Study on Project Cost Control of Construction Enterprises
By: R. Max Wideman
Abstract With the increasing maturity of construction market, the competition between construction enterprises is becoming fierce. The project profit is gradually decreasing. It demands that all construction enterprises enhance their cost control, lower costs, improve management efficiency and gain maximal profits. This paper analyses the existing problems on project cost control of Chinese construction enterprises, and proposes some suggestions to improve project cost control system.
Key Words ：Construction enterprises, Project management, Cost control
After joining the WTO, with Chinese construction market becoming integrated, the competition among architectural enterprises is turning more intense. Construction enterprises must continually enhance the overall competitiveness if they want to develop further at home and abroad construction market. Construction Enterprises basically adopt the "project management-centered" model, therefore, it is particularly important to strengthen project cost control.
1.The Current Domestic Project Cost Classification and Control Methods
Cost refers to the consumption from producing and selling of certain products, with the performance of various monetary standing for materialized labor and labor-consuming. Direct and indirect costs constitute the total cost, also known as production cost or manufacturing cost. Enterprise product cost is the comprehensive indicator to measure enterprise quality of all aspects. It is not only the fund compensation scale, but also the basis to examine the implementation of cost plan. Besides, it can provide reference for product pricing According to the above-mentioned definition and current domestic cost classification, construction project cost can be divided into direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include material cost, personnel cost, construction machinery cost, material transportation cost, temporarily facility cost, engineering cost and other direct cost. Indirect costs mainly result from project management and company's cost-sharing, covering project operating costs (covering the commission of foreign projects), project's management costs (including exchange losses of
foreign projects)and company's cost-sharing.
At present the main method for domestic construction enterprises to control project cost is to analyze cost, naming economic accounting, which is the major components of cost management and the analysis of economic activities. In accordance with its scope of target and deep-level of content, GM project cost analysis method can be divided into two categories, namely, comprehensive analysis of project cost and cost analysis of unit project Comprehensive analysis of project cost. It is carried in terms of budget and final accounts, cost reduction programs and construction installation costs. The methods used are as follows: (1) comparing the estimated cost and actual cost. Check the result to reduce cost, lower cost index and budget status. (2) comparing actual cost and project cost. Check cost reduction programs as well as the windage between the actual cost and plan cost. Inspect the rationality and implementation of techniques organizational measures and management plans.(3) comparing lower cost of the same period last year. Aanalyze causes and propose the improving direction. (4) Comparison between engineering units in cost-cutting. Identify the units cost-reducing, which finishes projects, with a view to further cost analysis.
Cost analysis of unit project. Comprehensive analysis only understand project cost overruns or lower. If we want to get more detailed information, each cost item analysis of unit project is needed. Analysis mainly from the following aspects:
(1) Materials cost analysis. From the view of material stock, production, transportation, inventory and management, we can analyze the discrepancy impact of material price and quantity, the cost-reducing effectiveness resulting from various technical measures, the loss from poor management.
(2) Labor cost analysis . From the number of employment, hours of use, ergonomics, as well as wage situation, we can identify the savings and waste during labor use and fixed management.
(3) Construction machinery cost analysis. From the construction options, mechanization degree, mechanical efficiency, fuel consumption, mechanical maintenance, good rates and utilization, we can analyze the yield and cost discrepancy of fixed-class ergonomics, the cost of poor classes, focused on improving mechanical utilization efficiency and waste caused by poor management.
(4) Management cost analysis. From construction task and organizational staffing changes, non-production personnel changes, as well as other expenditure savings and waste, we can analyze management fees and justify the rationality of expenditure.
(5) Technology organization measures implementing analysis. It can increase experience for future establishment and implementation of technical organization projects.
(6) Other direct costs analysis. Focus on the analysis of second removal and water, electricity, wind, gas and other expenses situation during construction.
2. The shortcomings of cost-control methods
At present, domestic construction projects cost-control methods have played a significant role for Chinese construction industry and construction enterprises to reduce cost and gain sustainable development. However, we should be aware that these methods exist some shortcomings as follows:
2.1 Lack of systemization.
Presently, the cost control of construction enterprises is a simple control on cost. In fact, project cost control is closely related with project plans and progress, quality and safety. Therefore, cost control should include above-mentioned elements.
2.2 Lack of real time
Modern project management is increasingly tending real-time management and forward-looking management, paying more attention to "promptly identify and solve problems", emphasizing as much as possible to identify and solve problems before problems occur. The current control system is to control after problems occur, which can't avoid loss.
In addition, current cost-control method is static. It can't monitor and reflect timely costs change, therefore, this method can't provide the support of decision-making for projects management under construction.
2.3 Lack of error-checking and error-correcting mechanism
The current cost-control method is the single-class without error-checking and error-correcting mechanism. If mistakes occur in the future, we can't discover timely, or even impossible found. 2.4 Lack of compatibility
There is lack of compatibility between project cost-control and project finance and corporate management system. The project budget is built on ration, but project financial item
subjects are based on current financial general regulation. This is not consistent between methods. Specific to the software, financial sector of domestic construction enterprises is generally adopting some general financial software, such as UF, IBM. The software is not specifically for the development of construction enterprise, not reflecting the special nature of construction enterprises. However, the budget software is also not considered financial aspect. The lack of compatibility leads to void labor and low management efficiency. At the same time, it increases the probability of error information and error decision
2.5 Limitation on notions and quality of personnel
These days, most of construction enterprises are faced with the shortage of qualified personnel during improving cost-control system. It is difficult to find a suitable person with budget and financial knowledge and practical experience in project management.
3. Suggestions for improving domestic cost-control methods
From the view of enterprises and projects, project cost control is a system engineering. It needs standardization and systematization, closely related to many factors. If current domestic construction enterprises want to establish a practical and efficient cost control systems, the cost-control methods must be improved as follows:
3.1 Establish systemic cost-control system
According to the specific situation of enterprises, company's cost-control guiding documents should be developed. Based on current fixed budget, enterprises develop work breakdown structure of specific conditions. And on these base, along with progress, quality and safety factors, cost control system will be established ultimately, including the establishment of project cost real-time control (the first class by full-time staff in the execution of project cost control, reporting cycle for one week or fortnight), project cost integrated control (the second class, by financial officers in the execution of projects, reporting cycle for fortnight or a month) and corporate cost control (the third class, by company's financial sector, reporting cycle for a month or a quarter). Such three class cost control system resolve the problems of real-time and error-correcting mechanism.
3.2 Develop specific control processes
According to enterprises' specific circumstances, we should formulate specific control processes, identify levels for controlling reporting periods, and arrange specific persons to
monitor. Throughout reporting period, two kinds of data or information need to be collected: (1) the actual execution of data, including the actual time for beginning or end, and the actual cost.
(2) the project scope, progress plan and budget change information. These changes may result from the clients or project teams, or from some unforeseen things such as natural disasters, labor strikes or key project team members to resign. These changes should be included in project plan and obtained the consent of customers, then new baseline plan need to establish. The scope, progress and budget of new plan may be different from initial plan.
Above-discussed data or information must be timely collected, so that it can become the base to update project progress and budget. For example, if the project reporting period is a month, data and information should be collected at the end of month as far as possible, which can guarantee progress in the updated plan and budget.
3.3 Improve project financial subject
Based on work breakdown structure, enpterpries should improve project financial subjects so that projects match with real-time cost control, company's financial and cost control systems, which can solve the compatibility between cost control and finance. At the same time, financial system and cost control system using the same data format, similar forms and data-sharing can improve effectively. In the short term, construction enterprise can transform the existing software and statements to achieve cost savings and reduce the impact of system transformation. In the long-term, enterprises can adopt suitable management software and build company's integrated management system.
3.4 Balance precision control and cost control
When improving project control system, we should pay attention to balance precision control and cost control. Cost control is through the whole process of project. Under normal circumstances, enterprises can take a fixed period report. If new problems will be detected, then enterprises should increase the reporting frequency until problems are resolved.
3.5 Train current staff
Enterprises should gradually train the existing staff for the future reserves. In any system, human element is always the first one. No matter how perfect and advanced a management system is, and it ultimately relies on people.
3.6 Identify core contents
The core contents for cost control are team spirit, technology and work process consistency, standard management methods, foreseeing difficulties and contradictions, fostering a challenging work environment and continuing improvement.
研究建筑施工企业的项目成本控制
马克斯.怀德曼
摘要：随着建筑市场的日趋成熟,建筑施工企业之间的竞争变得激烈。项目利润逐渐减少。它要求所有施工企业加强成本控制,降低成本,提高管理效率和获得最大的利润。本文分析了在中国的施工企业项目成本控制存在的问题,并提出了一些建议来提高工程项目成本控制系统。
关键词：建筑施工企业、项目管理、成本控制
加入世贸组织后,中国建筑市场越来越一体化,建筑企业之间的竞争将更加激烈。建筑施工企业必须不断提高整体竞争力,如果他们想进一步发展在国内外建筑市场。建筑施工企业主要采取“项目管理为中心”的模式,因此,尤其重要的是要加强项目成本控制。
1、目前国内项目成本分类和控制方法
成本是指生产和销售消费的某些产品,性能的各种货币转为物化劳动和劳动消耗。直接和间接成本构成的总成本,也称为生产成本或制造成本。企业产品成本是综合指标来衡量企业质量的所有方面。它不仅是基金补偿范围,但也依据检查实施成本计划。此外,它可以为产品定价提供参考。
根据上述定义和当前国内成本分类、施工项目成本可以分为直接成本和间接成本。直接成本包括材料成本、人员成本、施工机械成本,材料运输费用,临时设施费用,工程费用和其他直接成本。间接成本是导致项目管理和公司的费用分担,涵盖项目运营成本(包括欧盟委员会的外国项目),项目的管理成本(包括外汇损失的外国项目)和公司的费用分摊。
目前主要的方法对国内建筑施工企业项目成本控制分析成本、命名经济核算,这是主
要的组件的成本管理和经济活动分析。根据目标的范围和深层次的内容,通用项目成本分析方法可以分为两类,即综合分析项目成本和项目成本分析的单位。
综合分析项目成本。它是在条款进行的预算、决算、成本降低计划和施工安装成本。使用方法如下:(1)比较估计成本和实际成本。检查结果为降低成本而降低成本指数和预算状况。(2)比较实际成本和项目成本。检查成本降低项目以及偏差之间的实际成本和计划成本。检查的合理性和实现的技术组织措施和管理计划。(3)比较低的成本比去年同期。分析原因和提出了改进方向。(4)对比工程单位在削减成本。确定单位成本,完成项目,为了进一步的成本分析。
单位工程成本分析。综合分析只有理解项目成本超支或更低。如果我们想要得到更详细的信息,每个成本项目分析,项目单位需要。分析主要从以下几个方面:
(1)材料成本分析。从视图的材料库存、生产、运输、库存和管理,我们可以分析差异影响材料价格和数量、成本有效性产生的各种技术措施,管理不善所造成的损失。
(2)劳动成本分析。从就业的数量、使用时间、人类工程学,以及工资的情况,我们可以识别储蓄和浪费在分娩过程中使用和固定的管理。
(3)施工机械成本分析。从建设选项、机械化程度、机械效率、燃料消耗、机械维修、良好率和利用率,我们可以分析产量、成本差异的人体工程学,成本固定的班级贫困类,集中在改善机械利用率和废物管理不善造成的。
(4)管理成本分析。从施工任务和组织人员的变动,非生产人员的变化,以及其他支出储蓄和浪费,我们可以分析管理费用支出的合理性和证明。
(5)技术组织措施实施分析。它可以增加经验,为未来建立和实施技术组织项目。
(6)其他直接成本分析。着重分析第二移除和水、电、风、气等费用情况在施工期间。
2、成本控制方法的不足
目前,国内建筑工程成本控制方法已经扮演了重要的角色,中国建筑行业和建筑施工
企业降低成本和获得可持续发展。然而,我们应该意识到这些方法存在一些缺点如下:
2.1缺乏系统化。
目前,施工企业的成本控制是一个简单的控制成本。事实上,项目成本控制密切相关的是项目计划和进度、质量和安全。因此,成本控制应包括上述元素。
2.2缺乏真正的时间
现代项目管理是越来越倾向和前瞻性管理实时管理,注重“及时识别和解决问题”,
强调尽可能地识别和解决问题问题出现之前。当前的控制系统是控制问题出现后,它不能
避免损失。
此外,目前的成本控制方法是静态的。它不能反映成本变化监测和及时,因此,这种方法不能提供支持的决策制定项目管理在建设。
2.3缺乏错误检测和纠错机制
当前的成本控制方法是股份没有错误检查和纠错机制。如果错误发生在未来,我们不能发现及时,甚至不可能发现。
2.4缺乏兼容性
缺乏项目成本控制之间的兼容性和项目融资和企业管理系统。这个项目的预算是建立在定量,但项目金融项目主题是基于当前的金融总规则。这不是一致的方法。特定的软件,金融部门的国内建筑施工企业通常采用一些通用财务软件,如超滤、IBM。这个软件不是专门为开发建设企业,而不是反映施工企业的特殊性。然而,预算软件也不被认为是金融方面。缺乏兼容性导致无效劳动和低管理效率。同时,它增加了概率的错误信息和错误的决定
2.5限制概念和质量的人员
这些日子,大多数施工企业在改善成本控制系统中面临着人才短缺,找到一个合适的具有预算和财务知识和实际的项目管理经验的人是非常困难的。
3、为提高国内成本控制方法的建议
从视图的企业和项目,项目成本控制是一个系统工程。它需要标准化和系统化,密切相关的多种因素。如果当前国内施工企业想要建立一个实际高效的项目成本控制系统，成本系统被改善，其方法如下：
3.1建立系统性成本控制系统
根据企业的具体情况,公司的成本控制指导文件应该发达。基于当前的固定预算、企业开发工作分解结构的具体条件。和在这些基地,以及进度、质量和安全因素,成本控制系统将最终建立,包括建立项目成本实时控制(第一课的全职员工在执行项目成本控制、报告周期为一周或两周),项目成本综合控制(第二个类,由财务人员在执行项目,报告周期为两周或一个月)和企业成本控制(第三类,通过公司的金融部门,报告周期一个月或者一个季度)。这样的三个类成本控制系统解决问题的实时和纠错机制。
3.2开发特定的控制过程
根据企业的具体情况,我们应该制定具体的控制流程,识别控制水平,并安排具体报告期间,人员监控。
在报告期内,两种数据或信息需要收集:(1)实际执行数据,包括实际的时间开始或者
结束,和实际的成本。(2)项目范围、进度计划和预算变化信息。这些变化可能来自客户或项目团队,或者从一些不可预见的事情如自然灾害、罢工或关键项目团队成员辞职。这些变化应包括在项目计划,并获得客户的同意,那么新的基线计划需要建立。范围、进度和预算的新计划可能不同于最初的计划。
每个数据或信息必须及时收集的,因此,它可以成为基本更新项目进度和预算。例如,如果一个工程的报告期是一个月，那么数据和信息在月底应该尽快的被确定，因为它能确保工程日期和预算内。
3.3提高项目的金融主体
工作分解结构的基础上,企业应该改善项目财务科目,以便匹配项目的实际成本控制。公司的财务和成本控制系统,可以解决成本控制和财务之间的兼容性。同时,金融系统和成本控制系统使用相同的数据格式,类似的形式和数据共享可以非常有效的改善。在短期内,施工企业可以改变现有的软件和语句来实现节约成本和减少系统转换的影响。从长远来看,企业以适用合适的管理软件和建立一个完整的公司综合管理系统。
3.4平衡精度控制和成本控制
当提高项目控制系统,我们应该注意平衡精度控制和成本控制。成本控制是通过项目的整个过程。在正常情况下,企业可以采取定期报告。如果新问题将被检测到,那么企业应该增加报告频率直到问题得到解决。
3.5培训现有的员工
企业应该逐渐培养现有员工为未来做准备。在任何系统中,人的因素总是排在第一位的。无论是多么完美的和先进的一个管理系统,它最终依赖于人。
3.6识别核心内容
成本控制的核心内容是团队精神、技术和工作流程一致性,标准管理方法,预见困难和矛盾,培育一个具有挑战性的工作环境和持续改进。
外文出处： 《Exploiting Software How to Break Code》By Greg Hoglund, Gary McGraw Publisher : Addison Wesley Pub Date : February 17, 2004 ISBN : 0-201-78695-8 译文标题： JDBC接口技术 译文： JDBC是一种可用于执行SQL语句的JavaAPI（ApplicationProgrammingInterface应用程序设计接口）。它由一些Java语言编写的类和界面组成。JDBC为数据库应用开发人员、数据库前台工具开发人员提供了一种标准的应用程序设计接口，使开发人员可以用纯Java语言编写完整的数据库应用程序。 一、ODBC到JDBC的发展历程 说到JDBC，很容易让人联想到另一个十分熟悉的字眼“ODBC”。它们之间有没有联系呢？如果有，那么它们之间又是怎样的关系呢？ ODBC是OpenDatabaseConnectivity的英文简写。它是一种用来在相关或不相关的数据库管理系统（DBMS）中存取数据的，用C语言实现的，标准应用程序数据接口。通过ODBCAPI，应用程序可以存取保存在多种不同数据库管理系统（DBMS）中的数据，而不论每个DBMS使用了何种数据存储格式和编程接口。 1．ODBC的结构模型 ODBC的结构包括四个主要部分：应用程序接口、驱动器管理器、数据库驱动器和数据源。应用程序接口：屏蔽不同的ODBC数据库驱动器之间函数调用的差别，为用户提供统一的SQL编程接口。 驱动器管理器：为应用程序装载数据库驱动器。 数据库驱动器：实现ODBC的函数调用，提供对特定数据源的SQL请求。如果需要，数据库驱动器将修改应用程序的请求，使得请求符合相关的DBMS所支持的文法。 数据源：由用户想要存取的数据以及与它相关的操作系统、DBMS和用于访问DBMS的网络平台组成。 虽然ODBC驱动器管理器的主要目的是加载数据库驱动器，以便ODBC函数调用，但是数据库驱动器本身也执行ODBC函数调用，并与数据库相互配合。因此当应用系统发出调用与数据源进行连接时，数据库驱动器能管理通信协议。当建立起与数据源的连接时，数据库驱动器便能处理应用系统向DBMS发出的请求，对分析或发自数据源的设计进行必要的翻译，并将结果返回给应用系统。 2．JDBC的诞生 自从Java语言于1995年5月正式公布以来，Java风靡全球。出现大量的用java语言编写的程序，其中也包括数据库应用程序。由于没有一个Java语言的API，编程人员不得不在Java程序中加入C语言的ODBC函数调用。这就使很多Java的优秀特性无法充分发挥，比如平台无关性、面向对象特性等。随着越来越多的编程人员对Java语言的日益喜爱，越来越多的公司在Java程序开发上投入的精力日益增加，对java语言接口的访问数据库的API 的要求越来越强烈。也由于ODBC的有其不足之处，比如它并不容易使用，没有面向对象的特性等等，SUN公司决定开发一Java语言为接口的数据库应用程序开发接口。在JDK1．x 版本中，JDBC只是一个可选部件，到了JDK1．1公布时，SQL类包（也就是JDBCAPI）
PA VEMENT PROBLEMS CAUSED BY COLLAPSIBLE SUBGRADES By Sandra L. Houston,1 Associate Member, ASCE (Reviewed by the Highway Division) ABSTRACT: Problem subgrade materials consisting of collapsible soils are com- mon in arid environments, which have climatic conditions and depositional and weathering processes favorable to their formation. Included herein is a discussion of predictive techniques that use commonly available laboratory equipment and testing methods for obtaining reliable estimates of the volume change for these problem soils. A method for predicting relevant stresses and corresponding collapse strains for typical pavement subgrades is presented. Relatively simple methods of evaluating potential volume change, based on results of familiar laboratory tests, are used. INTRODUCTION When a soil is given free access to water, it may decrease in volume, increase in volume, or do nothing. A soil that increases in volume is called a swelling or expansive soil, and a soil that decreases in volume is called a collapsible soil. The amount of volume change that occurs depends on the soil type and structure, the initial soil density, the imposed stress state, and the degree and extent of wetting. Subgrade materials comprised of soils that change volume upon wetting have caused distress to highways since the be- ginning of the professional practice and have cost many millions of dollars in roadway repairs. The prediction of the volume changes that may occur in the field is the first step in making an economic decision for dealing with these problem subgrade materials. Each project will have different design considerations, economic con- straints, and risk factors that will have to be taken into account. However, with a reliable method for making volume change predictions, the best design relative to the subgrade soils becomes a matter of economic comparison, and a much more rational design approach may be made. For example, typical techniques for dealing with expansive clays include: (1) In situ treatments with substances such as lime, cement, or fly-ash; (2) seepage barriers and/ or drainage systems; or (3) a computing of the serviceability loss and a mod- ification of the design to "accept" the anticipated expansion. In order to make the most economical decision, the amount of volume change (especially non- uniform volume change) must be accurately estimated, and the degree of road roughness evaluated from these data. Similarly, alternative design techniques are available for any roadway problem. The emphasis here will be placed on presenting economical and simple methods for: (1) Determining whether the subgrade materials are collapsible; and (2) estimating the amount of volume change that is likely to occur in the 'Asst. Prof., Ctr. for Advanced Res. in Transp., Arizona State Univ., Tempe, AZ 85287. Note. Discussion open until April 1, 1989. To extend the closing date one month,
毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译 文献、资料中文题目：软件开发概念和设计方法文献、资料英文题目： 文献、资料来源： 文献、资料发表（出版）日期： 院（部）： 专业： 班级： 姓名： 学号： 指导教师： 翻译日期： 2017.02.14
外文资料原文 Software Development Concepts and Design Methodologies During the 1960s, ma inframes and higher level programming languages were applied to man y problems including human resource s yste ms,reservation s yste ms, and manufacturing s yste ms. Computers and software were seen as the cure all for man y bu siness issues were some times applied blindly. S yste ms sometimes failed to solve the problem for which the y were designed for man y reasons including: ?Inability to sufficiently understand complex problems ?Not sufficiently taking into account end-u ser needs, the organizational environ ment, and performance tradeoffs ?Inability to accurately estimate development time and operational costs ?Lack of framework for consistent and regular customer communications At this time, the concept of structured programming, top-down design, stepwise refinement，and modularity e merged. Structured programming is still the most dominant approach to software engineering and is still evo lving. These failures led to the concept of "software engineering" based upon the idea that an engineering-like discipl ine could be applied to software design and develop ment. Software design is a process where the software designer applies techniques and principles to produce a conceptual model that de scribes and defines a solution to a problem. In the beginning, this des ign process has not been well structured and the model does not alwa ys accurately represent the problem of software development. However,design methodologies have been evolving to accommo date changes in technolog y coupled with our increased understanding of development processes. Whereas early desig n methods addressed specific aspects of the
Study on Project Cost Control of Construction Enterprises By: R. Max Wideman Abstract With the increasing maturity of construction market, the competition between construction enterprises is becoming fierce. The project profit is gradually decreasing. It demands that all construction enterprises enhance their cost control, lower costs, improve management efficiency and gain maximal profits. This paper analyses the existing problems on project cost control of Chinese construction enterprises, and proposes some suggestions to improve project cost control system. Key Words ：Construction enterprises, Project management, Cost control After joining the WTO, with Chinese construction market becoming integrated, the competition among architectural enterprises is turning more intense. Construction enterprises must continually enhance the overall competitiveness if they want to develop further at home and abroad construction market. Construction Enterprises basically adopt the "project management-centered" model, therefore, it is particularly important to strengthen project cost control. 1.The Current Domestic Project Cost Classification and Control Methods Cost refers to the consumption from producing and selling of certain products, with the performance of various monetary standing for materialized labor and labor-consuming. Direct and indirect costs constitute the total cost, also known as production cost or manufacturing cost. Enterprise product cost is the comprehensive indicator to measure enterprise quality of all aspects. It is not only the fund compensation scale, but also the basis to examine the implementation of cost plan. Besides, it can provide reference for product pricing According to the above-mentioned definition and current domestic cost classification, construction project cost can be divided into direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include material cost, personnel cost, construction machinery cost, material transportation cost, temporarily facility cost, engineering cost and other direct cost. Indirect costs mainly result from project management and company's cost-sharing, covering project operating costs (covering the commission of foreign projects), project's management costs (including exchange losses of
姓名： 学号： 10447425 X X 大学 毕业设计（论文）外文翻译 （2014届） 外文题目Developments in excavation bracing systems 译文题目开挖工程支撑体系的发展 外文出处Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 31 (2012) 107–116 学生XXX 学院XXXX 专业班级XXXXX 校内指导教师XXX 专业技术职务XXXXX 校外指导老师专业技术职务 二○一三年十二月
开挖工程支撑体系的发展 1.引言 几乎所有土木工程建设项目（如建筑物，道路，隧道，桥梁，污水处理厂，管道，下水道）都涉及泥土挖掘的一些工程量。往往由于由相邻的结构，特性线，或使用权空间的限制，必须要一个土地固定系统，以允许土壤被挖掘到所需的深度。历史上，许多挖掘支撑系统已经开发出来。其中，现在比较常见的几种方法是：板桩，钻孔桩墙，泥浆墙。 土地固定系统的选择是由技术性能要求和施工可行性（例如手段，方法）决定的，包括执行的可靠性，而成本考虑了这些之后，其他问题也得到解决。通常环境后果（用于处理废泥浆和钻井液如监管要求）也非常被关注（邱阳、1998）。 土地固定系统通常是建设项目的较大的一个组成部分。如果不能按时完成项目，将极大地影响总成本。通常首先建造支撑，在许多情况下，临时支撑系统是用于支持在挖掘以允许进行不断施工，直到永久系统被构造。临时系统可以被去除或留在原处。 打桩时，因撞击或振动它们可能会被赶入到位。在一般情况下，振动是最昂贵的方法，但只适合于松散颗粒材料，土壤中具有较高电阻（例如，通过鹅卵石）的不能使用。采用打入桩系统通常是中间的成本和适合于软沉积物（包括粘性和非粘性），只要该矿床是免费的鹅卵石或更大的岩石。 通常，垂直元素（例如桩）的前安装挖掘工程和水平元件（如内部支撑或绑回）被安装为挖掘工程的进行下去，从而限制了跨距长度，以便减少在垂直开发弯矩元素。在填充情况下，桩可先设置，从在斜坡的底部其嵌入悬挑起来，安装作为填充进步水平元素（如搭背或土钉）。如果滞后是用来保持垂直元素之间的土壤中，它被安装为挖掘工程的进行下去，或之前以填补位置。 吉尔- 马丁等人（2010）提供了一个数值计算程序，以获取圆形桩承受轴向载荷和统一标志（如悬臂桩）的单轴弯矩的最佳纵筋。他们开发的两种优化流程：用一个或两个直径为纵向钢筋。优化增强模式允许大量减少的设计要求钢筋的用量，这些减少纵向钢筋可达到50％相对传统的，均匀分布的加固方案。 加固桩集中纵向钢筋最佳的位置在受拉区。除了节约钢筋，所述非对称加强钢筋图案提高抗弯刚度，通过增加转动惯量的转化部分的时刻。这种增加的刚性可能会在一段时间内增加的变形与蠕变相关的费用。评估相对于传统的非对称加强桩的优点，对称，钢筋桩被服务的条件下全面测试来完成的，这种试验是为了验证结构的可行性和取得的变形的原位测量。 基于现场试验中，用于优化的加强图案的优点浇铸钻出孔（CIDH）在巴塞罗那的
外文翻译 专业机械设计制造及其自动化学生姓名刘链柱 班级机制111 学号1110101102 指导教师葛友华
外文资料名称： Design and performance evaluation of vacuum cleaners using cyclone technology 外文资料出处：Korean J. Chem. Eng., 23(6), (用外文写) 925-930 (2006) 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文 2.外文原文
应用旋风技术真空吸尘器的设计和性能介绍 吉尔泰金，洪城铱昌，宰瑾李， 刘链柱译 摘要：旋风型分离器技术用于真空吸尘器 - 轴向进流旋风和切向进气道流旋风有效地收集粉尘和降低压力降已被实验研究。优化设计等因素作为集尘效率，压降，并切成尺寸被粒度对应于分级收集的50％的效率进行了研究。颗粒切成大小降低入口面积，体直径，减小涡取景器直径的旋风。切向入口的双流量气旋具有良好的性能考虑的350毫米汞柱的低压降和为1.5μm的质量中位直径在1米3的流量的截止尺寸。一使用切向入口的双流量旋风吸尘器示出了势是一种有效的方法，用于收集在家庭中产生的粉尘。 摘要及关键词：吸尘器; 粉尘; 旋风分离器 引言 我们这个时代的很大一部分都花在了房子，工作场所，或其他建筑，因此，室内空间应该是既舒适情绪和卫生。但室内空气中含有超过室外空气因气密性的二次污染物，毒物，食品气味。这是通过使用产生在建筑中的新材料和设备。真空吸尘器为代表的家电去除有害物质从地板到地毯所用的商用真空吸尘器房子由纸过滤，预过滤器和排气过滤器通过洁净的空气排放到大气中。虽然真空吸尘器是方便在使用中，吸入压力下降说唱空转成比例地清洗的时间，以及纸过滤器也应定期更换，由于压力下降，气味和细菌通过纸过滤器内的残留粉尘。 图1示出了大气气溶胶的粒度分布通常是双峰形，在粗颗粒（>2.0微米）模式为主要的外部来源，如风吹尘，海盐喷雾，火山，从工厂直接排放和车辆废气排放，以及那些在细颗粒模式包括燃烧或光化学反应。表1显示模式，典型的大气航空的直径和质量浓度溶胶被许多研究者测量。精细模式在0.18?0.36 在5.7到25微米尺寸范围微米尺寸范围。质量浓度为2?205微克，可直接在大气气溶胶和 3.85至36.3μg/m3柴油气溶胶。
中英文对照外文翻译文献 中英文对照外文翻译 The Internet is Applicated in Real Estate The Real Estate Industry and the World Wide Web: Changing Technology, Changing Location.The Internet, in its Web based graphics version, has captured the imagination of both consumers and businesses. Its convenience, speed, low cost and versatility are being exploited on a daily basis in ever-changing ways. Together with its capacity to transform existing businesses, promote new businesses and facilitate exchange of information and data, its other striking attribute has been the speed with which this new technology has spread throughout the global economy. Keywords:The internet;Real Estate;Applicated The number of computer hosts grew by more than ten-fold between 1995 and early 1999. The number of Web sites increased almost 100-fold, to over two million, between 1995 and 1998.Ｂy the year 2000, there will be approximately 400-500 million Internet users in the world, and the total number of Web sites will exceed five million. This new technology has the potential for affecting the real estate industry directly and indirectly. Directly, it may become a tool that allows a real estate business to expand its information and sales network. Indirectly, it may change the location equation where and how firms do business which in turn will affect the role of firms involved in real estate development, investment and transactions. Measuring the Spread of the Web
I / 11 本科毕业设计外文翻译 <2018届） 论文题目基于WEB 的J2EE 的信息系统的方法研究 作者姓名[单击此处输入姓名] 指导教师[单击此处输入姓名] 学科(专业 > 所在学院计算机科学与技术学院 提交日期[时间 ]
基于WEB的J2EE的信息系统的方法研究 摘要：本文介绍基于工程的Java开发框架背后的概念，并介绍它如何用于IT 工程开发。因为有许多相同设计和开发工作在不同的方式下重复，而且并不总是符合最佳实践，所以许多开发框架建立了。我们已经定义了共同关注的问题和应用模式，代表有效解决办法的工具。开发框架提供：<1）从用户界面到数据集成的应用程序开发堆栈；<2）一个架构，基本环境及他们的相关技术，这些技术用来使用其他一些框架。架构定义了一个开发方法，其目的是协助客户开发工程。 关键词：J2EE 框架WEB开发 一、引言 软件工具包用来进行复杂的空间动态系统的非线性分析越来越多地使用基于Web的网络平台，以实现他们的用户界面，科学分析，分布仿真结果和科学家之间的信息交流。对于许多应用系统基于Web访问的非线性分析模拟软件成为一个重要组成部分。网络硬件和软件方面的密集技术变革[1]提供了比过去更多的自由选择机会[2]。因此，WEB平台的合理选择和发展对整个地区的非线性分析及其众多的应用程序具有越来越重要的意义。现阶段的WEB发展的特点是出现了大量的开源框架。框架将Web开发提到一个更高的水平，使基本功能的重复使用成为可能和从而提高了开发的生产力。 在某些情况下，开源框架没有提供常见问题的一个解决方案。出于这个原因，开发在开源框架的基础上建立自己的工程发展框架。本文旨在描述是一个基于Java的框架，该框架利用了开源框架并有助于开发基于Web的应用。通过分析现有的开源框架，本文提出了新的架构，基本环境及他们用来提高和利用其他一些框架的相关技术。架构定义了自己开发方法，其目的是协助客户开发和事例工程。 应用程序设计应该关注在工程中的重复利用。即使有独特的功能要求，也
中英文资料对照外文翻译 Design phase of the project cost management Abstract Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. Described the current stage of the project cost management situation on the strengthening of the various stages of construction cost management of the importance of and raised a number of key initiatives. Keywords：cost of the construction project cost management status investment decision phase of the design phase of the implementation phase of the cost management in a market economy, Even under the WTO and China's accession to the world community, China's construction industry how to effectively control construction cost of the construction and management of an important component part. However, the current budget for the construction projects - estimate, budget, Super budget accounts for the "super three" is still widespread and that eventually led to a serious loss of control of project investment. Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. As the project cost to the project runs through the entire process, stage by stage can be divided into Investment Decision stage, the design and implementation phases. The so-called Project Cost effective control is the optimization of the construction plans and design programs on the basis of in the building process at all stages, use of certain methods and measures to reduce the cost of the projects have a reasonable control on the scope and cost of the approved limits.
（ 二 〇 一 二 年 六 月 外文文献及翻译 题 目： About Buiding on the Structure Design 学生姓名： 学 院：土木工程学院 系 别：建筑工程系 专 业：土木工程(建筑工程方向) 班 级：土木08-4班 指导教师：
英文原文： Building construction concrete crack of prevention and processing Abstract The crack problem of concrete is a widespread existence but again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this text carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiar crack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concrete the circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure. Keyword:Concrete crack prevention processing Foreword Concrete's ising 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mixture but formation of the in addition material of quality brittleness not and all material.Because the concrete construction transform with oneself, control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of quality.The tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Shen and a little bit other use function not a creation to endanger.But after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of expand with connect, end formation we can see without the
毕业设计（论文） 外文翻译 题目西安市水源工程中的 水电站设计 专业水利水电工程 班级 学生 指导教师 2016年
研究钢弧形闸门的动态稳定性 牛志国 河海大学水利水电工程学院，中国南京，邮编210098 nzg_197901@https://www.doczj.com/doc/0711697071.html,，niuzhiguo@https://www.doczj.com/doc/0711697071.html, 李同春 河海大学水利水电工程学院，中国南京，邮编210098 ltchhu@https://www.doczj.com/doc/0711697071.html, 摘要 由于钢弧形闸门的结构特征和弹力，调查对参数共振的弧形闸门的臂一直是研究领域的热点话题弧形弧形闸门的动力稳定性。在这个论文中，简化空间框架作为分析模型，根据弹性体薄壁结构的扰动方程和梁单元模型和薄壁结构的梁单元模型，动态不稳定区域的弧形闸门可以通过有限元的方法，应用有限元的方法计算动态不稳定性的主要区域的弧形弧形闸门工作。此外，结合物理和数值模型，对识别新方法的参数共振钢弧形闸门提出了调查，本文不仅是重要的改进弧形闸门的参数振动的计算方法，但也为进一步研究弧形弧形闸门结构的动态稳定性打下了坚实的基础。 简介 低举升力，没有门槽，好流型，和操作方便等优点，使钢弧形闸门已经广泛应用于水工建筑物。弧形闸门的结构特点是液压完全作用于弧形闸门，通过门叶和主大梁，所以弧形闸门臂是主要的组件确保弧形闸门安全操作。如果周期性轴向载荷作用于手臂，手臂的不稳定是在一定条件下可能发生。调查指出:在弧形闸门的20次事故中，除了极特殊的破坏情况下，弧形闸门的破坏的原因是弧形闸门臂的不稳定;此外，明显的动态作用下发生破坏。例如:张山闸，位于中国的江苏省，包括36个弧形闸门。当一个弧形闸门打开放水时，门被破坏了，而其他弧形闸门则关闭，受到静态静水压力仍然是一样的，很明显，一个动态的加载是造成的弧形闸门破坏一个主要因素。因此弧形闸门臂的动态不稳定是造成弧形闸门(特别是低水头的弧形闸门)破坏的主要原是毫无疑问。
Section 3 Design philosophy, design method and earth pressures 3.1 Design philosophy 3.1.1 General The design of earth retaining structures requires consideration of the interaction between the ground and the structure. It requires the performance of two sets of calculations: 1）a set of equilibrium calculations to determine the overall proportions and the geometry of the structure necessary to achieve equilibrium under the relevant earth pressures and forces; 2）structural design calculations to determine the size and properties of thestructural sections necessary to resist the bending moments and shear forces determined from the equilibrium calculations. Both sets of calculations are carried out for specific design situations (see 3.2.2) in accordance with the principles of limit state design. The selected design situations should be sufficiently Severe and varied so as to encompass all reasonable conditions which can be foreseen during the period of construction and the life of the retaining wall. 3.1.2 Limit state design This code of practice adopts the philosophy of limit state design. This philosophy does not impose upon the designer any special requirements as to the manner in which the safety and stability of the retaining wall may be achieved, whether by overall factors of safety, or partial factors of safety, or by other measures. Limit states (see 1.3.13) are classified into: a) ultimate limit states (see 3.1.3); b) serviceability limit states (see 3.1.4). Typical ultimate limit states are depicted in figure 3. Rupture states which are reached before collapse occurs are, for simplicity, also classified and