工程管理外文翻译
外文翻译
学院能源与建筑工程学院
专业工程管理
导师
学生
2015年4月10 日
THINKING OF COST ENGINEERING PROJECT
Abstract: The premise of the project cost management is to meet the project quality, schedule, contract requirements, as for the project costs, as well as achieving the intended target by planning, organization, control and coordination, and as a scientific management activities to reduce the cost
As far as possible. It is mainly through technology (such as the selection of the construction plan), economic (such as accounting) and management (such as construction organization management, rules and regulations etc.) activities to achieve the intended target and the purpose of profit.
Cost is the sum of all kinds of construction process in the project cost. The content of cost management is very extensive, runs through every procedure and every aspect of project management activities, from the signing of the contract to the construction preparation, until the completion acceptance, every link cannot do without the cost management. As for the complete process of cost management to say, its content includes: cost prediction, cost control, cost accounting, cost analysis and cost assessment, etc.. Here only to analysis through three aspects :project cost forecast, cost control, the effective way reduce the cost to elaborate.
1. Do a good cost forecast, identify the objectives of cost control
Cost prediction is the basis of cost plan, which provide the basis for compiling the scientific, reasonable cost control target. Therefore, to improve the scientific cost forecast, cost plan to reduce costs and improve economic efficiency, which plays an important role in engineering management. Strengthening the control of cost, first of all to pay more attention on cost prediction is an essential behavior. The main content of Cost prediction is the use of scientific methods, to forecast according to cost target of the project ,construction conditions, mechanical equipment, and the quality of personnel of the project.
1.1.Prediction of workers, material, cost
The first is to analysis the project's artificial cost price, then analysis the wages and the market of the social workers , according to the amount of time and ready for the staff to analysis if the accommodation is covered in the project contract price of labor cost.
The material costs accounted for a large proportion of Construction and installation cost, should be the focus to accurately grasp. to analysis the main materials, auxiliary materials, other materials, approved materials supply locations, the purchase price, mode of transport and handling costs. analysis the quota material specified in the specifications with the actual material specifications of different comparison of actual use, with different cement content and quota ratio, pooled analysis of budget in other materials, in the concrete practice to be mixed with a certain amount of admixture.
③Fees for using machinery: the models and the number of machinery and
equipment bidding application in the group is usually calculated by the construction method of the quota, which is different from the actual construction site in some ways, and work efficiency is also different. Therefore, We have to measure the actual forecast happen machine cost. At the same time, we also have to calculate the amortization machinery rental possible fees and the purchase of new machinery and equipment costs, approve the main mechanical shift production quota.
1.2 Prediction of cost changes caused by the plan of construction project
The project after winning the bid, must develop advanced and feasible in technology and reasonable construction organization design according to the actual situation of the construction site of the project, combined with the local economy, natural and geographical conditions, the construction technology, equipment selection, and the actual situation of project scheduling. Comparing the different between the construction method implemented by applying group and tender preparation time, or the different of quota of construction method to design a correct prediction.
1.3.Prediction of aided engineering fee
Aided engineering refers to engineering quantity list or not given in the design drawings, and it is indispensable in construction, such as concrete mixing station, tunnel construction of the three tube line two, high pressure into the hole, also need to predict by construction plan for actual.
1.4 .Prediction of large temporary facilities fee
Prediction of large temporary work fee should be investigated in detail and fully
demonstration, to determine a reasonable target values.
1.5.Prediction of small temporary facilities fee, and the transferring of site fee Small temporary facility costs include: temporary facilities layout, according to how much time period and planned to invest in personnel, equipment to determine the temporary facilities scale and standard, according to actual and reference of the historical data for the control of construction in the objective value determination. The transferring of site should be based on the distance and quasi transfer personnel, equipment to predict the target value.
1.6. Prediction of the risk of out of control of cost
Risk analysis of project cost targets, is to implement the prediction of the factors that may affect the realization of ex ante analysis in the project, often can be analyzed from the following aspects:
1) Understanding of the technical characteristics of engineering project, such as structural characteristics, geological features.
2) On the analysis of the unit owners, including credit of owners of units , the availability of funds, organization and coordination ability.
3) Analysis of internal project organization system, including the construction organization design, resources, quality and other aspects.
4) The analysis of traffic, energy, electric power of project in local site.
5) Analysis on climate.
In short, through the prediction of the main cost above, we can determine the control standard of worker, material, machine and indirect costs, can also determine the needed time to complete this project in the long period, so to finish the target control of the management fee. Therefore, cost forecasting is the basis of cost control.
2.Around the cost objectives, determining the cost control principles
The construction project cost control is the input of resources in the implementation process, and pay attention on the supervision of construction process and the results, inspection and measurement, and to take measures to ensure achieving the project cost goals.
The object of cost control is project, its subject is the person's management activities, the purpose is reasonable use of manpower, material and financial resources, reduce
cost, increase benefit. Therefore, the general principle of cost control are:
2.1 Saving principle
Save means project save the human, material and financial resources construction, which is the basic principle of cost control. Saving is not absolutely negative restriction and supervision, but to create a condition actively, we should focus on the per inspection, process control , and check the deviation in the implementation process, to optimize the construction scheme, improve the scientific management level of the project to save.
2.2 The principle of full control
The principle of full control includes two meanings, namely the full staff control and full process control.
1) Project full staff control
Cost control consists of all departments, team and staff in project organization of work involved, and related to each of the vital interests of employees, so should fully mobilize the enthusiasm of each department, each employee team for controlling and concerning about the cost, to establish full control idea, if we only consider that cost control is responsible for ore settlement and financial matters, it is just one-sided.
2) The entire process of project cost control
The project cost involves the entire project cycle, the whole process of project cost formation, from the beginning of construction preparation, through the construction process to be completed after the transfer of the warranty period. Therefore, the cost control work is to accompany each stage of project construction, such as the formulation of optimal construction scheme in the construction preparation stage, according to the requirements of design and construction specification for construction, make full use of existing resources, reduce the construction cost, and ensure the project quality, reduce project rework fee and after the project there may form the transfer of the warranty cost. In work’s acceptance stage, we have to adopt timely manner to the additional contract price for the project settlement, so that the cost of the project from first to last can be hold under effect management.
2.3 Target control principle
Target management is the basic techniques and methods of management activities. It realize the plan policy, task, target and measures and make that to be implemented by decomposition. In the implementation process of the management of objectives, target setting should be practical, the more detailed the better, to implement the department, team and group or individual; target responsibility should be comprehensive, not only have the responsibility, but also to have more responsibility of cost; combining the responsibility, right, benefit, make effort on the responsible departments (people) for examination and evaluation of the performance, and with the salary, bonus, do award or publish.
2.4 Dynamic control principle
Cost control is carried out in a continuously changing environment management activities, so we must adhere to the principle of dynamic control, dynamic control is to input the labor, material, machine into the construction process, to collect the actual value cost, compare it with the target value, check whether there have any deviation, if without deviation, continued the process, or to find the specific reasons, to take corresponding measures. The implementation of cost control process should follow the "exception" management method, the so-called "exceptions" refers to problem which do not often appear in the project construction activities, but the key problem of cost have a major influence successfully completed, also must be attached great importance. In the project implementation of process the "exception" belongs to usually has the following several aspects:
1) Importance: general is difference from the amount of point of view which have important significance, it is called "exception", if we have to determine the cost difference between the amount, we should determine the percentage difference for the original standard according to the specific circumstances of the project. The difference also can be divided into favorable and negative. The actual cost is lower than the standard cost too much is not necessarily a good thing, it could cause two cases: one is the adverse impact to the follow-up project or assignment: another may cause low quality, and lead to rework and increased warranty cost, quality cost control also affect corporate reputation.
2) Consistency: although some of the cost difference is no more than the percentage
specified or the minimum amount, but has been hovering near the upper lower limit line, should also be regarded as "exception". Means that the original cost projections may be not accurate, should be timely adjusted according to actual situation.
3) Ability to control: some are project managers can not control the cost of the project, even if significant differences occurred, should also be regarded as "exceptional", such as land acquisition, demolition, temporary rental costs rise.
4) The particularity of the project construction: which have effect on the whole process of project cost, even if the differences did not reach the importance position, should also be paid attention to cost management. Such as mechanical repair expenses of the one-sided emphasis on savings. It may reduce the cost in the short term, but due to lack of repair may cause future downtime repair, thereby affecting the smooth progress of construction production.
3 .To find effective ways ,and to achieve the cost control target
There have a variety methods to reduce the project cost, it can take measures from organization technology, economy, to contract management.
3.1 Organizational measures taken to control engineering cost
First of all to clear the institutions and personnel of Project Manager Department and division of functions and powers of that. The project manager department is operating management team, it is appointed by legal person of enterprise as his representative to power project management team, after the completion of the project this appointment will collapse, so he is not an economic entity , and he is responsible for the overall interests, also should coordinate responsibility, right, interests between the company and the company.
Secondly, define the cost control and tasks, so that certain person will responsible for the cost control, avoid there have unclear responsibility while problem happen.
3.2 To take technical measures to control project cost
Take technical measures is to give no limitation on subjective initiative of technical staff in the construction stage, and try to check and approve technical and economic demonstration which is necessary, then to seek more economic and reliable solution, thus reduce the cost of the project, including the use of new materials, new technology, new method to save energy, improve the mechanical operation etc..
3.3Take economic measures to control engineering cost
Economic measures to control project cost includes:
(1) The artificial cost control:
Labor costs accounted for a larger proportion of project costs, generally at about 10%, so we should strictly control the labor cost. To control the amount of labor, we must reduce or shorten labor consumption in some procedures, so as to reduce the labor consumption, control engineering cost objective.
(2) Control material cost:
The cost of materials general of the total project cost of the 65%~75%, directly influence the engineering cost and economic benefit. The general approach is to quantity-price separation principle, mainly do the work of two.
One is to control the amount of material: the first is to determine material consumption according to the quota, implement the system of limits: the second is to improve the construction technology, promote the use of reducing the material consumption of new technologies, new processes, new materials. Then there are the engineering function analysis, analyzing the performance of the material, in order to replace expensive materials to used cheap materials, strengthening material management turnover, prolong the number of circle.
The two is to control the price of materials: mainly by the procurement department to control. First carries on the investigation to the market, with high quality, goods than three, then purchase preferential material: followed by the rational organization of transportation, the nearest purchase material, choose the most economical mode of transport, to reduce the transportation cost: then is to consider the time value of money, reduce capital occupied, reasonably determining the purchase batch and batches as far as possible, reduce material reserve.
(3) Control of mechanical cost:
To reduce the current consumption in the construction, through the reasonable construction organization, machinery allocation, improve the use of machinery and equipment and good condition rate, at the same time, strengthen the on-site equipment repair, maintenance, overhaul, repair, often reduce the expenses, to avoid improper use cause mechanical equipment idle; strengthen the management plan of equipment leasing, make full use of idle machinery and social resources, reduce the
mechanical stage class price from different angles.
From the economic point of view, control engineering cost also includes the reward to participants in the Department and individual who participate cost control measures.
3.4 Strengthen quality management, control the rework rate
In the construction process, to strict quality engineering, always implement the quality policy of our bureau "to fine, honest, better, update", the quality of self personnel at all levels, post, duty, point to strengthen the quality inspection and management in construction process really carried out through the whole process, take preventive measures, eliminate the common quality problem, do a molding engineering, once qualified, eliminate rework phenomenon, avoid unnecessary human, financial, material and other large amount of investment and increase of project cost.
3.5, Strengthening the contract management, control project cost
Contract management is the important content of construction enterprise management, but also reduce the cost of the project, also is the effective way to improve the economic benefit. Time frame for project construction contract management should begin with contract negotiations, to the end of warranty date, especially to strengthen contract management in construction process, do well in contract management of attack and defense, attack means during the execution of the contract to pay close attention to the effect of our progress in performance of the contract, to prevent being claim. In contract management tasks ,we take the right and wrong every day to read between the lines by in contract, search for the opportunity to attack and conservation measures.
In short, cost prediction establish target behavior for cost, and cost control also has focus. Without cost control, cost prediction will lose the meaning of existence, there was no way to talk about cost management, the two complement each other, therefore, we should research from theory ,and work in practice in full swing, to finish the work effectively.
Keyword：Engineering、Project management、cost、Optimization
关于工程项目成本管理的思考
摘要：项目成本管理是在保证满足工程质量、工期等合同要求的前提下，对项目实施过程中所发生的费用，通过计划、组织、控制和协调等活动实现预定的成本目标，并尽可能地降低成本费用的一种科学的管理活动，它主要通过技术（如施工方案的制定比选）、经济（如核算）和管理（如施工组织管理、各项规章制度等）活动达到预定目标，实现盈利的目的。
成本是项目施工过程中各种耗费的总和。成本管理的内容很广泛，贯穿于项目管理活动的全过程和每个方面，从项目中标签约开始到施工准备、现场施工、直至竣工验收，每个环节都离不开成本管理工作，就成本管理的完整工作过程来说，其内容一般包括：成本预测、成本控制、成本核算、成本分析和成本考核等。下面仅就工作项目的成本预测、成本控制、降低成本的有效途径三方面引以阐述。
1 搞好成本预测、确定成本控制目标
成本预测是成本计划的基础，为编制科学、合理的成本控制目标提供依据。因此，成本预测对提高成本计划的科学性、降低成本和提高经济效益，具有重要的作用。加强成本控制，首先要抓成本预测。成本预测的内容主要是使用科学的方法，结合中标价根据各项目的施工条件、机械设备、人员素质等对项目的成本目标进行
预测。
1.1工、料、费用预测
①首先分析工程项目采用的人工费单价，再分析工人的工资水平及社会劳务的市场行情，根据工期及准备投入的人员数量分析该项工程合同价中人工费是否包住。②材料费占建安费的比重极大，应作为重点予以准确把握，分别对主材、地材、辅材、其它材料费进行逐项分析，重新核定材料的供应地点、购买价、运输方式及装卸费，分析定额中规定的材料规格与实际采用的材料规格的不同，对比实际采用配合比的水泥用量与定额用量的差异，汇总分析预算中的其它材料费，在混凝土实际操作中要掺一定量的外加剂等。
③机械使用费：投标施组中的机械设备的型号，数量一般是采用定额中的施工方法套算出来的，与工地实际施工有一定差异，工作效率也有不同，因此要测算实际将要发生的机使费。同时，还得计算可能发生的机械租赁费及需新购置的机械设备费的摊销费，对主要机械重新核定台班产量定额。
1.2施工方案引起费用变化的预测
工程项目中标后，必须结合施工现场的实际情况制定技术上先进可行和经济合理的实施性施工组织设计，结合项目所在地的经济、自然地理条件、施工工艺、设备选择、工期安排的实际情况，比较实施性施组所采用的施工方法与标书编制时的不同，或与定额中施工方法的不同，以据实作出正确的预测。
1.3辅助工程费的预测
辅助工程量是指工程量清单或设计图纸中没有给定，而又是施工中不可缺少的，例如混凝土拌合站、隧道施工中的三管两线，高压进洞等，也需根据实施性施组作好具体实际的预测。
1.4大型临时设施费的预测
大型临时工作费的预测应详细地调查，充分地比选论证，从而确定合理的目标值。
1.5小型临时设施费、工地转移费的预测
小型临时设施费内容包括：临时设施的搭设，需根据工期的长短和拟投入的人员、设备的多少来确定临时设施的规模和标准，按实际发生并参考以往工程施工中包干控制的历史数据确定目标值。工地转移费应根据转移距离的远近和拟转移人员，设备的多少核定预测目标值。
1.6成本失控的风险预测
项目成本目标的风险分析，就是对在本项目中实施可能影响目标实现的因素进
行事前分析，通常可以从以下几方面来进行分析：
1）对工程项目技术特征的认识，如结构特征，地质特征等。
2）对业主单位有关情况的分析，包括业主单位的信用、资金到位情况、组织协调能力等。
3）对项目组织系统内部的分析，包括施组设计、资源配备、队伍素质等方面。
4）对项目所在地的交通、能源、电力的分析。
5）对气候的分析。
总之，通过对上述几种主要费用的预测，即可确定工、料、机及间接费的控制标准，也可确定必须在多长工期内完成该项目，才能完成管理费的目标控制。所以说，成本预测是成本控制的基础。
2 围绕成本目标，确立成本控制原则
施工项目成本控制就是在实施过程中对资源的投入，施工过程及成果进行监督，检查和衡量，并采取措施确保项目成本目标的实现。
成本控制的对象是工程项目，其主体则是人的管理活动，目的是合理使用人力、物力、财力，降低成本，增加效益。为此，成本控制的一般原则有：
2.1节约原则
节约就是项目施工用人力、物力和财力的节省，是成本控制的基本原则。节约绝对不是消极的限制与监督，而是要积极创造条件，要着眼于成本的事前监督、过程控制，在实施过程中经常检查是否出偏差，以优化施工方案，从提高项目的科学管理水平入手来达到节约。
2.2全面控制原则
全面控制原则包括两个涵义，即全员控制和全过程控制。
1）项目全员控制
成本控制涉及到项目组织中的所有部门、班组和员工的工作，并与每一个员工的切身利益有关，因此应充分调动每个部门、班组和每一个员工控制成本、关心成本的积极性，真正树立起全员控制的观念，如果认为成本控制仅是负责预、结算及财务方面的事，就片面了。
2）项目全过程成本控制
项目成本的发生涉及到项目的整个周期，项目成本形成的全过程，从施工准备开始，经施工过程至竣工移交后的保修期结束。因此，成本控制工作要伴随项目施
工的每一阶段，如在施工准备阶段制定最佳的施工方案，按照设计要求和施工规范施工，充分利用现有的资源，减少施工成本支出，并确保工程质量，减少工程返工费和工程移交后的保修费用。工程验收移交阶段，要及时追加合同价款办理工程结算，使工程成本自始至终处于有效控制之下。
2.3目标控制原则
目标管理是管理活动的基本技术和方法。它是把计划的方针、任务、目标和措施等加以逐一分解落实。在实施目标管理的过程中，目标的设定应切实可行，越具体越好，要落实到部门、班组甚至个人；目标的责任要全面，既要有工作责任，更要有成本责任；做到责、权、利相结合，对责任部门（人）的业绩进行检查和考评，并同其工资、奖金挂钩，做到奖罚分明。
2.4动态控制原则
成本控制是在不断变化的环境下进行的管理活动，所以必须坚持动态控制的原则，所谓动态控制就是将工、料、机投入到施工过程中，收集成本发生的实际值，将其与目标值相比较，检查有无偏离，若无偏差，则继续进行，否则要找出具体原因，采取相应措施。实施成本控制过程应遵循“例外”管理方法，所谓“例外”是指在工程项目建设活动中那些不经常出现的问题，但关键性问题对成本目标的顺利完成影响重大，也必须予以高度重视。在项目实施过程中属于“例外”的情况通常有如下几个方面：
1）重要性：一般是从金额上来看有重要意义的差异，才称做“例外”，成本差额金额的确定，应根据项目的具体情况确定差异占原标准的百分率。差异分有利差异和不利差异。实际成本支出低于标准成本过多也不见得是一件好事，它可能造成两种情况:一种是给后续的分部分项工程或作业带来不利影响：另一种是造成质量低，除可能带来返工和增加保修费用外，质量成本控制还影响企业声誉。
2）一贯性：尽管有些成本差异虽未超过规定的百分率或最低金额，但一直在控制线的上下限线附近徘徊，亦应视为“例外”。意味着原来的成本预测可能不准确，要及时根据实际情况进行调整。
3）控制能力：有些是项目管理人员无法控制的成本项目，即使发生重大的差异，也应视为“例外”，如征地、拆迁、临时租用费用的上升等。
4）特殊性：凡对项目施工全过程都有影响的成本项目，即使差异没有达到重要性的地位，也应受到成本管理人员的密切注意。如机械维修费的片面强调节约。在短期内虽可再降低成本，但因维修不足可能造成未来的停工修理，从而影响施工
生产的顺利进行。
3 寻找有效途径，实现成本控制目标
降低项目成本的方法有多种，概括起来可以从组织、技术、经济、合同管理等几个方面采取措施控制。
3.1采取组织措施控制工程成本
首先要明确项目经理部的机构设置与人员配备，明确处、项目经理部、公司或施工队之间职权关系的划分。项目经理部是作业管理班子，是企业法人指定项目经理做他的代表人管理项目的工作班子，项目建成后即行解体，所以他不是一经济实体，应对处整体利益负责任，同理应协调好公司与公司之间的责、权、利的关系。
其次要明确成本控制者及任务，从而使成本控制有人负责，避免成本大了，费用超了，项目亏了责任却不明的问题。
3.2采取技术措施控制工程成本
采取技术措施是在施工阶段充分发挥技术人员的主观能动性，对标书中主要技术方案作必要的技术经济论证，以寻求较为经济可靠的方案，从而降低工程成本，包括采用新材料、新技术、新工艺节约能耗，提高机械化操作等。
3.3采取经济措施控制工程成本
采取经济措施管制工程成本包括：
（1）人工费控制：
人工费占全部工程费用的比例较大，一般都在10%左右，所以要严格控制人工费。要从用工数量控制，有针对性地减少或缩短某些工序的工日消耗量，从而达降低工日消耗，控制工程成本的目的。
（2）材料费的控制：
材料费一般占全部工程费的65%~75%，直接影响工程成本和经济效益。一般作法是要按量、价分离的原则，主要做好两个方面的工作。
一是对材料用量的控制：首先是坚持按定额确定材料消耗量，实行限额领料制度：其次是改进施工技术，推广使用降低料耗的各种新技术、新工艺、新材料。再就是对工程进行功能分析，对材料进行性能分析，力求用低价材料代替高价材料，加强周转料管理，延长周转次数等。
二是对材料价格进行控制：主要是由采购部门在采购中加以控制。首先对市场行情进行调查，在保质保量前提下，货比三家，择优购料：其次是合理组织运输，
就近购料，选用最经济的运输方式，以降低运输成本：再就是要考虑奖金的时间价值，减少资金占用，合理确定进货批量与批次，尽可能降低材料储备。
（3）机械费的控制：
尽理减少施工中所消耗的机械台班量，通过全理施工组织、机械调配，提高机械设备的利用率和完好率，同时，加强现场设备的维修、保养工作，降低大修、经常性修理等各项费用的开支，避免不正当使用造成机械设备的闲置；加强租赁设备计划的管理，充分利用社会闲置机械资源，从不同角度降低机械台班价格。
从经济的角度管制工程成本还包括对参与成本控制的部门和个人给予奖励的措施。
3.4加强质量管理，控制返工率
在施工过程中，要严把工程质量关，始终贯彻我局“至精、至诚、更优、更新”的质量方针，各级质量自检人员定点、定岗、定责、加强施工工序的质量自检和管理工作真正贯彻到整个过程中，采取防范措施，消除质理通病，做到工程一次成型，一次合格，杜绝返工现象的发生，避免造成因不必要的人、财、物等大量的投入而加大工程成本。
3.5加强合同管理，控制工程成本
合同管理是施工企业管理的重要内容，也是降低工程成本，提高经济效益的有效途径。项目施工合同管理的时间范围应从合同谈判开始，至保修日结束止，尤其加强施工过程中的合同管理，抓好合同管理的攻与守，攻意味着在合同执行期间密切注意我方履行合同的进展效果，以防止被对方索赔。合同管理者的任务是非曲直天天念合同经，在字里行间攻的机会与守的措施。
总之，成本预测为成本确立行为目标，成本控制才有针对性：不进行成本控制，成本预测也就失去了存在的意义，也就无从谈成本管理了，两者相辅相成，所以，应从理论上深入研究，实践上全面展开，扎实有效地把这些工作开展好。
关键词：工程项目管理成本优化
PA VEMENT PROBLEMS CAUSED BY COLLAPSIBLE SUBGRADES By Sandra L. Houston,1 Associate Member, ASCE (Reviewed by the Highway Division) ABSTRACT: Problem subgrade materials consisting of collapsible soils are com- mon in arid environments, which have climatic conditions and depositional and weathering processes favorable to their formation. Included herein is a discussion of predictive techniques that use commonly available laboratory equipment and testing methods for obtaining reliable estimates of the volume change for these problem soils. A method for predicting relevant stresses and corresponding collapse strains for typical pavement subgrades is presented. Relatively simple methods of evaluating potential volume change, based on results of familiar laboratory tests, are used. INTRODUCTION When a soil is given free access to water, it may decrease in volume, increase in volume, or do nothing. A soil that increases in volume is called a swelling or expansive soil, and a soil that decreases in volume is called a collapsible soil. The amount of volume change that occurs depends on the soil type and structure, the initial soil density, the imposed stress state, and the degree and extent of wetting. Subgrade materials comprised of soils that change volume upon wetting have caused distress to highways since the be- ginning of the professional practice and have cost many millions of dollars in roadway repairs. The prediction of the volume changes that may occur in the field is the first step in making an economic decision for dealing with these problem subgrade materials. Each project will have different design considerations, economic con- straints, and risk factors that will have to be taken into account. However, with a reliable method for making volume change predictions, the best design relative to the subgrade soils becomes a matter of economic comparison, and a much more rational design approach may be made. For example, typical techniques for dealing with expansive clays include: (1) In situ treatments with substances such as lime, cement, or fly-ash; (2) seepage barriers and/ or drainage systems; or (3) a computing of the serviceability loss and a mod- ification of the design to "accept" the anticipated expansion. In order to make the most economical decision, the amount of volume change (especially non- uniform volume change) must be accurately estimated, and the degree of road roughness evaluated from these data. Similarly, alternative design techniques are available for any roadway problem. The emphasis here will be placed on presenting economical and simple methods for: (1) Determining whether the subgrade materials are collapsible; and (2) estimating the amount of volume change that is likely to occur in the 'Asst. Prof., Ctr. for Advanced Res. in Transp., Arizona State Univ., Tempe, AZ 85287. Note. Discussion open until April 1, 1989. To extend the closing date one month,
转型衰退时期的土木工程研究 Sergios Lambropoulosa[1], John-Paris Pantouvakisb, Marina Marinellic 摘要 最近的全球经济和金融危机导致许多国家的经济陷入衰退，特别是在欧盟的周边。这些国家目前面临的民用建筑基础设施的公共投资和私人投资显著收缩，导致在民事特别是在民用建筑方向的失业。因此，在所有国家在经济衰退的专业发展对于土木工程应届毕业生来说是努力和资历的不相称的研究，因为他们很少有机会在实践中积累经验和知识，这些逐渐成为过时的经验和知识。在这种情况下，对于技术性大学在国家经济衰退的计划和实施的土木工程研究大纲的一个实质性的改革势在必行。目的是使毕业生拓宽他们的专业活动的范围，提高他们的就业能力。 在本文中，提出了土木工程研究课程的不断扩大，特别是在发展的光毕业生的潜在的项目，计划和投资组合管理。在这个方向上，一个全面的文献回顾，包括ASCE体为第二十一世纪，IPMA的能力的基础知识，建议在其他：显著增加所提供的模块和项目管理在战略管理中添加新的模块，领导行为，配送管理，组织和环境等；提供足够的专业训练五年的大学的研究；并由专业机构促进应届大学生认证。建议通过改革教学大纲为土木工程研究目前由国家技术提供了例证雅典大学。 1引言 土木工程研究（CES）蓬勃发展，是在第二次世界大战后。土木工程师的出现最初是由重建被摧毁的巨大需求所致，目的是更多和更好的社会追求。但是很快，这种演变一个长期的趋势，因为政府为了努力实现经济发展，采取了全世界的凯恩斯主义的理论，即公共基础设施投资作为动力。首先积极的结果导致公民为了更好的生活条件（住房，旅游等）和增加私人投资基础设施而创造机会。这些现象再国家的发展中尤为为明显。虽然前景并不明朗（例如，世界石油危机在70年代），在80年代领先的国家采用新自由主义经济的方法（如里根经济政策），这是最近的金融危机及金融危机造成的后果（即收缩的基础设施投资，在技术部门的高失业率），消除发展前途无限的误区。 技术教育的大学所认可的大量研究土木工程部。旧学校拓展专业并且新的学校建成，并招收许多学生。由于高的职业声望，薪酬，吸引高质量的学校的学生。在工程量的增加和科学技术的发展，导致到极强的专业性，无论是在研究还是工作当中。结构工程师，液压工程师，交通工程师等，都属于土木工程。试图在不同的国家采用专业性的权利，不同的解决方案，，从一个统一的大学学历和广泛的专业化的一般职业许可证。这个问题在许多其他行业成为关键。国际专业协会的专家和机构所确定的国家性检查机构，经过考试后，他们证明不仅是行业的新来者，而且专家通过时间来确定进展情况。尽管在很多情况下，这些证书虽然没有国家接受，他们赞赏和公认的世界。 在试图改革大学研究（不仅在土木工程）更接近市场需求的过程中，欧盟确定了1999博洛尼亚宣言，它引入了一个二能级系统。第一级度（例如，一个三年的学士）是进入
基本电路 包括电路模型的元素被称为理想的电路元件。一个理想的电路元件是一个实际的电气元件的数学模型，就像一个电池或一个灯泡。重要的是为理想电路元件在电路模型用来表示实际的电气元件的行为可接受程度的准确性。电路分析，本单位的重点，这些工具，然后应用电路。电路分析基础上的数学方法，是用来预测行为的电路模型和其理想的电路元件。一个所期望的行为之间的比较，从设计规范，和预测的行为，形成电路分析，可能会导致电路模型的改进和理想的电路元件。一旦期望和预测的行为是一致的，可以构建物理原型。 物理原型是一个实际的电气系统，修建从实际电器元件。测量技术是用来确定实际的物理系统，定量的行为。实际的行为相比，从设计规范的行为，从电路分析预测的行为。比较可能会导致在物理样机，电路模型，或两者的改进。最终，这个反复的过程，模型，组件和系统的不断完善，可能会产生较准确地符合设计规范的设计，从而满足需要。 从这样的描述，它是明确的，在设计过程中，电路分析中起着一个非常重要的作用。由于电路分析应用电路模型，执业的工程师尝试使用成熟的电路模型，使设计满足在第一次迭代的设计规范。在这个单元，我们使用20至100年已测试通过机型，你可以认为他们是成熟的。能力模型与实际电力系统理想的电路元件，使电路理论的工程师非常有用的。 说理想电路元件的互连可用于定量预测系统的行为，意味着我们可以用数学方程描述的互连。对于数学方程是有用的，我们必须写他们在衡量的数量方面。在电路的情况下，这些数量是电压和电流。电路分析的研究，包括了解其电压和电流和理解上的电压施加的限制，目前互连的理想元素的每一个理想的电路元件的行为电路分析基础上的电压和电流的变量。电压是每单位电荷，电荷分离所造成的断电和SI单位伏V = DW / DQ。电流是电荷的流动速度和具有的安培SI单位（I= DQ/ DT）。理想的基本电路元件是两个终端组成部分，不能细分，也可以在其终端电压和电流的数学描述。被动签署公约涉及元素，当电流通过元素的参考方向是整个元素的参考电压降的方向端子的电压和电流的表达式使用一个积极的迹象。 功率是单位时间内的能量和平等的端电压和电流的乘积;瓦SI单位。权力的代数符号解释如下： 如果P> 0，电源被传递到电路或电路元件。 如果p<0，权力正在从电路或电路元件中提取。 在这一章中介绍的电路元素是电压源，电流源和电阻器。理想电压源保持一个规定的电压，不论当前的设备。理想电流源保持规定的电流不管了整个设备的电压。电压和电流源是独立的，也就是说，不是任何其他电路的电流或电压的影响;或依赖，就是由一些电路中的电流或电压。一个电阻制约了它的电压和电流成正比彼此。有关的比例常数电压和一个电阻值称为其电阻和欧姆测量。 欧姆定律建立相称的电压和电流的电阻。具体来说，V = IR电阻的电流流动，如果在它两端的电压下降，或V=_IR方向，如果在该电阻的电流流是在它两端的电压上升方向。 通过结合对权力的方程，P = VI，欧姆定律，我们可以判断一个电阻吸收的功率：P = I2R= U2/ R 电路节点和封闭路径。节点是一个点，两个或两个以上的电路元件加入。当只有两个元素连接，形成一个节点，他们表示将在系列。一个闭合的路径是通过连接元件追溯到一个循环，起点和终点在同一节点，只有一次每遇到中间节点。 电路是说，要解决时，两端的电压，并在每个元素的电流已经确定。欧姆定律是一个重要的方程，得出这样的解决方案。 在简单的电路结构，欧姆定律是足以解决两端的电压，目前在每一个元素。然而，对于更复杂的互连，我们需要使用两个更为重要的代数关系，被称为基尔霍夫定律，来解决所有的电压和电流。 基尔霍夫电流定律是： 在电路中的任何一个节点电流的代数和等于零。 基尔霍夫电压定律是： 电路中的任何封闭路径上的电压的代数和等于零。 1.2电路分析技术 到目前为止，我们已经分析应用结合欧姆定律基尔霍夫定律电阻电路相对简单。所有的电路，我们可以使用这种方法，但因为他们而变得结构更为复杂，涉及到越来越多的元素，这种直接的方法很快成为累赘。在这一课中，我们介绍两个电路分析的强大的技术援助：在复杂的电路结构的分析节点电压的方法，并网电流的方
企业成本控制外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
译文： 在价值链的成本控制下减少费用和获得更多的利润 摘要： 根据基于价值链的成本管理理念和基于价值的重要因素是必要的。首先，必须有足够的资源，必须创造了有利的价值投资，同时还需要基于客户价值活动链，以确定他们的成本管理优势的价值链。其次，消耗的资源必须尽量减少，使最小的运营成本价值链和确保成本优势是基于最大商业价值或利润，这是一种成本控制系统内部整个视图的创建和供应的具实践，它也是一种成本控制制度基于价值链，包括足够的控制和必要的资源投资价值的观点，创建和保持消费的资源到合理的水平，具有价值的观点主要对象的第一个因素是构造有利的价值链，从创造顾客价值开始；第二个因素是加强有利的价值链，从供应或生产客户价值开始。因此它是一个新型的理念，去探索成本控制从整个视图的创建和供应的商品更盈利企业获得可持续的竞争优势。 关键词：成本控制，价值链，收益，支出，收入，成本会计 1、介绍 根据价值链理论，企业的目的是创造最大的顾客价值；和企业的竞争优势在于尽可能提供尽可能多的价值给他们的客户，作为低成本可能的。这要求企业必须首先考虑他们是否能为顾客创造价值，和然后考虑在很长一段时间内如何创造它。然而，竞争一直以“商品”（或“产品”）作为最直接的载体，因此，传统的成本控制方法主要集中在对“产品”和生产流程的过程。很显然，这不能解决企业的问题，企业是否或如何能为客户创造价值。换句话说，这至少不能从根本上解决它。 因此，企业必须首先投入足够的资源，以便他们能够创建客户值取向，然后提供它以最少的资源费用。所以在整个视图中对价值创造和提供整体的观点来控制成本，它可以为客户提供完美的动力和操作运行机制运行成本的控制，也可以从根本上彻底克服了传统的成本控制方法的缺点，解决了无法控制的创造和供应不足的真正价值。基于此，本文试图从创作的整体观讨论成本控制提供价值并探讨实现良性循环的策略，也就是说，“创造价值投资成本供应价值创造价值”。 2、成本及其控制的基于价值链理念 2.1基于价值链的成本观念 根据价值链理论，如果企业是要被客户接受，它必须创造和提供能满足其客户的价值。因此，成本（价值或资源支付费用）这不离为创造和提供顾客价值的活动，其活动的价值链。因此，我们应该从价值链角度看成本的重要。
Study on Project Cost Control of Construction Enterprises By: R. Max Wideman Abstract With the increasing maturity of construction market, the competition between construction enterprises is becoming fierce. The project profit is gradually decreasing. It demands that all construction enterprises enhance their cost control, lower costs, improve management efficiency and gain maximal profits. This paper analyses the existing problems on project cost control of Chinese construction enterprises, and proposes some suggestions to improve project cost control system. Key Words ：Construction enterprises, Project management, Cost control After joining the WTO, with Chinese construction market becoming integrated, the competition among architectural enterprises is turning more intense. Construction enterprises must continually enhance the overall competitiveness if they want to develop further at home and abroad construction market. Construction Enterprises basically adopt the "project management-centered" model, therefore, it is particularly important to strengthen project cost control. 1.The Current Domestic Project Cost Classification and Control Methods Cost refers to the consumption from producing and selling of certain products, with the performance of various monetary standing for materialized labor and labor-consuming. Direct and indirect costs constitute the total cost, also known as production cost or manufacturing cost. Enterprise product cost is the comprehensive indicator to measure enterprise quality of all aspects. It is not only the fund compensation scale, but also the basis to examine the implementation of cost plan. Besides, it can provide reference for product pricing According to the above-mentioned definition and current domestic cost classification, construction project cost can be divided into direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include material cost, personnel cost, construction machinery cost, material transportation cost, temporarily facility cost, engineering cost and other direct cost. Indirect costs mainly result from project management and company's cost-sharing, covering project operating costs (covering the commission of foreign projects), project's management costs (including exchange losses of
姓名： 学号： 10447425 X X 大学 毕业设计（论文）外文翻译 （2014届） 外文题目Developments in excavation bracing systems 译文题目开挖工程支撑体系的发展 外文出处Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 31 (2012) 107–116 学生XXX 学院XXXX 专业班级XXXXX 校内指导教师XXX 专业技术职务XXXXX 校外指导老师专业技术职务 二○一三年十二月
开挖工程支撑体系的发展 1.引言 几乎所有土木工程建设项目（如建筑物，道路，隧道，桥梁，污水处理厂，管道，下水道）都涉及泥土挖掘的一些工程量。往往由于由相邻的结构，特性线，或使用权空间的限制，必须要一个土地固定系统，以允许土壤被挖掘到所需的深度。历史上，许多挖掘支撑系统已经开发出来。其中，现在比较常见的几种方法是：板桩，钻孔桩墙，泥浆墙。 土地固定系统的选择是由技术性能要求和施工可行性（例如手段，方法）决定的，包括执行的可靠性，而成本考虑了这些之后，其他问题也得到解决。通常环境后果（用于处理废泥浆和钻井液如监管要求）也非常被关注（邱阳、1998）。 土地固定系统通常是建设项目的较大的一个组成部分。如果不能按时完成项目，将极大地影响总成本。通常首先建造支撑，在许多情况下，临时支撑系统是用于支持在挖掘以允许进行不断施工，直到永久系统被构造。临时系统可以被去除或留在原处。 打桩时，因撞击或振动它们可能会被赶入到位。在一般情况下，振动是最昂贵的方法，但只适合于松散颗粒材料，土壤中具有较高电阻（例如，通过鹅卵石）的不能使用。采用打入桩系统通常是中间的成本和适合于软沉积物（包括粘性和非粘性），只要该矿床是免费的鹅卵石或更大的岩石。 通常，垂直元素（例如桩）的前安装挖掘工程和水平元件（如内部支撑或绑回）被安装为挖掘工程的进行下去，从而限制了跨距长度，以便减少在垂直开发弯矩元素。在填充情况下，桩可先设置，从在斜坡的底部其嵌入悬挑起来，安装作为填充进步水平元素（如搭背或土钉）。如果滞后是用来保持垂直元素之间的土壤中，它被安装为挖掘工程的进行下去，或之前以填补位置。 吉尔- 马丁等人（2010）提供了一个数值计算程序，以获取圆形桩承受轴向载荷和统一标志（如悬臂桩）的单轴弯矩的最佳纵筋。他们开发的两种优化流程：用一个或两个直径为纵向钢筋。优化增强模式允许大量减少的设计要求钢筋的用量，这些减少纵向钢筋可达到50％相对传统的，均匀分布的加固方案。 加固桩集中纵向钢筋最佳的位置在受拉区。除了节约钢筋，所述非对称加强钢筋图案提高抗弯刚度，通过增加转动惯量的转化部分的时刻。这种增加的刚性可能会在一段时间内增加的变形与蠕变相关的费用。评估相对于传统的非对称加强桩的优点，对称，钢筋桩被服务的条件下全面测试来完成的，这种试验是为了验证结构的可行性和取得的变形的原位测量。 基于现场试验中，用于优化的加强图案的优点浇铸钻出孔（CIDH）在巴塞罗那的
项目成本控制 一、引言 项目是企业形象的窗口和效益的源泉。随着市场竞争日趋激烈，工程质量、文明施工要求不断提高，材料价格波动起伏，以及其他种种不确定因素的影响，使得项目运作处于较为严峻的环境之中。由此可见项目的成本控制是贯穿在工程建设自招投标阶段直到竣工验收的全过程，它是企业全面成本管理的重要环节，必须在组织和控制措施上给于高度的重视，以期达到提高企业经济效益的目的。 二、概述 工程施工项目成本控制，指在项目成本在成本发生和形成过程中，对生产经营所消耗的人力资源、物资资源和费用开支，进行指导、监督、调节和限制，及时预防、发现和纠正偏差从而把各项费用控制在计划成本的预定目标之内，以达到保证企业生产经营效益的目的。 三、施工企业成本控制原则 施工企业的成本控制是以施工项目成本控制为中心，施工项目成本控制原则是企业成本管理的基础和核心，施工企业项目经理部在对项目施工过程进行成本控制时，必须遵循以下基本原则。 3.1 成本最低化原则。施工项目成本控制的根本目的，在于通过成本管理的各种手段，促进不断降低施工项目成本，以达到可能实现最低的目标成本的要求。在实行成本最低化原则时，应注意降低成本的可能性和合理的成本最低化。一方面挖掘各种降低成本的能力，使可能性变为现实；另一方面要从实际出发，制定通过主观努力可能达到合理的最低成本水平。 3.2 全面成本控制原则。全面成本管理是全企业、全员和全过程的管理，亦称“三全”管理。项目成本的全员控制有一个系统的实质性内容，包括各部门、各单位的责任网络和班组经济核算等等，应防止成本控制人人有责，人人不管。项目成本的全过程控制要求成本控制工作要随着项目施工进展的各个阶段连续 进行，既不能疏漏，又不能时紧时松，应使施工项目成本自始至终置于有效的控制之下。 3.3 动态控制原则。施工项目是一次性的，成本控制应强调项目的中间控制，即动态控制。因为施工准备阶段的成本控制只是根据施工组织设计的具体内容确
外文翻译 题目：电力电子技术二 A部分 晶闸管 在晶闸管的工作状态，电流从阳极流向阴极。在其关闭状态，晶闸管可以阻止正向 导电，使其不能运行。 可触发晶闸管能使导通状态的正向电流在短时间内使设备处于阻断状态。使正向电压下降到只有导通状态的几伏（通常为1至3伏电压依赖于阻断电压的速度）。 一旦设备开始进行，闸极电流将被隔离。晶闸管不可能被闸关闭，但是可以作为一个二极管。在电路的中，只有当电流处于消极状态，才能使晶闸管处于关闭状态，且电流降为零。在设备运行的时间内，允许闸在运行的控制状态直到器件在可控时间再次进入正向阻断状态。 在逆向偏置电压低于反向击穿电压时，晶闸管有微乎其微的漏电流。通常晶闸管的正向额定电压和反向阻断电压是相同的。晶闸管额定电流是在最大范围指定RMS和它是有能力进行平均电流。同样的对于二极管，晶闸管在分析变流器的结构中可以作为理想的设备。在一个阻性负载电路中的应用中，可以控制运行中的电流瞬间传至源电压的正半周期。当晶闸管尝试逆转源电压变为负值时，其理想化二极管电流立刻变成零。 然而，按照数据表中指定的晶闸管，其反向电流为零。在设备不运行的时间中，电流为零，重要的参数变也为零，这是转弯时间区间从零交叉电流电压的参
考。晶闸管必须保持在反向电压，只有在这个时间，设备才有能力阻止它不是处于正向电压导通状态。 如果一个正向电压应用于晶闸管的这段时间已过，设备可能因为过早地启动并有可能导致设备和电路损害。数据表指定晶闸管通过的反向电压在这段期间和超出这段时间外的一个指定的电压上升率。这段期间有时被称为晶闸管整流电路的周期。 根据使用要求，各种类型的晶闸管是可得到的。在除了电压和电流的额定率，转弯时间，和前方的电压降以及其他必须考虑的特性包括电流导通的上升率和在关闭状态的下降率。 1。控制晶闸管阶段。有时称为晶闸管转换器，这些都是用来要是整顿阶段，如为直流和交流电机驱动器和高压直流输电线路应用的电压和电流的驱动。主要设备要求是在大电压、电流导通状态或低通态压降中。这类型的晶闸管的生产晶圆直径到10厘米，其中平均电流目前大约是4000A，阻断电压为5之7KV。 2。逆变级的晶闸管。这些设计有小关断时间，除了低导通状态电压，虽然在设备导通状态电压值较小，可设定为2500V和1500A。他们的关断时间通常在几微秒范围到100μs之间，取决于其阻断电压的速率和通态压降。 3。光控晶闸管。这些会被一束脉冲光纤触发使其被引导到一个特殊的敏感的晶闸管地区。光化的晶闸管触发，是使用在适当波长的光的对硅产生多余的电子空穴。这些晶闸管的主要用途是应用在高电压，如高压直流系统，有许多晶闸管被应用在转换器阀门上。光控晶闸管已经发现的等级，有4kV的3kA，导通状态电压2V、光触发5毫瓦的功率要求。 还有其它一些晶闸管，如辅助型关断晶闸管（关贸总协定），这些晶闸管其他变化，不对称硅可控（ASCR）和反向进行，晶闸管（RCT）的。这些都是应用。 B部分 功率集成电路 功率集成电路的种类 现代半导体功率控制相当数量的电路驱动，除了电路功率器件本身。这些控制电路通常由微处理器控制，其中包括逻辑电路。这种在同一芯片上包含或作
Enterprise Human Resources Management System Design And Implementation Abstract: Human resource management system is the core content of modern enterprise management. With the rapid development of the computer information technology and unprecedented prevalence of electronic commerce mode，the competition between enterprises is turning from visible economic markets to the network. Developing the human resource management system supported by computer technology，network technology and information technology can not only improve the skill of human resource management and the efficiency of the enterprises but also make human resource management modern and decision sciencefic,Modern human resource management uses B/S mode to avoid C/S modes short coming of difficult in maintdning and reusing.According to the functional requirements of the actual project,this article specificly state the analysis of system,the general desigin of the system,the detail design of system and the practice of the system. The development of the system is the practice of MVC design ideas, maing using the Jsp+Servlet+JavaBean form of development.Jsp is the practice of MVC design ideas’view,in charge of receiving/responding the request of the customer.Servlet mainly responsible for the core business control of the whole system is the practice of the vontroller of MVC design idea to take charge of the statistics and rules of the whole system. In the practice of the system, somr open-source projrcts,such as the Ajax technique,JfreChart statements,fileupload technology,has been used. Using the modern human resource management theropy and analysising the actual situation, comparing the current situation of human resource management system, a huaman resource contents of management system basied on the Internet/Intranet has been designed. The main management,attendance management training more efficient statistics. Keywords:human resource management; B/S mode; Open-source projects; MVC mode. 摘要 人力资源管理系统是现代企业管理的核心内容。随着计算机信息技术的高速发展，电子商务模式的空前盛行，企业之间的竞争也从有形的经济市场转向了网络。开发以计算机技术、网络技术、信息技术支持的现代人力资源管理系统，既能提高企业人力资源管理的技术含量和企业的办事效率，也能使人力资源管理能够进入现代化、决策科学化的进程。现代人力资源管理系统采用了B/S模式，可以避免C/S模式的重用性差、维护难度高的缺点和
中英文资料对照外文翻译 Design phase of the project cost management Abstract Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. Described the current stage of the project cost management situation on the strengthening of the various stages of construction cost management of the importance of and raised a number of key initiatives. Keywords：cost of the construction project cost management status investment decision phase of the design phase of the implementation phase of the cost management in a market economy, Even under the WTO and China's accession to the world community, China's construction industry how to effectively control construction cost of the construction and management of an important component part. However, the current budget for the construction projects - estimate, budget, Super budget accounts for the "super three" is still widespread and that eventually led to a serious loss of control of project investment. Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. As the project cost to the project runs through the entire process, stage by stage can be divided into Investment Decision stage, the design and implementation phases. The so-called Project Cost effective control is the optimization of the construction plans and design programs on the basis of in the building process at all stages, use of certain methods and measures to reduce the cost of the projects have a reasonable control on the scope and cost of the approved limits.
（ 二 〇 一 二 年 六 月 外文文献及翻译 题 目： About Buiding on the Structure Design 学生姓名： 学 院：土木工程学院 系 别：建筑工程系 专 业：土木工程(建筑工程方向) 班 级：土木08-4班 指导教师：
英文原文： Building construction concrete crack of prevention and processing Abstract The crack problem of concrete is a widespread existence but again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this text carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiar crack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concrete the circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure. Keyword:Concrete crack prevention processing Foreword Concrete's ising 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mixture but formation of the in addition material of quality brittleness not and all material.Because the concrete construction transform with oneself, control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of quality.The tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Shen and a little bit other use function not a creation to endanger.But after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of expand with connect, end formation we can see without the
专业资料 学院： 专业：土木工程 姓名： 学号： 外文出处：Structural Systems to resist (用外文写) Lateral loads 附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 抗侧向荷载的结构体系 常用的结构体系 若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。确实，较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点。 这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地。实际上，正是因为有了这种宏观的构思，新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展，可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了。 如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈，高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类： 1.抗弯矩框架。 2.支撑框架，包括偏心支撑框架。 3.剪力墙，包括钢板剪力墙。 4.筒中框架。 5.筒中筒结构。 6.核心交互结构。 7. 框格体系或束筒体系。 特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式，同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力，大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系。而且，就较高的建筑物而言，大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列。 将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质。其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展，以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构。这并
不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。 虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中。 抗弯矩框架 抗弯矩框架也许是低，中高度的建筑中常用的体系，它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点。这种框架用作独立的体系，或者和其他体系结合起来使用，以便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力。对于较高的高层建筑，可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系，这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度。 我们可以利用STRESS，STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析。所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地，由于柱梁节点固有柔性，并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点，所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的。当然，在设计的后期阶段，实际地评价结点的变形很有必要。 支撑框架 支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强，在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用。这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色，它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑，并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中。