后,通常在20岁时,满师学徒工带着自己制作的一件样品与行会接洽,申请师傅职位。申请通过后就可以自己开业,获取所有的工作酬劳。

这种学徒制形式一直延续到20世纪,直到工厂化生产以及中等教育出现后才弱化其功用。二十世纪的学徒制接受改造,容纳了规范化的学校教育。

2)“语法学校”与“公学”

“语法学校”起源于市镇里,为中上层阶级的男童提供教育。1179年,罗马天主教教会规定,每个总教堂(由一个在教会任高职的主教管理的教堂)附近必须建立一所学校。总教堂的主教遵从教会指令,任命一位校长给当地的神父及其他人员传授拉丁语语法。这些学校虽然收学费,但也提供奖学金。原因之一是当时的教会排斥妇女任职,而声乐在教会仪式中又不可或缺,所以对于教会而言,男童歌手的作用非常重要。嗓音出众的男童可以免费接受教会的教育,在举行宗教典礼时为总教堂唱歌,以报答教会的恩典。类似的奖学金至今仍然还有。

当初的“语法学校”通常利用慈善捐款建立,给当地的男童提供拉丁文教育。这些学校之所以被称为“公学”,是因为学生不必付学费。后来这些属于“公学”的文法学校逐渐接受付费的学生,这些付费生占据了学校的主导地位。“温切斯特公学”得到一位捐赠者的资助,于1382年建立,最初打算为当地的男童和男童歌手提供免费教育,只招收少量支付学费的富家子弟。“温彻斯特公学”的男童为毕业后进入牛津大学的“新学院”做学术方面的准备。“伊顿公学”成立于1440年,按“温彻斯特公学”的模式建立,毕业生只能去仅接受“伊顿公学”毕业生的剑桥大学的“国王学院”。与“温彻斯特公学”一样,“伊顿公学”富裕的付费生取代了获得奖学金的学生。这种“公学”很快就变成了专属富家子弟的精英培训机构。这些学校,不管是过去还是现在,都是中上阶层的英格兰人的培训基地,也是势利精英的代名词。

当时多数“文法学校”的毕业生无法上大学,而只能接受学徒制教育,或者学习父亲的手艺或者行当。不过确实有少数人能升上中世纪混乱而又催人奋进的大学,继续接受教育。

3)英格兰的大学:牛津大学与剑桥大学

中世纪的男生如果想上英格兰的大学,他们只有两种选择:要么上牛津大学,要么上剑桥大学。这两所大学至今仍然是声名显赫的教育机构,虽然变化很大。两所大学建校的具体日期已经很难确定了。牛津大学是从当地一所与教会有联系的学校发展而来的,而剑桥大学则是由牛津大学里的异议分子创建的。牛津大学教师的声誉慢慢地吸引了越来越多的学生。正如柏拉图时期(公元前427?年至347年)的古希腊学园一样,牛津大学的学生直接向讲师支付学费。牛津的讲师以教堂为教室,学生到镇里找住宿的地方。当时的教师有一个非正式的组织,称为university(大学),类似于中世纪的行会。牛津的教师们彼此间经常争论不休。1209年的一场争吵特别激烈,导致一群教师离开牛津大学,到剑桥地区建立了一所新的大学,因为其中的一位讲师在那里有亲戚。一场微不足道的争吵就这么决定了一所重要大学的位置。截止至公元1300年,牛津大学有大约1500名学生,剑桥有大约500人。

随着越来越多的学生上大学,慈善捐款人捐资支付学生的食宿,建立了学生可以住宿和听课的学院。1316年至1352年期间,总共有10个学院成立,每个学院都有自己的规章制度,收入来源也各异。每个学院给10到20位学者提供住宿的地方。这些学者向学院支付食宿费,学费交给大学,承诺遵守学院的规章制度,而且被视为教会机构的低级成员。他们甚至把头剃成和教会神职人员一样。

当时上大学并没有正式的入学考试或者或毕业考试。14或15岁的少男直接就可以进入某一个学院就读。他们通常是属于中产阶级的富商和富裕手工业者的子弟,贵族家庭除长子之外的子弟,还有一些获得奖学金支持的较低阶层家庭的子弟。听课四年后,这些男青年被称为bachelor“学士”,地位就像中世纪接受训练的骑士一样(欧洲封建时期跟随另一位

骑士做侍从的年轻骑士)。再经过3年的教育后,他们被称为master“硕士”。申请“硕士”学位的学生只需宣誓已经阅读过必读的书籍,并且有一些认识自己的“硕士”作证,证明自己已经符合资格。有点像满师学徒工要展示自己的样品一样,新进硕士要做一次示范讲座。

20世纪的牛津与剑桥大学有入学考试和毕业考试。学生不再被当作教会机构的成员。但牛津大学和剑桥大学的学院仍然有高度的自治权,有各自的归属感与传统,与其它大学的residence hall(“学生公寓”)有所不同。牛津大学和剑桥大学虽然不是欧洲最古老的大学,但几百年来出类拔萃,至今仍然声名显赫,闻名天下。

在中世纪,牛津大学和剑桥大学的课程反映了当时的社会需求。大学教育为青年男子做职业生涯的准备,以便毕业后进入教会机构的高层,或者加入逐渐扩大的公务员队伍,或者为进一步研习法律、医学打基础(研习法律一般到伦敦的法律服务中心,学医则需去意大利。意大利的大学当时得益于阿拉伯人的医学知识)。

当时的必读书目分为七个领域,称为Seven Liberal Arts(“文科七艺”:包括语法、修辞和逻辑三艺,算术、几何、音乐和天文四艺;Liber 在拉丁文里意为“书籍”)。“文科”一词现在仍然用来指英语,哲学,音乐,艺术和其他人文学科方面的学习。“七艺”前三项称为trivium(三文科),包括逻辑学、拉丁文、希腊文和希伯来文的语法(这三种语言当时是《圣经》使用的语言)和修辞。这些学习为学者以后编写教会仪式用的布道词以及研究《圣经》做准备。其它“四艺”(quadrivium),包括算术,几何,天文和音乐,帮助学者预测诸如复活节之类的教会农历节日的日期,并为教会仪式编写乐曲。

随着社会的变化,这些科目也发生了变化。到十九世纪中叶,这些大学已成为科学、文化与语言的研究中心,以其科目的理论研究而不是实际应用而闻名。

三、文艺复兴时期的教育

1、变化:英语,自我教育,新学校

都铎王朝和斯图亚特王朝的君主统治期间,也就是文艺复兴期间,英国的教育出现了一些新的变化:英语取代拉丁语成为官方语言;人们出于宗教原因被禁止入学;自我教育的机会更多;许多新的学校成立。教育目标和教育付费方式保持原样,但出现了新的问题:谁该接受教育?

1)英语语言方面的问题

整个中世纪时期,英语是下层阶级遭人鄙视的语言。英语后来取代诺曼人的法语成为上层阶级的语言,人们互相交流就遇到了很大的麻烦,因为英语方言太多。英格兰东北部的人所说的方言受到维京人和丹麦人定居者的影响;北部和西北部的人使用早期定居者凯尔特人的方言;英格兰南部的人说的方言受诺曼法语的影响。每个地区都有自己的词汇和发音。

只要英语仍是一种下层阶级使用的语言,这些变体就不会造成任何问题。后来亨利八世

(1491年至1547年)不但建立了英国国教,还设立英语,而不是拉丁语,作为教会、教育和政府使用的官方语言。问题是要弄明白该使用哪一种方言。当时既没有正确英语的标准,也没人设定这样的标准。随着标志重大技术进步的印刷机传到欧洲,大规模印刷书籍已成为可能,对于英语语言的选择就必须作出决断。英格兰的第一个印刷工威廉·卡克斯顿(1422年?-1491年)试图决定所使用的方言,却抱怨说他无法做到人人满意。他最终决定使用的是英格兰东南部的方言,因为这是他家乡的方言,也是作为英格兰政治和商业势力中心的伦敦使用的方言。其他人想按照英语发音书写,把自己的方言写成文字,结果却导致英语拼写出现毫无章法的变体。举个例子,威廉?莎士比亚的名字在法律文件里就有四种不同的拼写方式;甚至他自己也使用了两种不同的写法!

为了应付这种混乱局面,各种词典应运而生。第一本词典的封面标题就直接说明,词典是为没上过语法学校的“女士,绅士和其他文字不熟练的人士”编写(1604)。其它20本词典在其后的十八世纪出版。尽管有这样的帮助,书信和其它手写的文件经常按作者方言的发音书写。

B)自我教育

印刷机的功用远不止把伦敦方言确认为"英语"那么简单。在卡克斯顿引进印刷机之前,所有英语书籍需要仔细漂亮地抄写。一本书可能要花费一两年时间抄写,而且非常昂贵。活字印刷的再发现以及从中国引进造纸术意味着书籍更便宜,越来越多的人可负担书籍费用。1467年,一个主教估计,印刷的书籍相当于手写本五分之一的费用。

一本书就能给一个人提供知识,不需要教师的帮助。读者个人就能直接接触作家的思想。而且用英语,而不是拉丁语印刷书籍,意味着男男女女都能直接学习各门学科,不用上"语法"学校。即使没有教师,一个人也能研究亚里士多德、建筑学或者箭术。知识越来越属于个人,而不是属于一个团体的财产。

这些新知识非常重要,因为与中世纪的人不同,文艺复兴时代的人承认世界已经改变。英国的船只到世界各地探险;学者重新发现古希腊和罗马作家和艺术家的经典作品;而新的宗教思想则分裂了欧洲社会群体。变化到处出现。人们如果要生存,要有所成就,那就必须学习。

从文艺复兴时期起,自我教育就是英国生活的一个显著特征。在现代,知识可以来自成人开放大学(一种电视讲座和函授的混合体),图书馆或者因特网。不管是通过浏览印刷文字还是电子显示屏,英国人都已经学会单独学习。

C) 宗教排斥——对接受教育者的限制

自我教育在文艺复兴时期的英国很重要,原因不仅在于整个世界发生了急剧的变化,还在于基督教在欧洲分裂为天主教和新教。

亨利八世把英国从欧洲和罗马天主教会分裂出来,造成了新的教育问题。亨利新创的英国国教(也叫Anglican Church) 接替了罗马天主教承担管理教育机构的职责。由于天主教对文艺复兴时期的英国政治稳定造成威胁,罗马天主教思想和惯例在英国受到禁止。

1581年,牛津大学和剑桥大学的所有学生要么宣誓效忠于英国国教,要么被开除。英格兰的大学,不包括苏格兰的大学,对不赞同英国国教的天主教教徒和新教徒关上了大门。英国国教的控制也扩张到了中等教育。英国国教的主教接替罗马天主教主教充当教会学校的监管人。不过,16世纪建立了很多世俗学校或者非宗教学校。这些学校也受教会控制。1604年,议会制定一条法律,要求所有学校教师和私人教师必须由一位英国国教主教批准从业证书。最初这条法律没有严格实施。随着宗教冲突的发展,最后导致英国爆发内战,也就是1688

年的”光荣革命”,以及对斯图亚特国王们的镇压,在此期间,英国对教育进行了更多的控制。宗教分歧意味着政治分歧;政治分歧意味着麻烦。

由于正规的教育体制仍然基于中世纪培养教士的模式,教育被当作宗教和政治体制的一部分。拒绝接受英国国教的人显然无法就读为英国国教培训教士的牛津大学或者剑桥大学。因此,自学成为天主教教徒与信从不同教义的新教徒的唯一教育途径。

直到19世纪末,英国国教的重要性在英国教育体制里才被削弱。即使是现在,教会管理的学校,特别是小学,仍然是重要的教育机构。虽然英格兰的人口越来越多样化,学生和教师可寻求免上宗教课程,但学校仍然提供宗教教育。与宗教和公共教育严格分离的美国不同,英格兰对政府机构与宗教之间的紧密关系更觉心安理得。

2、文艺复兴时期的小学,中学和大学机构

A) 中小学

英格兰实施1604年的议会法案以管理所有的教师,部分原因是日益增多的世俗学校引起。很多新学校是规模很小的小学。即使用英语教学,这些学校仍然被称为”petty”schools (源自意思是”小”的法语词”petit”) 。”小”学校教小孩子3 个”R”:阅读(Reading),写作(w) Riting 和算术(a) Rithmetic。由于学校的教师通常是有一定年纪的妇女,学校因而被称为“妇孺学校”。这样的学校学费也很少:1636年,这样的一间学校,一周上阅读课收费一个便士,写作课两个便士,写作和简单的算术课收费4个便士。然而甚至这么低的学费对许多人来说还是太高。那时候,差不多80%的人口居住在农村。三分之一的人口过着贫困的生活,另外三分之一的人口勉强能糊口。贫苦的农民需要孩子耕田种地。因此,即使是妇孺学校的教育,对于大多数孩子而言还是可望不可及。

信从英国国教的中产阶级家庭的男孩上当地的中小学。天主教徒和对基督教持异见的新教家庭的男孩子读书的日子更惊险刺激一些。由于英格兰属于少数的罗马天主教徒和对基督教持异见的新教徒,例如卫理会教徒,贵格会教徒,长老会教友和一神教派的教徒越来越多,有足够的学生组建“反国教学院”。这些学校为了逃避政府镇压,每隔几个月就搬迁一次。学校的毕业生可以上苏格兰或者欧洲的大学。“反国教学院”和苏格兰的大学更先进一些,因为这些大学提供更多实用的培训,包括诸如地理、航海、现代外语和文学之类的学科。

上层阶级的孩子被送到继续教授拉丁语和希腊语、属于“公学”的文法学校,为学生以后上大学学习文科“七艺”做准备。原本为穷人建立的文法学校,如哈罗公学(1571年获批建立),像伊顿公学和温彻斯特公学一样,被改造成富家子弟的学校。从地产中获取钱财的贵族,似乎为毫无用处的学习自鸣得意。受过教育的人在讲话和写作时用拉丁语引经据典,以证明自己所接受的教育。拉丁语知识成了区分高低社会阶层的方式。

B、大学

a) 英格兰的大学

英格兰的大学继续教授培训神职人员的中世纪课程,但也添加了一些形成导师制的学科。入学的年轻人被分配给一位监督他研究和日常行为的导师。大学仍然提供讲座,但是大部分的学习都是在在学院和学生宿舍开展。

b)苏格兰的大学

三所主要的苏格兰大学都在此期间成立。最古老的苏格兰的大学——格拉斯哥大学,创建于1451年。而后阿伯丁大学(1494年至1495年由罗马天主教教皇授权成立)开创了英国的第一个医学院。最后,爱丁堡大学成立于1582年。当时一位苏格兰律师提供了300本书,作为成立这所大学的图书馆的核心书籍。这些苏格兰的大学非常重要,因

为他们不以宗教原因排斥学生。

四、十八世纪——何谓正确的英文

十八世纪的英国,教育机构几乎没任何改变。圣公会(英国国教)仍然对教师和大学实行控制;父母负责为子女支付教育费用;比较富裕的下层阶级想方设法让孩子入读妇孺学校,或者在当地的语法学校争取奖学金。慈善学校也给贫困儿童提供一些教育,但这些学校强调划分社会阶层。穷苦人家的孩子们被教知要“清楚自己的社会地位”,并且“尊重比他们地位更高的人”,这意味着他们要对更高阶层的人恭敬从顺。

1 、女子学校

为数不多的变化之一就是为中上层阶级的女孩建立了学校。教授给这些年轻女孩的只有几个科目,以及不少的社会交际科目,如跳舞,区分贵族的社会阶层,以及如何优雅地登上马车。

2 、宗教教育减弱

另一个变化出现在十八本世纪中叶。当时信仰天主教的斯图尔特王朝叛乱终于结束,减缓了宗教引起的政治纷争。“反国教学院”得以生存,不再受政府的镇压。此外,由于宗教机构被世俗机构所取代,神职人员在英格兰不如以前这么重要了。随着英格兰的大学成为贵族青年的社交俱乐部,而不再是培训神职人员的机构,入学人数也下降了。

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