Chapter one Introduction
一、定义
1.语言学Linguistics
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
2.普通语言学General Linguistics
The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.
3.语言language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design Features
It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性
Productivity多产性
Duality双重性
Displacement移位性
Cultural transmission文化传递
⑴arbitrariness
There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions
⑵Productivity
Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.
⑶Duality
Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.
⑷Displacement
Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
⑸Cultural transmission
Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.
5.语言能力Competence
Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.
6.语言运用performance
Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics
The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics
The study of a given language at a given time.
9.语言langue
The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.
10.言语parole
The realization of langue in actual use.
11.规定性Prescriptive
It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.
12.描述性Descriptive
A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.
二、知识点
https://www.doczj.com/doc/2816876135.html,nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.
语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
2.几种观点和现象的提出者：
⑴瑞士语言学家F.de Saussure F.de Saussure:Langue和parole的区别
⑵U.S.A linguist N.Chomsky美国语言学家N.Chomsky
in1950针对Saussure’s langue&parole提出Competence和performance
3.the word ’language’ preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.
Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。
三、问答题
1.What are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?
Phonetics----it’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.
Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.
Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.
Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.
Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.
Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.
2. What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?
Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on’ high’ written language.
传统语法是规定性的，研究‘高级’书面语。
3.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why
Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.
现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，
否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。
Chapter Two Phonology
一、定义
1.宽式音标Broad transcription
The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.
2.窄式音标Narrow transcription
The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.
3.清音V oiceless
When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.
4.浊音V oicing
Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.
5.元音V owel
The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.
6.辅音Consonants
The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.
7.音位Phoneme
The basic unit in phonology, it’s a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
8.音位变体Allophones
Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
9.音素phone
A phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it’s a speech sound we use when speaking a language.
10.最小对立对Minimal pair
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
11.超切分特征Suprasegmental
The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone.
12.互补分布complementary distribution P35
Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
13.语言的语音媒介Phonic medium of language
The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language.
在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。14.爆破音stops
When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive.
they are[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g]
二、知识点
1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.
2. of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing.
3.Phonetic 组成
⑴Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学longest established, mostly developed
⑵Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学
⑶Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学
4.articulatoryApparatus /Organs of Speech
Pharyngeal cavity–咽腔
Oral ...–口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here
Nasal …–鼻腔
5.The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French.
6.Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of[k] and[g],the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound[j];the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds[t]and[d].
7.nasa l consonants: [m] / [n] / [η]
8. A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.
9.English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone
三、问答题
1. How are the English consonants classified?
By place of articulation and By manner of articulation
2．How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study?
Phonetics —description of all speech sounds and their differences.
Phonology —description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.
3.W hat’s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme? Phone—a speech sound ,a phonetic unit.
Phoneme---a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit.
Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.
4.What is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要?
Minimal pair—two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.
除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合.
Minimal set—a group of sound combinations with the above feature.
一组具有上述特征的语音组合.
By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes.
通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位.
5.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ?
Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound.
Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.
Chapter Three Morphology
一、定义
1.词素Morpheme
The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.
2.自由词素Free Morpheme
Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. 3.黏着词素Bound morphemes
Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.
4.词根Root
Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
5.词缀Affix
The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.
6.曲折词缀inflectional affixes
The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.
7.派生词缀Derivational affixes
The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.
8.词干Stem
A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.
9.形态学规则Morphological rules
They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word.
10.前缀Prefix
Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes ‘be-‘ and ‘en(m)-‘
11.后缀Suffix
Suffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 3.In using the morphological rules, we must guard against Over-generalization.
二、知识点
1. some words maybe said to contain a root morpheme.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/2816876135.html,pound features:
⑴orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between.
⑵Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element.
⑶semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its component
Chapter Four Syntax
一、定义
1.句子sentence
A structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.
2.语言运用Linguistic competence
The system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker.
3.谓语Predicate
The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate.
4.层次结构Hierarchical structure
The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.
5.语法关系Grammatical relations
The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence.
6.表层结构S-structure
A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.
7.深层结构D-structure
A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement.
8.转换原则Transformation rules
Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.
二、知识点
1.syntax这个单词源于Greek,本义是arrangement.
2.我们把syntax的学习看作 a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentence.
3.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge.
4.句子的分类simple sentence
Types of sentences coordinate or compound sentence
Complex sentence
简单句---It consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
并列句合成句-It contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “but”, ”and”. ect.
复合句—It contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.
5.In addition to the use of structural tree diagrams, linguists may show the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets and subscript labels.
6.短语类型
Noun Phrase NP
Phrasal Verb Phrase VP
Categories Preposition Phrase PP
Adjective Phrase AP
三、问答题
https://www.doczj.com/doc/2816876135.html,e the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for each of the following sentences. For example:
⑴The tower on the hill collapsed in the wind
Chapter 5 Semantics
一、定义
1.命名论The naming theory
The naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.
2.意念论The conceptualist view
It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
3.语境论Conceptualism
It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning fro m or reduce meaning to observable contexts. her are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.
4.行为主义论Behaviorism
It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters i t and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.
5.意义Sense
It’s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It’s the collection of all the features o f the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized.
6.所指意义Reference
It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
7.同义词Synonymy
It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.
8.多义词Polysemy
It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.
9.同音(形)异义Homonymy
It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
10.同音异义Homophones
It refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign.
11.同形异义Homographs
It refers to two words are identical in form .e.g. tear v./tear n.
12.上下义关系Hyponymy
13.反义词Antonymy
It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.
14.成分分析法Componential Analysis----分析词汇抽象意义
It’s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.
this approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.
15.述谓结构分析Predication Analysis 由British Linguist G.Leech提出
It’s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis.
Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands ect.
通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。
16.先设前提Presupposition
It’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.
17.蕴涵Entailment
Entailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B.
A: Mark married a blonde heiress.
B: Mark married a blonde.
二、知识点
1.Major views of meaning study:
The naming Theory-----希腊Scholar Plato
The conceptualism-----观点代表人是John Firth,但Bloomfield阐述更有说服力
The Conceptualist view----Ogden和Richards用classic semantic triangle of
significance
The Behaviorism-----英国Bloomfield提出，使用了Jack和Jill故事阐明
The naming theory的局限性:
⑴It’s only applicable to Nouns only.
⑵Within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that don’t exist in the real world. sense
2. Homophones—when two words are identical in sound
rain/reign; night/knight; piece/peace; leak/leek
Homographs—when two words are identical in spelling
bow v. /bow n. tear v./ tear n lead v./lead n.
Complete homonyms—when two words are identical in both spelling
and sound.例子Fast adj./ fast v. scale n./scale v.
3. Antonym分类:(1)Gradable antonyms分级反义词(a matter of degree)
例子Old—middle-aged—young; hot-warm-cold
(2) Complementary antonyms互补反义词a matter of degree between
two extremes例子Alive—dead; male—female;
(3) Relational opposites关系反义词(中间可以加成分，如上、中、下)
father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient; buy-sell; above-below
13.句子间的意义关系sense relation between sentences
X is synonymous with Y.
X entails Y.
X presupposes Y.
X is a contradiction.
X is semantically anomalous.
14. Analysis of meaning意义的分析
(1)Componential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaning对词汇成分的分析
(2) Predication analysis—a way to analyze sentence meaning对句子意义的分析
15.According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we classify the predications into two-place predication(has two arguments),one-place predication (has one argument),and no-place predication(has no argument).
Chapter 6 pragmatics
一、定义
1.语境Context
The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
2.言语行为理论Speech act theory
It’s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. it’s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question ”what do we do when using language?”
The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act and the5categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory.
3.叙述句Constatives
Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.;
4.行为句Performatives
Performatives are sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.
5.言内行为Locutionary Act
A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses. it’s the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
6.言外行为Illcotionary Act
An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention it’s the act performed in saying something.
7.言后行为Perlocutionary Act
Perlocuationar y Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. it’s the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance.
8.句子意义Sentence meaning
It refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.
9.话语意义Utterance meaning
It refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered.
10.合作原则Cooperative Principle
It’s proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants
must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.
二、知识点
1.语用学的几个重要的理论
⑴言语行为理论Speech act theory
由英国哲学家John Austin在20世纪50年代末提出
在此理论基础上John区分了定义了叙述句Constatives和行为句performatives
在区分叙述句和行为句之后，他又定义了言内行为、言外行为和言后行为
Locutionary act:: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean.
Illutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door. Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed.
2. 合作原则的准则4Maxim of Cooperative Principle
数量the maxim of Quantity-----你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求Make your contribution as informative as required;
Do not make your contribution more informative than is required
质量the maxim of Quality -----不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话
Do not say what you believe to false.
Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence
关系the maxim of relation-----使你的话与话题相关be relevant
方式the maxim of manner-----避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序
Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity;
Be brief/be orderly.
3.Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分
Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.
The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.
5.Sentence meaning与Utterance meaning的区别
Sentence meaning---abstract, decontextualized.
Utterance meaning---concrete, contextualized it’s based on sentence meaning, it’s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标
1. The study of language development over a period of time is generally termed as _____linguistics. D A. applied B. diachronic C. comparative D. synchronic 2. The sentence that has a NP and a VP can be shown in a __C__ formula "S→NP VP". A. hierarchical B. linear C. tree diagram D. vertical 3. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop? A A. [p] B.[m] C.[b] D.[t] 4. The words ―make‖ and ―bus‖ are called _____D____because they can occur unattached. A. derivational morphemes B .inflectional morphemes C. bound morphemes D. free morphemes 5. The pair of words ―lend‖ and ―borrow‖ are____B______. A. gradable antonymy B. relational (converse) antonymy C. synonyms D. co-hyponyms 6. The semantic components of the word ―man‖ can be expressed as ____C___. A.＋animate,＋human,＋male,－adult; B.＋animate,＋human,－male,－adult; C.＋animate,＋human,＋male,＋adult D.—animate,＋human,－male,－adult 7. What kind of function does the sentence ―How do you do?‖ have? B A. Directive B. Phatic C. Informative D. Evocative 8. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as_______A____. A. lexical words B. grammatical words C. function words D. form words 9. Which of the following best states the behaviorist view of child language acquisition?______A_. A. Language acquisition is a process of habit formation B. Language acquisition is the species-specific property of human beings C. Children are born with an innate ability to acquire language D. Humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use 10. The branch of linguistics that studies meaning of language in context is called __C? A. morphology B. sociolinguistics C. pragmatics D. psycholinguistics 11、Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.
语言学概论复习重点与难点
<语言学概论>复习重点与难点 指导老师陈蓉 1.1语义就是语言的意义，是语言形式表达的内容。语义包含两个方面的内容，一是思想，也就是所谓的“理性意义”，一是情感，也就是所谓的“非理性意义”。理性意义也叫做逻辑意义或指称意义，是对主客观世界的认识。理性意义是语义的基本要素。非理性意义是说话人的主观情感、态度以及语体风格等方面的内容，它一般总是附着在特定的理性意义之上的。 语义是同语言形式结合在一起的意义，同语言形式的结合是语义的基本特征。 语言形式粗略的说，包括“语汇形式”和“语法形式”两类。语汇形式就是一种语言里所有的实词和固定短语，语法形式包括语序、虚词、形态、重音、语调等形式。由语汇形式表达的语义通常叫“词汇意义”，由语法形式表达的语义叫“语法意义”。
在语言里，语素、词、词组、句子等各级单位都有意义，它们的意义都是语义。其中句子的意义和词的意义具有突出的地位。 语言形式所表达的意义有一般与个别、稳定与临时的分别。在通常情况下都能够存在的意义是一般的、稳定的，在特定睥上下文、特定的交际场合中或特定的知识背景下才能出现的意义是人别的临时的。前者叫“语言意义”即语义，后者叫“语境意义”。 1.2 语义的概括性 概括性是语义的重要属性，无论是词义还是句义都是概括的。 1.3 语义的模糊性 所谓的模糊性是指词义所反映的对象只有一个大致的范围，而没有明确的界限。但也不是所有的词语都如此。不少词语的词义是精确的。 1.4 语义的民族性
语义的民族特点比较突出地体现在词义上。语义的民族特点也体现在词语的非理性意义方面。 2.1 词义的构成 词义是指词的语音形式所表达的内容。词的意义包括词汇意义和语法意义两部分。词义可以说是由理性意义和非理性意义两部分构成的。 词的理性意义是通过人的抽象思维对物质世界和精神世界的各种对象的概括的反映而形成的。 词的理性意义由于概括深度上的差异而分为两种类型：一种是人们对事物所具有的一组非本质特征的反映，这种词的理性意义可以称之为“通俗意义”；另一种是人们对事物的本质特征的反映，这种词的理性意义可以称为“科学意义”。 词的理性意义是词义的基本的和核心的部分。 词的非理性意义是附着在词的理性意义之上的，因而又叫做词义的附加色彩。
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
语言学概论 一、单项选择题（每小题2分，共20分} 1．下列说法只有是正确的。 A．语言是人类最重要的辅助性交际工具。 B．语言就是说话，说话就是语言。 C．语言是一种特殊的社会现象。 D．语言具有地方色彩，说明语言不具有社会性。 2．下列说法只有是错误的。 A．汉语的声调是由音高变化形成的。 B．语言中的轻重音是由音重变化形成的。 C．音位具有区别词形的作用。 I)．音素具有区别词形的作用。 3．下列说法只有是正确的。 A．“老”可以同“新、旧、少、嫩”等构成反义词。 B．“大”和“小”是绝对对立的反义词。 C．“红”与“黑”这对反义词具有非此即彼的关系。 D．反义词“冷”和“热”具有相对性。 4．下列说法只有____正确。 A．意译词如“激光”、“电话”都是借词。 B．仿译词如“机关枪”、“铁路”都是借词。 C．“尼姑”、“和尚”、“玻璃”是借词。 D．“爱神”、“北极熊”、“超人”都是借词。 5．下列词义的变化，属于词义的缩小。 A．“meat”原指菜肴，现在指荤菜。 B．“走”本义是跑，现在指步行。 C．“江”原指长江，今泛指江河。 D．“book”原指一种树木，今指成本的著作。 1．C 2．D 3．D 4．C 5．A 3．下列说法只有( )是正确的。 A.语言是人类最重要的交际工具，文字也是人类最重要的交际工具 B．不同的阶级使用语言具有不同的特点，说明语言具有阶级性 C．人类多种多样的语言说明语言具有任意性特点 D．语言是一种纯自然的现象 4.下列说法只有( )是正确的。 A.语法的组合规则是潜在的 B．语法的聚合规则是潜在的 C．语法的组合规则存在于书面语言中 I)．语法的聚合规则存在”ji【j头沿吉中 5．单纯阋就是由一个( )构成的词。 A．词根 B．词干 【！．词缀
语言学概论重难点解析 一、语言和言语的区别与联系。 （一）语言和言语的区别 1.语言是表达思想的工具、是交际的工具，言语则是使用语言工具的行为和结果。就这一点而言，它们是工具与对工具运用的关系。 2.言语是个人的，语言是社会的。言语是个人的言语行为，以个人的意志为转移，因而言语具有个人因素。可以说，每个人说话的嗓音、每个音的具体发音、每个人使用的词语和句子结构等方面都有个人的特色，而且每一个人每一次说话都可能是不同的。语言是属于社会的，语言要遵循一个原则：全社会都能顺利地进行交流。语言是从言语中归纳出的一套标准、准则的系统，是音义结合，由词汇、语法构成的一个完整的体系，因而它具有社会因素。 3.语言是有限的、封闭的，言语是无限的、开放的。语言的材料、规则是有限的，相对稳定的，因而也是相对封闭的。如现代汉语有400多个音节，上千个语素，几十万个词，语法规则更加有限。汉语如此，其他语种无不如此，其音位、词汇、语法规则都是有限的。而且变化缓慢，相对稳定。 言语的开放性，则表现为利用有限的材料和规则造出所需要的无限的句子。从组合关系上讲，其长度可以是无限长的（从理论上讲）。（如：学生。是学生。是中文系的学生。他是中文系的学生。……他是闽江学院中文系二年级一班的学生。……）人们可以利用聚合关系来替换语言链条上的各个环节，因而即使在句子的长度相同的情况下，仍然可以造出各种各样的句子来。（例如：①我们热爱祖国。②他们喜欢唱歌。③小张爱好音乐。……理论上讲可以是无限的） 数量有限的语音形式和语义内容结合成语素。数量有限的语素构成数量有限的词语。数量有限的语法规则支配数量有限的词语，造出无穷无尽的句子，这就是言语的无限性。语言的有限性，免除了人们不必要的过重的记忆负担；言语的无限性，使人们能够造出各种各样的句子，充分满足交际的需要。 （二）语言和言语的联系 语言和言语又有非常密切的联系。 一方面，语言存在于言语之中，言语是语言存在的形式。语言是从言语中概括出来的，没有言语就无所谓语言。 另一方面，语言是对言语的规范，语言来源于言语而又作用于言语，言语或言语行为必须遵循一定的规则——语言规则。如果不遵循这些规则，就会造成交际的障碍。 二、如何理解语言是人类最重要的交际工具 人类社会的交际工具很多，除了语言之外，人类还使用其他的交际工具：文字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号、化学公式以及身势、表情等，这些非语言的交际工具，也都在交际中发挥一定的作用，但是它们在交际中的重要性和灵便性远不能和语言相比。 1.文字是记录语言的书写符号体系，它打破了语言交际中时间和空间的限制，大大增强了语言的交际功能的发挥，在社会生活中起着重大的作用。但是，文字在交际中的重要性远不能和语言相比。 （1）文字是辅助性的，处于从属地位。一个社会可以没有文字，但不能没有语言；没有语言，社会就不能生存和发展。 （2）人类语言的历史和人类社会的历史一样漫长，而文字仅有数千年的历史。今天世界上没有文字的语言比有文字的语言多得多。 因此，文字是在语言基础上产生的一种最重要的辅助性交际工具。 2.旗语、电报代码、数学符号等交际工具，大多是在语言和文字的基础上产生的，是更加后起的交际工具，离开语言和文字，它们就不能独立存在。这些交际工具都有特殊的服务领域，使用的范围相当狭窄，表达的内容极其有限，而语言的服务
《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明: 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。 《语言学概论》研究始于20 世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。 对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。 本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第6学期和第7 学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。 二、教学目的及要求: 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。 本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。 本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓 励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点: 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。 本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。 四、与其它课程的关系: 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。 五、学时与学分: 学时：72学时 学分：4学分 六、教学内容： 第一章绪论 本章主要教学内容: 1．语言学习的意义 2．语言的定义。 3．语言的定义特征 4．语言的起源。 5．语言的功能。 6．语言学的定义。 7．语言学的核心内容。 8．宏观语言学的定义及分支。
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
英语语言学期末考试试卷 第一部分选择题 I.Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%X10=20%) 1. Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, but they differ in that ____________. A. Saussure took a sociological view of language while Chomsky took a psychological point of view B. Saussure took a psychological view of language while Chomsky took a sociological point of view C. Saussure took a pragmatic view of language while Chomsky took a semantic point of view D. Saussure took a structural view of language while Chomsky took a pragmatic point of view 2. Language is a system of ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication. A. unnatural B. artificial C. superficial D. arbitrary 3. We are born with the ability to acquire language, _______________. A. and the details of any language system are genetically transmitted B. therefore, we needn’t learn the details of our mother tongue C. but the details of language have to be learnt. D. and the details are acquired by instinct 4. A(n)________ is a phonological unit of distinctive value. It is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. allophone C. phoneme D. sound 5. The morpheme –ed in the word “worked” is a(n) __________ morpheme. A. derivational B. inflectional C. free D. word-forming 6. WH-movement is __________ in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative. A. obligatory B. optional C. selectional D. arbitrary 7. Naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, was proposed by _________. A. Grice B. Plato C. Saussure D. Ogden and Richards 8. “John married a blond heiress.”__________ “John married a blond.” A. is synonymous with B. is inconsistent with C. entails D. presupposes 9. In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called _______, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A. utterance B. reference C. predication D. morpheme 10. In Austin’s speech act theory, ___________ is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A. a perlocutionary act B. a locutionary act
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示 第一章语言的性质 语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。 第二章语言学 语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。 第三章语音学 发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。 第四章音位学 音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等. 第五章词法学 词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。 第六章词汇学 词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。第七章句法 句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。 第八章语义学 语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。 第九章语言变化 语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）； 第十章语言、思维与文化 语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。 第十一章语用学 语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原 320240*********
语言学概论》期末试卷 1. (单选题） 下 列关于“语言”的说法,不正确的一项是（D ）（本题2.0 分） A 、语言系统是由多个子系统组合而成的B 、 语言是一个符号系统 C 、 语言符号具有任意性和线条性特征D 、 语言符号的音义关系可以任意改变 2. (单选题） 下 卜列兀音音素都是后兀音的一组是（B）本题2.0分） A 、[u, ￡] B 、 [a , A ] C 、 [a ,y] D 、[o, a] 3. (单选题） 下 F列辅音音素都是塞音的一组是（B）（本题2.0分） A 、[k, 1] B 、[p, k] C 、[p, n] D 、[t, v] 4. （单选题）从语音的社会功能角度划分出来的最小语音单位是
(A)(本题2.0分) A 、音位 B 、 曰素 C 、 音节 D 、 音渡 5.(单选题）汉语普通话中的“我”和助词“的”单念时发音分别 为［uo］和［te］,而在实际语流中，“我的”发音是［uo de］,这是语流音变中的（A）本题2.0分） A 、顺同化现象 B 、 逆同化现象 C 、 弱化现象 D 、 异化现象 6.(单选题）语音的本质属性是（C ）本题2.0分） A 、物理属性 B 、 生理属性 C 、 社会属性 D 、 心理属性 7.（单选题）英语“students”中的“-s”是（C）本题2.0分）
A 、虚词语素 B 、 词根语素 C 、 构形语素 D 、 构词语素 8.(单选题）从词的构造方式看，下列各项中属于复合词的是（D）本题2.0分） A 、木头 B 、 念头 C 、 苦头 D 、 山头 9.(单选题）划分词类的最本质的标准是（A ）（本题2.0分） A 、分布标准 B 、 意义标准 C 、 形态标准 D 、 逻辑标准 10.（单选题）下面词组中，结构类型与其他各组不冋的一组是（D）本题2.0分） A 、年轻漂亮/朴素大方 B 、我们大家/首都北京 C、铁路民航/工人农民 D、贯彻执行/讨论研究
语言学概论重难点解析 一、语言与言语得区别与联系。 (一)语言与言语得区别 1、语言就是表达思想得工具、就是交际得工具,言语则就是使用语言工具得行为与结果。就这一点而言,它们就是工具与对工具运用得关系。 2、言语就是个人得,语言就是社会得。言语就是个人得言语行为,以个人得意志为转移,因而言语具有个人因素。可以说,每个人说话得嗓音、每个音得具体发音、每个人使用得词语与句子结构等方面都有个人得特色,而且每一个人每一次说话都可能就是不同得。语言就是属于社会得,语言要遵循一个原则:全社会都能顺利地进行交流。语言就是从言语中归纳出得一套标准、准则得系统,就是音义结合,由词汇、语法构成得一个完整得体系,因而它具有社会因素。 3、语言就是有限得、封闭得,言语就是无限得、开放得。语言得材料、规则就是有限得,相对稳定得,因而也就是相对封闭得。如现代汉语有400多个音节,上千个语素,几十万个词,语法规则更加有限。汉语如此,其她语种无不如此,其音位、词汇、语法规则都就是有限得。而且变化缓慢,相对稳定。 言语得开放性,则表现为利用有限得材料与规则造出所需要得无限得句子。从组合关系上讲,其长度可以就是无限长得(从理论上讲)。(如:学生。就是学生。就是中文系得学生。她就是中文系得学生。……她就是闽江学院中文系二年级一班得学生。……)人们可以利用聚合关系来替换语言链条上得各个环节,因而即使在句子得长度相同得情况下,仍然可以造出各种各样得句子来。(例如:①我们热爱祖国。②她们喜欢唱歌。③小张爱好音乐。……理论上讲可以就是无限得) 数量有限得语音形式与语义内容结合成语素。数量有限得语素构成数量有限得词语。数量有限得语法规则支配数量有限得词语,造出无穷无尽得句子,这就就是言语得无限性。语言得有限性,免除了人们不必要得过重得记忆负担;言语得无限性,使人们能够造出各种各样得句子,充分满足交际得需要。 (二)语言与言语得联系 语言与言语又有非常密切得联系。 一方面,语言存在于言语之中,言语就是语言存在得形式。语言就是从言语中概括出来得,没有言语就无所谓语言。 另一方面,语言就是对言语得规范,语言来源于言语而又作用于言语,言语或言语行为必须遵循一定得规则——语言规则。如果不遵循这些规则,就会造成交际得障碍。 二、如何理解语言就是人类最重要得交际工具 人类社会得交际工具很多,除了语言之外,人类还使用其她得交际工具:文字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号、化学公式以及身势、表情等,这些非语言得交际工具,也都在交际中发挥一定得作用,但就是它们在交际中得重要性与灵便性远不能与语言相比。 1、文字就是记录语言得书写符号体系,它打破了语言交际中时间与空间得限制,大大增强了语言得交际功能得发挥,在社会生活中起着重大得作用。但就是,文字在交际中得重要性远不能与语言相比。 (1)文字就是辅助性得,处于从属地位。一个社会可以没有文字,但不能没有语言;没有语言,社会就不能生存与发展。 (2)人类语言得历史与人类社会得历史一样漫长,而文字仅有数千年得历史。今天世界上没有文字得语言比有文字得语言多得多。 因此,文字就是在语言基础上产生得一种最重要得辅助性交际工具。 2、旗语、电报代码、数学符号等交际工具,大多就是在语言与文字得基础上产生得,就是更加后起得交际工具,离开语言与文字,它们就不能独立存在。这些交际工具都有特殊得服务领域,使用得范围相当狭窄,表达得内容极其有限,而语言得服务领
第一章 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 一Design features of language语言的结构特征 Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability. Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.(指决定了人类语言性质的特征.例如任意性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.) The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features. What is arbitrariness?任意性 a. arbitrariness----arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of human language,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指语 言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.) It was discussed by Saussure first.The link between them is a matter of convention. E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese) Mansion (French) 房子(Chinese) (1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语言的音和义之间的任意性 a. By ―arbitrary‖, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。 A gog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a gig. Language therefore is largely arbitrary. b. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like ―bang ‖ ‖crash‖ ‖roar ‖ ‖ rumble ‖ ‖cakle‖, which are motivated in a certain sense.‖ onomatopoeia拟声词---words that sound like the sounds they describe那些发音像它们的描写的声音的词 c. some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitary either. ―type ‖ and ‖write ‖are opaque or unmotivated words, while ―type -writer‖ is less so, or more trans parent or motivated than the words that make it . so we can say ―arbitrariness‖ is a matter of degree. arbitrary and onometopoeic effect may work at the same time.任意性和拟声可以同时起作用。 Eg. The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.夏日黄昏，群蝇嗡嗡地非。 (2) Arbitrary at the syntactic level 句法上的非任意性 According to systematic-functionalists and American functionlists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. 对于系统功能语言学家和美国功能语言学家来说，语言在句法上是非任意的。 Syntax-----it refers to the ways that sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement.句法就是依据语法安排造句之法。 (3) Aribrtary and convention任意性和约定性 The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.语言学上的符号和它的意义之间是约定俗成的关系。 The other side of coin of arbitrariness , namely, conventionality.任意性的相反面，即约定性。 conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way. Arbitrainess of langauge makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious.任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力，而语言的约定性又使学习语言变得费力。 There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)