英语语言学概论》重、难点提示
整理人:宁强县第一中学陈宁
第一章语言的性质
语言的定义:语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性;语言的功能(寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为;语言的起源(神授说,人造说,进化说等。
第二章语言学
语言学定义;研究语言的四大原则(穷尽、一致、简洁、客观;语言学的基本概念(口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为;普通语言学的分支(语音、音位、语法、句法、语义;;语言学的应用(语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学等。
第三章语音学
发音器官的英文名称;英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法;语音学的定义;发音语音学;听觉语音学;声学语音学;元音及辅音的分类;严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学
音位理论;最小对立体;自由变异;互补分布;语音的相似性;区别性特征;超语段音位学;音节;重音(词重音、句子重音、音高和语调等。
第五章词法学
词法的定义;曲折词与派生词;构词法(合成与派生;词素的定义;词素变体;自由词素;粘着词素(词根,词缀和词干等。
第六章词汇学
词的定义;语法词与词汇词;变词与不变词;封闭词与开放词;词的辨认;习语与搭配。
第七章句法
句法的定义;句法关系;结构;成分;直接成分分析法;并列结构与从属结构;句子成分;范畴(性,数,格;一致;短语,从句,句子扩展等。
第八章语义学
语义的定义;语义的有关理论;意义种类(传统、功能、语用;里奇的语义分类;词汇意义关系(同义、反义、下义;句子语义关系。第九章语言变化
语言的发展变化(词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化;第十章语言、思维与文化
语言与文化的定义;萨丕尔-沃夫假说;语言与思维的关系;语言与文化的关系;中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学
语用学的定义;语义学与语用学的区别;语境与意义;言语行为理论(言内行为、言外行为和言后行为;合作原则。
1.1. What is language?
“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book” and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal
forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen before they write (and read also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.
1.2. What are design features of language?
“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability
1.3. What is arbitrariness?
By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are o paque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.
1.4.What is duality?
Linguists refer “duality” (of structure to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc. ; at the second, lower
level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6 , language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words, and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!. Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honour.
1.5.What is productivity?
Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an
indef initely large number of sentences in one?s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky.
1.6.What is displacement?
“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn?t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee?s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but i t is an unspeakable tiny share.
1.7.What is cultural transmission?
This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings(N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog?s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf?s
roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.
1.8.What is interchangeability?
Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.
Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot? , and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighbouring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.
1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?
First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal
communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them(see I .2-8. Let?s borrow C. F. Hocket?s Chart that compares human language with some animals? systems, from Wang Gang(1998,p.8.
Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.
Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7
1.10.What functions does language have?
Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11, language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes
thre e “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual(see !.11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al.,pp10-13,pp394-396.
1. 11What is the phatic function?
The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas. Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine,
thanks.” is insincer e if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don?t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friends hip.
1.1
2. What is the directive function?
The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle?s “indrect speech act theory”(see H u Zhuanglin et al.,pp271-278 at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”
1.13.What is the informative function?
Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell someth ing,
characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true(truth or false(falsehood. According to P.Grice?s“Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283, one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.
1.14.What is the interrogative function?
When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I?d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. N ote that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the r
eader?s/listener?s answer.
1.15.What is the expressive function?
The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I?m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements,
language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker?s own attitudes.
1.16.What is the evocative function?
The “evocative function” is the use of language to cr eate certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes(not practical jokes, though are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or impos ing it on, your listener. That?s also the case with the other way round.
1.17.What is the performative function?
This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze bridge ou ght to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge?s impr isonment sentence, the president?s war or independence declaration, etc., are
performati ves as well(see J.Austin?s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin,
ecal.,pp271-278.
1.18.What is linguistics?
“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies no t just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp20-22
1.19.What makes linguistics a science?
Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or
observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. H e is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.
1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?
The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,1988;Wang Gang,1988.But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches :
phonetics ,phonology ,morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.
1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?
The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped
developing is a synchrony study (synchrony. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic. An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp25-27.
1.2
2.What is speech and what is writing?
No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds : individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.
In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or
unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu, while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.
1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?
A lin guistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analys es the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early
g rammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc. should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.
1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?
F. de Saussure refers “langue”to the abstra ct linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual
or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.
1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance? According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user?s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of thi s knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker?s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker?s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.
Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker
knows of his native language.
Chomsky?s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , though similar to , F. de Saussure?s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.
1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behaviour? These two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M.
A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior” on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential.
1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?
Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25. Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of
each ideal speaker?s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that t hey all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.
1.28.What is phonetics?
“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40, speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer?s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear , the auditory nerve and the brain. (3Acoustic phonetics: the study of
the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.
Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.
1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?
The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al.,p41, or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.
1.30.What is place of articulation?
It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved,e. g. lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1 bilabial p,b,m];
(2 labiodental f,v]; (3 dental ,]; (4 alveolar t,d,l,n.s,z]; (5 retroflex; (6 palato-alveolar ,]; (7 palatal j]; (8 velar[k,g,]; (9 uvular; (10glottal h].
Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w]has both an approximation of the two lips and that two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be
termed “labial-velar”.
1.31.What is the manner of articulation?
The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstream may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following : (1 plosive p,b,t,d,k,g]; (2 nasal m,n,];
(3 trill; (4 tap or flap; (5 lateral l]; (6 fricative f,v,s,z]; (7 approximant w,j]; (8 affricate ].
1.3
2.How do phoneticians classify vowels?
Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1 long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4 rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5 pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].
1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?
The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.
1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?
In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.
1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?
(1 “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.
(2 Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge
permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one?s language.
1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?
A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]?s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].
T he phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., phones but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]?s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of
an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.
1.37.What are minimal pairs?
When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in
English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66.
1.38.What is free variation?
If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning. The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be
transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.
1.39.What is complementary distribution?
When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after, and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words “feel”, “help”,“middle”, etc.
1.40.What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?
(1 The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the
following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar
inconceivable-[ ](velar
input-[…imput](bilabial
The “deletion rule” tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically repr esented. While the letter “g” is mute in “sign”, “design” and “paradigm”, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation” and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling (see Dai Weidong ,pp22-23. 1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features? “Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.
Hu Zhuanglin et al.,(p,73 includes stress, length and pitch as what they suppose to be “principal suprasegmental features”, calling the concurrent pa tterning of three “intonation”. Dai Weidong(pp23-25 lists three also, but they are stress, tone and intonation.
1.4
2.What is morphology?
“Morphology” is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology.
1.43.What is inflection/inflexion?
“Inflection” is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.
1.44.What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?
The “morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relationship bet ween expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. The word “boxes”, for example, has two morphemes: “box” and “-es”, neither of which permits further di vision or analysis if we don?t wish to sacrifice meaning. Therefo re a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning.
Allomorphs, like allophones vs. phones, are the alternate shapes (and thus
phonetic forms of the same morphemes. Some morphemes, though, have no more than one invariable form in all contexts, such as “dog”, “cat”, etc. The variants of the plurality “-s” make the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map-maps, mouse-mice, sheep-sheep etc.
1.45.What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?
A “free morpheme” is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as …bed”, “tree” ,etc. A “bound morpheme” is one that appears with at least another morpheme, such as “-s” in “beds” , “-al” in “national” and so on. All monomorphemic words are free morphemes. Those polymorphemic words are either compounds (combination of two or more free morphemes or derivatives (word derived from free morphemes.
1.46.What is a root ? What is a stem? What is an affix?
A “root” is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. I n other words, a “root” is that part of the word left when all the affixes are
removed. “Internationalism” is a four-morpheme derivative which keeps its free morpheme “nation” as i ts root when “ inter-”, “-al” and “-ism” are taken away.
A “stem” is any mo rpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added. It may be the same as , and in other cases, different from, a root. For example, in the word “friends” , “friend” is both the root and the stem, but in the word “friendships”, “friendships”is its stem, “friend” is its root. Some words (i. e., compounds have more than one root ,e. g., “mailman” , “girlfriend” ,ect.
An “affix” is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem. Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes: prefix, suffix and infix, e. g. , “mini-”, “un-”, ect.(prefix; “-ise”, “-tion”, ect.(suffix.
1.47.What are open classes? What are closed classes?
In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are “open -class words”, since we can regularly add new lexical entries to these classes. The other syntactic categories are, for the most part, closed classes, or closed-class words. The number of them is hardly alterable, if they are changeable at all.
1.48.What is lexicon? What is word? What is lexeme? What is
vocabulary? Lexicon? Word? Lexeme? V ocabulary?
“Lexicon”, in its most general sense, is synonymous with voca bulary. In its technical sense, however, lexicon deals with the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations. “Word” is a unit of expression which has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. This definition is perhaps a little vague as there are different criteria with regard to its identification and definition. It seems that it is hard , even i mpossible, to define “word” linguistically. Nonetheless it is universally agreed that the following three senses are involved in the
七年级上册英语重点、难点知识总结： （Starter）Unit 1. 1. Good morning / afternoon / evening. 早上好/ 下午好 / 晚上好。 2. How are you! 你好吗？ / How is your mother? 你的妈妈好吗？ I’m fine / OK, thanks. 我很好，！/ She is fine. 她身体好。 And you ? 你呢？（你好吗？） （Starter）Unit 2. 1. What’s this in English? 这个用英语怎么说？What’s this? 这个是什么？ It’s a map / an orange. 它是一地图 / 它是一个桔子。 2. Spell it, please. 请拼写它。 How do you spell it? 你怎样拼写它？ （Starter）Unit 3. 1. What color is it? 它是什么颜色？ What color is your pen? 你的钢笔是什么颜色？ 2. It’s red / blue / black and white. 它是红色 / 蓝色 / 黑白色。 Unit 1. 1. What’s your name? 你叫什么名字？What’s her / his name? 她 / 他叫什么名字？ 2. What’s your first name你的名是什么？ What’s your last / family name? 你姓什么？(last name = family name) 3. I’m Mary. = My name is Mary. 我叫玛丽。She is Mary. = Her name is Mary. 她叫玛丽。 4. Nice to meet you! 见到你真高兴。 Nice to meet you too. 见到你也很高兴。 5. What’s your telephone number? 你的是什么？（对提问用what） Unit 2. 1. Excuse me. 打扰了。Is this / that your pencil? 这个 / 那个是你的铅笔吗？
三年级数学下学期期末总复习重、难点汇总 一、复习 目标通过总复习，使学生获得的知识更加巩固，计算能力更加提高，数感、空间观念、统计观念、应用意识等得到发展，能用所 学的数学知识解决简单的实际问题，获得学习成功的体验，提高学习数学的兴趣，建立好数学的信心，全面达到本学期的学习目标。 关键突出知识间的内在联系，便于在复习时进行整理和比 较，以加深学生对所学知识的认识。 二、复习内容： 位置与方向 掌握八个位置方向（东、南、西、北、东南、东北、西南、 西北）； 知道地图是按照上北下南左西右东绘制的。能根据给出的 一个方向确定其余的七个方向，会看简单的路线图； 除数是一位数的除法 口算除法、估算除法； 0除以任何不是0的数都得0. 笔算除法：一位数除两位数或三位数（商中间、末尾有 0的除法）； 除法的验算方法；被除数=除数x商+余数 用估算解决问题
两位数乘两位数 口算乘法两位数乘整十数的口算 笔算乘法不进位乘法 进位乘法 解决问题：1.用连乘解决问题 2.乘除两步解决问题 复习统计图 复习统计图是把两个或多个统计项目的数据合并在一张表 上，并可清晰、明了地反映数据的情况。 ○年月日 一年的天数； 年月日基本知识每月的天数；大月、小月和特殊月 判断平年和闰年的方法； 24时计时法 24时计时法和12时计时法的表示方法 及转换； 有关时间计算的应用题；
面积 面积单位常用的面积单位：平方厘米、平方分米、平 方米 面积单位之间的换算 面积计算长方形面积公式及面积计算 正方形面积公式及面积计算 小数的初步认识 小数的读法、写法 小数的认识小数的意义 小数的大小比较 简单小数的加减法：小数点要对齐，从最低位算起；满 十进一，退一作十 用小数解决问题 数学广角 简单的排列问题 简单的搭配问题 简单的组合问题
语言学概论复习重点与难点
<语言学概论>复习重点与难点 指导老师陈蓉 1.1语义就是语言的意义，是语言形式表达的内容。语义包含两个方面的内容，一是思想，也就是所谓的“理性意义”，一是情感，也就是所谓的“非理性意义”。理性意义也叫做逻辑意义或指称意义，是对主客观世界的认识。理性意义是语义的基本要素。非理性意义是说话人的主观情感、态度以及语体风格等方面的内容，它一般总是附着在特定的理性意义之上的。 语义是同语言形式结合在一起的意义，同语言形式的结合是语义的基本特征。 语言形式粗略的说，包括“语汇形式”和“语法形式”两类。语汇形式就是一种语言里所有的实词和固定短语，语法形式包括语序、虚词、形态、重音、语调等形式。由语汇形式表达的语义通常叫“词汇意义”，由语法形式表达的语义叫“语法意义”。
在语言里，语素、词、词组、句子等各级单位都有意义，它们的意义都是语义。其中句子的意义和词的意义具有突出的地位。 语言形式所表达的意义有一般与个别、稳定与临时的分别。在通常情况下都能够存在的意义是一般的、稳定的，在特定睥上下文、特定的交际场合中或特定的知识背景下才能出现的意义是人别的临时的。前者叫“语言意义”即语义，后者叫“语境意义”。 1.2 语义的概括性 概括性是语义的重要属性，无论是词义还是句义都是概括的。 1.3 语义的模糊性 所谓的模糊性是指词义所反映的对象只有一个大致的范围，而没有明确的界限。但也不是所有的词语都如此。不少词语的词义是精确的。 1.4 语义的民族性
语义的民族特点比较突出地体现在词义上。语义的民族特点也体现在词语的非理性意义方面。 2.1 词义的构成 词义是指词的语音形式所表达的内容。词的意义包括词汇意义和语法意义两部分。词义可以说是由理性意义和非理性意义两部分构成的。 词的理性意义是通过人的抽象思维对物质世界和精神世界的各种对象的概括的反映而形成的。 词的理性意义由于概括深度上的差异而分为两种类型：一种是人们对事物所具有的一组非本质特征的反映，这种词的理性意义可以称之为“通俗意义”；另一种是人们对事物的本质特征的反映，这种词的理性意义可以称为“科学意义”。 词的理性意义是词义的基本的和核心的部分。 词的非理性意义是附着在词的理性意义之上的，因而又叫做词义的附加色彩。
Unit 7谈论物品的价格 1、重点词汇： much,sock,T-shirt,shorts,sweater,trousers,shoe,skirt,dollar,big,small,short,long,woman,need ,look,pair, take, ten---thirty, price, buy, sale, sell, clothes. 2、短语归纳： 1.how much 多少钱 2. seven dollars 7美元 3. white bag 白色的包 4. clothes store 服装店 5. at very good price 以很低的价格 6. for boys 对于男孩子 7. shirts in red 红色的裙子8. twenty-eight dollars 28美元9. Big Sale！大降价 10.twenty yuan 20元11. a pair of black shoes 一双黑色的鞋子 3、How much is this T-shirt how much 通常用来对价格进行提问，意为“多少钱”。 常构成句式“How much is/are+物品”，回答用“It’s /They’re+价格”。/ 直接用价格来回答。 ——How much is your sweater / ——How much are these trousers ——It’s 123 dollars./123 dollars. / ——They’re 130 yuan. 】对价格进行询问时，还可用：What’s the price of …使用这一句型时，无论被询问的商品是单数还是复数，be动词都用is，不能用are；其答语为It’s….价格是…… ——What’s the price of the book ——What’s the price of these books ——It’s five yuan . ——It’s ten yuan . 】辨析how much和how many 表示“多少”，都是对名词的数量进行提问，两者区别如下: 4、像socks, shoes, trousers, glasses, shorts,等都是成双成对的物品，一般以复数的形式出现。 1）这类名词作主语时，谓语动词一般用复数形式。 e.g. How much are these shorts / How much are these socks 这双短袜多少钱？ 2) 若表示“一双，一副，一条”时则要用a pair of，但谓语动词用单数形式。 e.g. The pair of trousers is 98 yuan. a pair of / two pairs of socks/shorts (也可以用some, many, these, those等词修饰) 5、dollar 可数名词，“美元”，其符号为$，其复数形式为dollars。中国的货币单位是元， 其符号为￥，为不可数名词。 1）表价格时，用单词则放在数字之后，用符号则放在数字之前。e.g. 20 dollars =$20 .(货币符号没有复数形式) 2）所有的钱数同时间、距离一样，无论多少，在句中作主语时，谓语动词都用单数形式。 e.g. 5,000 dollars is quite a lot of money for me.
小学数学三年级知识点和重点、难点大全带必考应用 题.DOC (1)一位数的乘、除法。 一个乘数是一位数的乘法(另一个乘数一般不超过三位数)。0的乘法。连乘。除数是一位数的除法。0除以一个数。用乘法验算除法。连除。 (2)两位数的乘、除法。 一个乘数是两位数的乘法（另一个乘数一般不超过三位数）。乘数末尾有0的简便算法。乘法验算。除数是两位数的除法。连乘、连除的简便算法。 (3)四则混合运算。 两步计算的式题。小括号的使用。 (4)分数的初步认识。 分数的初步认识,读法和写法。看图比较分数的大小。简单的同分母分数加、减法。 千米(公里)、毫米的认识和简单计算。吨、克的认识和简单计算。 长方形和正方形的特征。长方形和正方形的周长。平行四边形的直观认识。周长的含义。长方形、正方形的周长。 解答两步计算的应用题。 联系周围接触到的事物组织活动。例如记录10天内的天气情况,分类整理,并作简单分析。
应用题100道 1.一个果园里栽了125棵苹果树,梨树的棵数比苹果树的4倍少20棵。这个果园一共栽了多少棵树？ 2.一段路长324米,已经修了240米,剩下的计划4小时修完。平均每小时修多少米？ 3. 红光印刷厂装订一批日记本,前三天共装订了960本,后16天平均每天装订420本。这批日记本共有多少本？ 4.一个打字员4分钟输入200个汉字。照这样计算,输入3000个汉字需要多少分钟？ 5. 3袋面粉共重75千克,8袋面粉重多少千克？ 6.一个钢铁厂,炼750千克钢需要用5吨水。照这样计算,钢铁厂一天节约55吨生活用水,可以炼钢多少千克？ 7.5箱蜜蜂一年可以酿375千克蜂蜜。照这样计算,19箱蜜蜂一年可以酿多少千克蜂蜜？一年要酿1725千克蜂蜜需要养多少箱蜜蜂？
语言学概论重难点解析 一、语言和言语的区别与联系。 （一）语言和言语的区别 1.语言是表达思想的工具、是交际的工具，言语则是使用语言工具的行为和结果。就这一点而言，它们是工具与对工具运用的关系。 2.言语是个人的，语言是社会的。言语是个人的言语行为，以个人的意志为转移，因而言语具有个人因素。可以说，每个人说话的嗓音、每个音的具体发音、每个人使用的词语和句子结构等方面都有个人的特色，而且每一个人每一次说话都可能是不同的。语言是属于社会的，语言要遵循一个原则：全社会都能顺利地进行交流。语言是从言语中归纳出的一套标准、准则的系统，是音义结合，由词汇、语法构成的一个完整的体系，因而它具有社会因素。 3.语言是有限的、封闭的，言语是无限的、开放的。语言的材料、规则是有限的，相对稳定的，因而也是相对封闭的。如现代汉语有400多个音节，上千个语素，几十万个词，语法规则更加有限。汉语如此，其他语种无不如此，其音位、词汇、语法规则都是有限的。而且变化缓慢，相对稳定。 言语的开放性，则表现为利用有限的材料和规则造出所需要的无限的句子。从组合关系上讲，其长度可以是无限长的（从理论上讲）。（如：学生。是学生。是中文系的学生。他是中文系的学生。……他是闽江学院中文系二年级一班的学生。……）人们可以利用聚合关系来替换语言链条上的各个环节，因而即使在句子的长度相同的情况下，仍然可以造出各种各样的句子来。（例如：①我们热爱祖国。②他们喜欢唱歌。③小张爱好音乐。……理论上讲可以是无限的） 数量有限的语音形式和语义内容结合成语素。数量有限的语素构成数量有限的词语。数量有限的语法规则支配数量有限的词语，造出无穷无尽的句子，这就是言语的无限性。语言的有限性，免除了人们不必要的过重的记忆负担；言语的无限性，使人们能够造出各种各样的句子，充分满足交际的需要。 （二）语言和言语的联系 语言和言语又有非常密切的联系。 一方面，语言存在于言语之中，言语是语言存在的形式。语言是从言语中概括出来的，没有言语就无所谓语言。 另一方面，语言是对言语的规范，语言来源于言语而又作用于言语，言语或言语行为必须遵循一定的规则——语言规则。如果不遵循这些规则，就会造成交际的障碍。 二、如何理解语言是人类最重要的交际工具 人类社会的交际工具很多，除了语言之外，人类还使用其他的交际工具：文字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号、化学公式以及身势、表情等，这些非语言的交际工具，也都在交际中发挥一定的作用，但是它们在交际中的重要性和灵便性远不能和语言相比。 1.文字是记录语言的书写符号体系，它打破了语言交际中时间和空间的限制，大大增强了语言的交际功能的发挥，在社会生活中起着重大的作用。但是，文字在交际中的重要性远不能和语言相比。 （1）文字是辅助性的，处于从属地位。一个社会可以没有文字，但不能没有语言；没有语言，社会就不能生存和发展。 （2）人类语言的历史和人类社会的历史一样漫长，而文字仅有数千年的历史。今天世界上没有文字的语言比有文字的语言多得多。 因此，文字是在语言基础上产生的一种最重要的辅助性交际工具。 2.旗语、电报代码、数学符号等交际工具，大多是在语言和文字的基础上产生的，是更加后起的交际工具，离开语言和文字，它们就不能独立存在。这些交际工具都有特殊的服务领域，使用的范围相当狭窄，表达的内容极其有限，而语言的服务
人教版三年级下册语文第八单元知识点、重点难点归纳复习资料 第29课 乞乞丐乞讨乞求乞怜 巧灵巧巧合恰巧能工巧匠霄云霄重霄九霄云外 渡渡过横渡渡船远渡重洋屏屏幕屏风画屏屏蔽 烛烛光蜡烛烛台风烛残年晓报晓破晓揭晓家喻户晓偷偷窃偷盗小偷偷工减料第30课 淹淹没淹死水淹七军 官官员官职军官官兵 逼逼迫逼近逼债寒气逼人姓姓氏姓名百家姓隐姓埋名睁睁眼睁开眼睁睁 旱干旱旱情抗旱旱冰 徒徒弟信徒教徒师徒 腾扑腾奔腾腾飞腾云驾雾催催促催肥催生催人奋进吊吊灯吊床吊窗提心吊胆跪跪下跪倒跪拜三跪九叩渠渠道水渠沟渠水到渠成灌浇灌灌溉灌木灌输 溉灌溉
第31课 隆隆重隆冬兴隆轰隆隆 塌崩塌倒塌塌陷塌方 lù露天露营露宿 露 lòu露面露头露脸 燃燃烧燃料点燃燃放 熊黑熊熊猫狗熊熊熊大火 ē挣扎 挣 è挣脱睁开挣钱 熄熄灭熄灯熄火 喷喷泉喷水喷火喷出 缺缺少缺口稀缺缺席 纯纯洁纯净单纯纯粹 冶冶金冶炼妖冶 炼炼钢提炼锻炼炼铁 盆脸盆饭盆盆地倾盆大雨 二．课文分析。 60、《嫦娥》一诗中长河指的是银河，“嫦娥应悔偷灵药，碧海青天夜夜心。”两句表达了凡人对仙人的感叹。《嫦娥》让我们领悟到主人公的凄凉，不堪忍受寂寞的情怀。61、唐代诗人林杰写的《乞巧》，这首诗描写了民间七夕乞巧的盛况。诗的前两句叙述的是牛郎织女的民间故事，全诗表达了人们乞取智巧，追求幸福的心愿。《乞巧》让我们感受到当时人们过节的喜悦心情。“七夕”是农历七月初七夜晚，是传说中牛郎织女鹊桥相会的日子。那天的主要习俗是乞巧。 62、西门豹是一个善于调查研究、有智慧、讲策略的人。 63、《西门豹》一文的顺序是调查原因——破除迷信——兴修水利 64、造成邺这个地方田地荒芜、人烟稀少的原因？答：1）没钱的人家逃到了外地2）邺这个地方年年闹旱灾。 65、西门豹用什么办法惩治了官绅和巫婆？他的方法妙在哪里？答：西门豹先找了位老大爷摸清了河伯的底细，再利用河伯娶媳妇的机会把巫婆和官绅扔下了河。他使用了以其人之道还治其人之身的方法，惩治了巫婆和官绅。他的方法妙在1）安排周密2）
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示 第一章语言的性质 语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。 第二章语言学 语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。 第三章语音学 发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。 第四章音位学 音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等. 第五章词法学 词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。 第六章词汇学 词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。第七章句法 句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。 第八章语义学 语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。 第九章语言变化 语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）； 第十章语言、思维与文化 语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。 第十一章语用学 语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原 320240*********
?Starter?Unit 1. 1.Good morning / afternoon / evening. 早上好/ 下午好 / 晚上好。 2. How are you! 你好吗? /How is your mother? 你的妈妈好吗? I’ｍfine / OK, thanks. 我很好?谢谢?/ She is fine. 她身体好。 And you? 你呢??你好吗?? ?Starter?Unit 2. 1. What’ｓthis in English? 这个用英语怎么说?What’ｓthis?这个是什么? a map / an orange. 它是一张地图 / 它是一个桔子。 It’ｓ 2. Spell it, please. 请拼写它。How do you spell it? 你怎样拼写它? ?Starter ? Unit 3. 1. What color is it? 它是什么颜色? What color is your pen?你的钢笔是什么颜色? red / blue / black and white. 它是红色 / 蓝色 / 黑白色。 2. It’ｓ Unit 1. 1. What’ｓ your name? 你叫什么名字?What’ｓ her / his name? 她 / 他叫什么名字? 2.What’ｓ your first name 你的名是什么? What’ｓyour last / family name?你姓什么?(last name = family name) 3.I’ｍMary. = My name is Mary. 我叫玛丽。She is Mary. = Her name is Mary. 她叫玛丽。 4.Nice to meet you! 见到你真高兴。 Nice to meet you too. 见到你也很高兴。 5.What’ｓ your telephone number? 你的电话号码是什么??对电话号码提问用 what? Unit 2. 1. Excuse me. 打扰了。Is this / that your pencil? 这个 / 那个是你的铅笔吗? Yes,it is. / No,it isn’t.是的?它是。 / 不?不是。( 回答时常用 it 替代上文中的 this 和 that ) 2.This / That is my ruler. 这个/ 那个是我的尺子。 3.Please call Mary at 495-3539.请给Mary打电话:495-3539.?call sb at + 电话号码? Please call Mary. 请给 Mary打电话。Please call 495-3539.请拨打495- 3539. 4.本单元短语?call sb at +电话号码?at译为“按照”?此短语意思是“按某个电话号码给某人打电话?pencil case文具盒computer game电脑游戏lost and found失物招领lost and found case失物招领箱 Unit 3. 1.This / That is my sister. 这位/ 那位是我的姐姐。此句的复数形式是? These / Those are my sisters.这些/那些是我的姐姐们。?this/ that的复数分别是these / those? 2.It is a watch. 复数形式是?They are some watches. (he / she / it 复数都是 they?和 this/that 的复数不同) 3.Is he / Guo Peng your brother? 他 / 郭鹏是你的哥哥吗? Yes, he is. / No, he isn’t.是的?他是。 / 不?他不是。 ? 4.Thanks for the photo of your family. 感谢你寄来你的家庭照?全家福。 句中thanks = thank you,另外the photo of your family = your family photo 5.Here is my family photo. 这儿是我的家庭照。 Here are some books. 这儿有一些书。 There is a picture and three pencils on the desk. 桌子上有一幅画和三支铅笔。 There are many photos in the drawer. 抽屉里有许多照片。 ?here / there 后的 be 动词单复数形式要以紧随其后的名词单复数来定? Unit 4. 1. Whereis my backpack? 我的背包在哪儿? Where are the books? 那些书在哪儿? 2.It’ｓ / They’re in the drawer / under the bed / on the bookcase. 它/它们在抽屉里/床底下/书柜上。(注意主语和be动词照应) 3.Is it / Is the book / Are they on the bed / in the backpack / under the desk? 它/这本书/它们在床上/背包里/桌子下吗? 4.Can you bring some things to school? 你能带些东西去学校吗? some 一般用在肯定的陈述句中?any 用在否定句?“任何”?或疑问句?“某些?些”?中。但如果表示期待对方肯定 的回答或表请求和建议?疑问句中常用some。如上句。 5. take …to…把…带到…Please take your sister to school. 请把你的妹妹带到学校。 1 / 3
小学三年级数学知识点和重难点解析 数与计算 -1- 一位数的乘、除法。一个乘数是一位数的乘法(另一个乘数一般不超过三位数)。0的乘法。连乘。除数是一位数的除法。0除以一个数。用乘法验算除法。连除。 -2- 两位数的乘、除法。一个乘数是两位数的乘法（另一个乘数一般不超过三位数）。乘数末尾有0的简便算法。乘法验算。除数是两位数的除法。连乘、连除的简便算法。 -3- 四则混合运算。两步计算的式题。小括号的使用。 -4- 分数的初步认识。分数的初步认识，读法和写法。看图比较分数的大小。简单的同分母分数加、减法。 5小数的初步认识。小数的认识，读法，写法。比较小数的大小。简单的小数加减法。 量与计量 长度单位 千米(公里)、米、分米、厘米、毫米的认识和简单计算。 重量单位 吨、千克、克的认识和简单计算。 几何初步知识长方形和正方形的特征
长方形和正方形的周长。平行四边形的直观认识。周长的含义。长方形与正方形的面积。面积的定义。 应用题常见的数量关系 解答两步计算的应用题 数学广角——集合 学会画韦恩图，利用韦恩图解决集合问题。 实践活动联系周围接触到的事物组织活动 例如记录一周内的天气情况，分类整理，并作简单分析。 三种数学能力 数概念 第一，加强小学三年级学生运用“数概念”的能力培养。 三年级数学中，会出现长度单位的认识，什么千米、毫米、厘米，很多孩子总是无法记清楚，怎么办呢？请大家伸出自己的右手，手心面向自己，从小拇指到大拇指，依次为：毫米、厘米、分米、米、千米。两指之间的距离大小表示进率的大小。你们看，小指、无名指、中指、食指每相临的两指间的距离相等，也就表示毫米、厘米、分米、米每相临两个单位间的进率相等，都是10。而毫米与分米、厘米与米间的进率为100，毫米与米之间的进率为1000，食指与大拇指之间的距离较大，也是1000。记住单位对应的拇指，这个换算就变得十分简单而且准确了。 空间关系 第二，重视和加强发展小学三年级学生“空间关系”的知觉能力。 数和形是不可分开的。因此，学生掌握空间关系的知觉能力也是小学数学能力的重要组成部分。例如三年级下册如用圆圈图（韦恩图）向学生直观的渗透集合概念。让他们感知圈内的物体具有某种共同的属性，可以看作一个整体，这个整体就是一个集合。 观察活动
语言学概论重难点解析 一、语言与言语得区别与联系。 (一)语言与言语得区别 1、语言就是表达思想得工具、就是交际得工具,言语则就是使用语言工具得行为与结果。就这一点而言,它们就是工具与对工具运用得关系。 2、言语就是个人得,语言就是社会得。言语就是个人得言语行为,以个人得意志为转移,因而言语具有个人因素。可以说,每个人说话得嗓音、每个音得具体发音、每个人使用得词语与句子结构等方面都有个人得特色,而且每一个人每一次说话都可能就是不同得。语言就是属于社会得,语言要遵循一个原则:全社会都能顺利地进行交流。语言就是从言语中归纳出得一套标准、准则得系统,就是音义结合,由词汇、语法构成得一个完整得体系,因而它具有社会因素。 3、语言就是有限得、封闭得,言语就是无限得、开放得。语言得材料、规则就是有限得,相对稳定得,因而也就是相对封闭得。如现代汉语有400多个音节,上千个语素,几十万个词,语法规则更加有限。汉语如此,其她语种无不如此,其音位、词汇、语法规则都就是有限得。而且变化缓慢,相对稳定。 言语得开放性,则表现为利用有限得材料与规则造出所需要得无限得句子。从组合关系上讲,其长度可以就是无限长得(从理论上讲)。(如:学生。就是学生。就是中文系得学生。她就是中文系得学生。……她就是闽江学院中文系二年级一班得学生。……)人们可以利用聚合关系来替换语言链条上得各个环节,因而即使在句子得长度相同得情况下,仍然可以造出各种各样得句子来。(例如:①我们热爱祖国。②她们喜欢唱歌。③小张爱好音乐。……理论上讲可以就是无限得) 数量有限得语音形式与语义内容结合成语素。数量有限得语素构成数量有限得词语。数量有限得语法规则支配数量有限得词语,造出无穷无尽得句子,这就就是言语得无限性。语言得有限性,免除了人们不必要得过重得记忆负担;言语得无限性,使人们能够造出各种各样得句子,充分满足交际得需要。 (二)语言与言语得联系 语言与言语又有非常密切得联系。 一方面,语言存在于言语之中,言语就是语言存在得形式。语言就是从言语中概括出来得,没有言语就无所谓语言。 另一方面,语言就是对言语得规范,语言来源于言语而又作用于言语,言语或言语行为必须遵循一定得规则——语言规则。如果不遵循这些规则,就会造成交际得障碍。 二、如何理解语言就是人类最重要得交际工具 人类社会得交际工具很多,除了语言之外,人类还使用其她得交际工具:文字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号、化学公式以及身势、表情等,这些非语言得交际工具,也都在交际中发挥一定得作用,但就是它们在交际中得重要性与灵便性远不能与语言相比。 1、文字就是记录语言得书写符号体系,它打破了语言交际中时间与空间得限制,大大增强了语言得交际功能得发挥,在社会生活中起着重大得作用。但就是,文字在交际中得重要性远不能与语言相比。 (1)文字就是辅助性得,处于从属地位。一个社会可以没有文字,但不能没有语言;没有语言,社会就不能生存与发展。 (2)人类语言得历史与人类社会得历史一样漫长,而文字仅有数千年得历史。今天世界上没有文字得语言比有文字得语言多得多。 因此,文字就是在语言基础上产生得一种最重要得辅助性交际工具。 2、旗语、电报代码、数学符号等交际工具,大多就是在语言与文字得基础上产生得,就是更加后起得交际工具,离开语言与文字,它们就不能独立存在。这些交际工具都有特殊得服务领域,使用得范围相当狭窄,表达得内容极其有限,而语言得服务领
一年级的知识点及重难点： (一)数与计算 (1)20以内数的认识。加法和减法。 数数。数的组成、顺序、大小、读法和写法。加法和减法。连加、连减和加减混合式题 (2)100以内数的认识。加法和减法。数数。个位、十位。数的顺序、大小、读法和写法。 两位数加、减整十数和两位数加、减一位数的口算。两步计算的加减式题。 (二)量与计量钟面的认识(整时)。人民币的认识和简单计算。 (三)几何初步知识 长方体、正方体、圆柱和球的直观认识。 长方形、正方形、三角形和圆的直观认识。 (四)应用题 比较容易的加法、减法一步计算的应用题。多和少的应用题（抓有效信息的能力）(五)实践活动 选择与生活密切联系的内容。例如根据本班男、女生人数，每组人数分布情况，想到哪些数学问题。 一年级数学学习方法 1、要培养学生的学习习惯。学习习惯的一方面就是作业的按时完成，作业格式训练也是学习习惯培养的一个方面。要利用数学练习本让学生练习写数和写算式 2、重视孩子计算能力的培养 口算20以内的加减法是十分重要的基础知识，孩子必须学好，并能够达到熟练计算的程度。由于孩子的基础不同，不同孩子的计算熟练程度和速度也就存在一定差异，要缩小这一差异，仅靠每天一节数学课练习是不客观的，所以要经常性的练习。一年级要多让孩子借助小棒等学具摆一摆、说一说计算思路。 3、依据生活理解数学，让孩子在游戏中成长 有些数学知识较抽象，容易混淆，我们要注意给孩子创造生活情境，让孩子在实际体验中理解知识。如“左右”的
认识，分辨左右是孩子本学期学习的一个难点，在生活中强化孩子对左右手的认识，引导孩子借此来分辨物体间的左右关系。同时还要注意一个参照物的问题，如两人面对面时，如何判别对面之人的左右边。 ４、重视数学语言发展，让学生养成积极思维的习惯。在生活中要多为孩子创设说数学的机会，数学是“思维的体操”，如果不积极动脑思考就不可能学好数学。如在学习“10的分与合”时，在复习铺垫的基础上，提问：“10可以分成几和几呢？”引导学生一边涂珠算一边思考，从而自己得出结论。多问几个“为什么”比直接告诉学生“是这样的”要好得多。，学生在相互之间的思维撞击中学会了知识，获得了积极的成功体验。 总之，一年级学生由于特殊的年龄特征，所以要重视培养学生良好书写、思维的学习习惯。 二年级的知识点和重难点 (一)数与计算 (1)两位数加、减两位数。 两位数加、减两位数。加、减法竖式。两步计算的加减式题。 (2)表内乘法和表内除法。 乘法的初步认识。乘法口诀。乘法竖式。除法的初步认识。用乘法口诀求商。除法竖式。有余数除法。两步计算的式题。 (3)万以内数的读法和写法。 数数。百位、千位、万位。数的读法、写法和大小比较。 (4)加法和减法。 加法，减法。连加法。加法验算，用加法验算减法。 (5)混合运算。 先乘除后加减。两步计算式题。小括号。 (二)量与计量 时、分、秒的认识。 米、分米、厘米的认识和简单计算。 千克(公斤)的认识 (三)几何初步知识 直线和线段的初步认识。 角的初步认识。直角。(四)应用题
Chapter 1 Introduction 1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.The scope of linguistics: (1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学；morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学； pragmatics 语用学 (2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学；psycholinguistics 心理语言学； applied linguistics应用语言学 3.Some important distinction in linguistics (1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性 ①If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; ②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. (2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性 ①A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. ②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. (2)Langue & parole 语言与会话 ①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. ②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use. (4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用 ①A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. ②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations. (5)speech and writing 语言与文字 Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. (6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学 4.Definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands. Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific. 5.Design features of language 6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings) (2) Productivity(creativity)能产性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (3) duality双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the
七年级英语上重点、难点 STARTET Unit 1 重点难点 ①A,B,C这三个字母连用时，常表示“英文字母表；入门知识；基础知识”等。 ﹥ABC of English 英语入门。﹥ABC book 初学书入门书 语法：问候 ②Good morning, Helen! 早上好，海伦！ （1）此句是正式场合熟人之间打招呼的常用语，用于 早上到中午12∶00以前这段时间。回答也常用 “Good morning!” （2）称呼语必须放在问候语之后，并用逗号隔开。Good morning, sir!早上好，先生！Good morning, Tom!早上好，汤姆！（3）Helen 海伦是女孩的名字，英文名字翻译成汉语时，通常按照发 音写出对应的汉子。 ③Hi 是常见的问候语，相当于汉语的“你好”用于口语中打招呼或进 行问候，使用时间不受限制，其后也可以使用称呼语。回答时用Hi. －Hi, Mary! 嗨，玛丽！（你好，玛丽！）－Hi! 你好！ ④Hello 也是一种问候，以前常翻译为“哈罗”现在常翻译为“你好”。用于口语打招呼或进行问候，使用较随意，不受时间限制。 ⑤Good afternoon 意为“下午好”，用于中午12∶00之后整个下午的时间，适用于较正规场合。回答时也用“Good afternoon!”
⑥Good evening! 意为“晚上好”“晚安！”，用于天黑后到晚上入睡前这段时间。 Good morning! 早上好！Good afternoon! 下午好！Good evening! 晚安！ －Hi Daie! How are you? 戴尔你好吗？I’m fine, thanks. How are you? 我很好，谢谢。你好吗？－I’m ok. （我也很好。） （注）How are you? 是寒暄用语，用来问候对方的身体状况，是比较庄 重的问候语，常用于熟人、亲戚朋友之间，回答的人常说“I’m fine.”(我也很好) I’m是一种缩略形式，用于口语或非正式文体中，其正式形式为I am,意为“我是“ －I’m ok. （我也很好。）此句表示自己身体安好，意思同I’m fine. 相近。其中OK在英语中也可以写作O.K或okay。 句型 Good morning! 早上好！Good morning, Helen! 早上好,海伦！ Good afternoon! 下午好！ Good evening! 晚上好！（晚安） How are you? 你好吗?－I’ m fine, thanks. 我很好，谢谢。 How are you? 你好吗?－I’m OK. 我很好.
Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. 9.语言langue