建设工程投标价格和价格控制机制
莫荣风
(南宁职业技术学院、南宁、广西,530008)
摘要:在21世纪,特别是加入WTO后,建筑工程招投标价格形成机制的主要特点是市场价格的建设项目分为一个统一的,统一的计量单位,统一的工程和消费的固定规则的基础上实现的市场,竞争费用。不仅第一个进行财务决策,企业承包商按照不同的方式,根据市场状况,其技术、经济实力,通过财务决策高等。第二,有必要采取有效措施,建设项目投标价格的形式合同价格是固定的。通过设计、材料采购、施工管理实施的竞标价格的有效控制。
关键词:建设项目投标价格,价格控制机制
1.生产的序言
工程建设中心任务是实现项目目标。从客观意义上讲,投资来实现经济效益的目标是老板真正的化身,和项目的决心和投资成本的有效控制工程施工管理是项目管理的一个重要的和不可或缺的部分有一个特殊的位置。随着中国经济体制改革,国民经济继续发展,如何加强工程造价管理,提高项目投资效益?这就是目前的投资和成本改革的一个主要问题。
投资成本是一个关键的和主要内容的一部分,它包括建设工程从施工准备到竣工验收成本的总和,它包括建筑成本、设备工具、工程建设其他费用、储备、利息、税项为固定资产投资利益和当前基金等组成。价格机制是成本管理的核心问题,也是投资宏观决策和提高项目投资效益的一个核心问题。加强成本管理,提高投资效果,必须形成一个在国家的宏观调控下,以市场主要是成本价格机制形成的。
特别是中国加入WTO后,国外建筑工程承包公司进入中国市场,我们的工程承包业务竞争,我国的工程承包公司也想在国外工作建设和发展市场。因此,我们要总结过去的国内和国际承包建设项目施工管理的经验和教训,并完全理解建设工程招投标价格形成机制的特点和操作规则,有效的施工项目成本控制,更好地利用资源,打开市场,提高企业的经济效益。
2.建设工程招投标价格形成机制
承包建筑工程的计算要约使用我们的决策理论、会计、经济学理论报价评估策略,政府在技术和业务上全面识别、比较科学的使用方法和实际定价基于建设工程造价合理,使它赢得了投标报价。
(1)当前施工项目成本定价
基于现在不能满足市场经济的条件下,国际和国内合同招标工作。中国建筑施工企业很少有自己的固定的工程预算,建筑工程的国际承包商投标报价工作更加困难。我国因为当前施工项目成本管理体系的建立计划经济模式,忽视经济地位的一个独立的企业,国家直接参与管理活动,制定和控制构成直接施工项目成本的各种因素。虽然近年来,出现了各种类型的工程咨询公司、建筑工程项目竞争投标。建设项目管理系统,但在定价基于建设项目成本、固定,保持政府标准的入场费的开发、管理和作为一个法定的价格。因此,在施工项目成本管理中,决策,重新实现经济,强调技术困难的变化情况。
(2)在市场经济条件下招标建设项目按照定价的特点
在市场经济中,能够及时、准确的市场价格来捕捉信息建设项目业主和承包商保持竞争优势,控制成本并获得盈利的关键是建设工程投标价格计算和结算的重要依据。价格应该逐步自由化的固定定价方法过渡到市场过渡,与国际市场。企业根据自己的技术水平人员、设备、管理能力、资历、经验和信誉的社会企业的发展规模和访问他们自己的标准收费。
因此,我们还想增加现有的基于成本的定价改革建设项目统一的度量单位团结,团结的工作和消费的固定规则的基础上商品经济的规则建立市场价格为主的价格机制。,体积和价格来实现分离的属性改变固定价格,不再固定的法律行为的一部分,但数量应该统一,国家相关专业协会的指导下,咨询公司或工程计算的发展和消费的固定规则,促进市场公平竞争保持均衡发展社会生产力。具体建设项目的投标报价在计算根据市场供求的变化,政
府和社会咨询机构提供信息和成本价格指数、质量、和收缩方法,合同期内,支付购买价格等因素,按照国际惯例、规范和实践的灵活的高等。
3所示。工程招投标价格的有效控制
施工过程中工作总是有危险因素,有市场价格变化的风险,设计风险,风险的材料采购、施工风险管理等等,直到完成建设项目,合格的验收,建设工程质量保证，复苏,人员、工程机械基地安全撤回或转移到另一个网站建设项目,建设项目的风险,最后消失。因此不会招标工作做好风险控制,和建设项目投标价格,有效控制尤为重要。（1）财务决策进行
财务决策是生产管理的重要组成部分的财务管理从企业的决策程序上的评估和选择财务角度。招标的国际价格，以工作有利润要和必须适应伴随着金融机构的市场经济。
它的主要任务是为企业提供资金的动态信息，密切关注市场变化，前向预测分析，本次要约收购为企业提供决策依据。思想的模式之后传统的会计结算的管理方式，使得当前的预算制度将已签约的重视建设项目安装工程造价管理，而忽视了整个建设项目管理的成本，不重视整体的重要性现代管理的优化效果无法预测的第一个想法，思想和控制到系统的方法了。
经过核算为基础的预算管理制度不会阻止和解决决策和设计阶段，造成的浪费和渔业的建设项目，它不能防止和解决设备和材料的采购问题，问题和问题，如库存的质量，价格的保管。预算管理概述不能固定，两个B 在固定基础工作，相互沟通，理解和在标准规模的亏损，卓越的管理，审计部门左侧和仲裁机构固定为评价标准，这是投资的静态控制。
但也与通过实施计划，标准，建筑机械，工程等的选择支付投标价的分析相结合的采购价格，使金融决策，这是一个微观管理。因此，我们应该根据要约收购的进展“控制”是必要主动采取TBE财务决策，使施工项目成本的技术和经济的控制相结合，以确保成功和盈利能力。
（2）使用形式根据实际情况有利的合同价格
因此，在市场经济中，建设工程招投标不仅是一个定价问题，而是设计文档，合同，文本管理和招投标的条款相结合。建设工程招投标结束后，通过合同价格的形式形成的价格是固定的。通过招标的实施为有效控制价格的合同管理。法人之间的经济合同，以实现经济目标必须明确签订合同业务双方协商的权利和义务，不仅是一种经济活动，也是一种法律行为，是利用法律手段和经济手段的组合来管理经济的一项措施。对于较大多年的建设项目或不完整的设计文件，工程，交通工程不能固定，可以采用单价合同。我们还可以列于合同价格和调整价格调整公式的范围内，等，以降低风险。合同价格和经济的支付条款是合同中的重要地位的核心条款，合同谈判，签订，执行，管理之一。所以投标合同价格设定，重量可以在过去的进度和质量控制，成本控制的想法的光对于今年已经开始改变的时候了工程，设计部门，施工企业完成，物资供应部门根据各自的承包商，利用数据包的固定价格包干合同价格的死亡从开始到结束。
（3）设计实施的限制
对于一个建设项目，在建设阶段投资涉及设计，材料采购和施工管理的三个方面。投资建设项目的质量，施工项目成本的高低，起决定性作用的是设计。工程设计阶段是建设工程价款的第一阶段的形成，在这个阶段投资机会挽救了许多，大，小的量价支付。建设项目建设期建设项目的特点，建设项目全寿命以及在设计阶段投资建设项目的回报，因此以技术和投资形式的质量成本。预算管理在目前的重点往往放在施工成本管理的建设阶段，而忽略了设计阶段和管理的采购阶段的材料成本，预算超预算，超预算的解决是必然现象。在建设工程招投标制，工程设计工作的特点是经济，技术经济拮据的技术决策，从而使我们能够做好建设工程招投标限价做好有效的控制必须被设计不仅能够实现的设计规模，设计标准，设计深度，工程量和投资，有效控制等方面的金额。
（4）完善物资采购管理制度，逐步与市场。
在安装的基础上，对建设项目的材料费建安70％左右。在安装，设备也占了很大的比重。因此影响到投标价格的另一个因素物资采购管理制度。要真正做出有效运行形成市场价格机制，就必须有相适应的采购管理系统的资料。
在市场经济条件下，无论是业主或承包商材料采购，或者在投标报价应在合同多种约定，数量，质量，价格限制采购的实施范围，努力减少设备和材料成本。例如，采购管理的执行率，有必要货比三家，购买价格不能高于预算价，成本价较高;另外还要建立和完善内部采购审计制度，决策的执行力，权落实检查三权分立的权利，等等，从而有效地控制建设工程造价。
（5）索赔工作的投标价格控制是另一个重要工作
建设工程招投标价格的控制是建设项目索赔管理的另一特点。索赔合同给，我们应该建立索赔，索赔的重要性，良好的索赔意识的法律和合法权利，建立了索赔管理机制健全。承包商要充分发挥主观能动性，而不是等到另一种方式的损失思考，但权利要求的重要途径，以提高经济效率，在情况下，他们碰巧考虑采取措施，在走在前面的时间采取前，并积极主动地学习和使用的方式来控制风险。索赔的诉讼时效，按照程序的要求，据可靠证据，就把原因转发索赔和索赔的文件内容，索赔报告。
4.结论
综上所述，在市场经济条件下，申办建设工程是一个系统性的工程项目，涉及价格形成机制的每个方面都固有的特点和运行规律，所以我们根据自己的特点和运行规律需要，认真做好准备工程计算和控制价格招标，提高竞争力，就必须确保成功，而且要确保经济利益必须能够获得。
参考文献
[1]混合泳，LARRY G.生命周期的角度来看：管理费用发生之前[J]。成本工程，1996（8）：584-590。
[2] Rashmi马尔霍特拉，D.K.MaIhotra.良好的信用和信用不良使用神经模糊系统[J]。欧洲运筹学杂志，2002,136。
Construction Project Bidding Prices and Price Control Mechanism
Rongfeng Mo
(Nanning College for Vocational Technology, Nanning, Guangxi, 530008)
Abstract. In the 21st century, especially after the accession to WTO, Construction project bidding price formation mechanism is the main characteristics of the market price of the Construction project is divided in a unified, uniform measurement unit, unified in terms of engineering and consumption of fixed rules on the basis of the implementation of market, competition fees.The first to be carried out not only the financial decision-making, corporate contractors in accordance with the different ways, according to market conditions, its technology, economic strength, through the financial decision-making self-quotation. Second, it is necessary to exercise effective control, both the Construction project bidding price by the form of the contract price is fixed.By design, material procurement, construction management on the implementation of bidding for the effective control of prices.
Key words: Construction project bidding prices, Price control mechanism.
1. The preamble of the production
Project construction central task is to realize the project goals. From the objective sense, investment to achieve the goal of economic benefit is owner real embodiment, And project cost determination and investment of effective control of the engineering construction management is an important and indispensable part of project management has a special position. As China's economic system reform, the national economy continues to develop, how to strengthen the engineering cost management, improve the project investment benefit? This is what the current investment and cost reform a major issue.
Investment cost is a critical part of and main content, it includes the construction project from construction preparatory to completion acceptance of the cost of combined, and it consists of building the cost, equipment tools is, the engineering construction other fees, reserve, interest interest, tax for fixed assets investment and the current funds and so on a composition. The price mechanism is the core of cost management in the problem, but also investment macro decision and improves the project investment benefit of a central issue. To strengthen the cost management, increase the investment effects, must form a under the state's macroeconomic control, taking market mainly formed cost price mechanism.
Especially after China's accession to the WTO, overseas Construction project contracting companies to enter China's market, and our engineering contracting business to compete, and our country's engineering contracting companies also want to work abroad on construction and development market. Therefore, we want to sum up the past domestic and international contracted Construction projects of construction management experience and lessons, and fully understand the Construction project bidding price formation mechanism in the characteristics and operation rules，and effective Construction project cost control, better use of resources, both to open up the market，improve the economic efficiency of enterprises.
2.Construction project bidding price formation mechanism
Contracted Construction projects in the calculation of the
Tender Offer to use our decision-making theory, accounting，economics theory quotation evaluation strategy, the Administration on from，the technical and business on a comprehensive identification, compared the use of scientific methodology and practical pricing based on Construction project cost reasonable so that it won the bid quotation.
(1)The current Construction project cost pricing
Based on the characteristics of Not meet the conditions of market economy, international and domestic contract under the tender offer job. China’s construction enterprises rarely have their own fixed construction budget, which Construction projects to the international contractor the tender offer must work more difficult. Our country because of the current Construction project cost management system are planned economy mode at the set up, to the neglect of the economic status of an independent enterprise, the State directly involved in management activities，formulate and control constitute a direct Construction project cost of a variety of factors.Although in recent years, various types of engineering consulting companies have emerged, construction Construction projects competitive bidding. Construction project management system, but at pricing based on Construction project cost, the fixed, remain the standard admission fee by the Government to develop, manage, and as a statutory price. Therefore, in Construction project cost management, light decision-making, re-implemented, light economy, emphasis on technical change in the situation difficult.
(2)Under market economy conditions bidding the Construction project in accordance with the characteristics of pricing
In the market economy, be able to timely and accurate market prices to capture information Construction project owners and contractors are to maintain a competitive advantage, control costs and to obtain the key to profitability is the Construction project bidding Price calculation and an important basis for settlement. Price should be gradually liberalized by the fixed pricing method to transition to the market by transition, with the international market. Enterprises according to their skill level personnel, equipment, management capabilities, qualifications, experience and credibility of the development of social enterprises scale their own standards and access charges.
Therefore, we would also like to increase the existing cost based pricing reform Construction projects in the uniform division of the units of measurement unity, unity in terms of work and consumption of fixed rules on the basis of the commodity economy to follow the rules set up to market price Lord of the price mechanism. That is, volume and price to implement the separation of the property to change the fixed price, fixed no longer part of the legal acts，but the amount should be unified, to the country under the guidance of
the relevant professional associations, consulting firms or the development of engineering calculation and consumption of fixed rules, to promote fair competition in the market to maintain a balanced development of social productive forces.A specific Construction project at the tender offer when calculating the change in accordance with market supply and demand, government and community advisory body to provide information and the cost price index, quality, and contracting methods, contract period, factors such as the purchase price payment, in accordance with international practices, norms and practices of a flexible self-quotation.
3.Engineering, bidding the price of effective control
In the construction process works there is always risk factors, there is the risk of market price changes, design risk, the risk of material procurement, construction risk management and so on, until the completion of the Construction project, qualified acceptance, Construction project, quality guarantee fiill recovery, personnel, construction machinery base security to withdraw or transfer to another Construction project site, the risk of the Construction project before finally disappearing. Therefore the works will not be bidding to do a good job of risk control, and Construction project bidding prices, it is particularly important to effective control.
(l)Financial decision-making carried out
Financial decision-making is the production and management and financial management of an important part are from a financial point of business decision-making program on the evaluation and selection. Tender in the international prices in order to work there is profit to be successfiil and have to adapt to market economy accompanied by the financial mechanism.
Its main mission is to provide dynamic information of enterprise fund, paying close attention to changes in the market, a forward-prediction analysis, the Tender Offer for businesses to provide basis for decision making. Traditional accounting billing management style after the pattern of thought, making the current budget system will have been contracted Construction projects of great importance to the installation of building cost management while ignoring the cost of the entire Construction project management, do not attach importance to the overall effectiveness of the optimization of modem management can not prediction that the first thought, after thought and methods of control into the system.
After the accounting-based budget management system will not prevent and solve decision-making and the design phase, resulting in a waste and fishing Construction projects, it can not prevent and resolve equipment and materials in the custody of the price of procurement issues, the quality of questions and issues such as inventory. Overview of budget management can not be fixed, both B to the fixed work-based, mutual communication, understanding and left at a loss on the standard scale, superior management, the audit department and arbitral bodies are fixed as the standards of evaluation, This is a static control of the investment.
But also with the adoption of the implementation plan, standards, selection of construction machinery, engineering, etc. to pay the purchase price of the combination of analysis of the tender price, to make the financial decision-making, which is a micro-management. Therefore, we should "control" based on the advance in the tender offer is necessary to take the initiative to adopt tbe financial decision-making, so that a combination of technical and economic control of Construction project cost to ensure the successiul and profitable.
(2)According to the actual situation favorable contract price using the form
Therefore, in a market economy, Construction project bidding is not just a pricing problem, but to design documents, the terms of the contract, text management and bidding are combined. After the end of the Construction project bidding，the price of formed through the form of the contract price is fixed. Contract management through the implementation of bidding for the effective control of prices.Economic contracts between legal persons are to achieve the economic goals must clear the rights and obligations of mutual agreement Signed a contract business is not just an economic activity, but also a legal act, is to use legal means and a combination of economic instruments to manage the economy as a measure.For larger multi-year Construction projects or incomplete design documents, engineering, traffic engineering can not be fixed, unit price contracts can be used. We can also set forth in the contract prices and adjust the scope of price adjustment formula, and so on in order to reduce the risk.Contract price and payment terms of the economy are one of the core provisions of the contract, the contract negotiations, signing, implementation, management in an important position. So bidding for the contract price set, the weight can change over the past progress and quality control，cost control in light of the idea For the year started, when the completion
of the engineering, design departments, construction companies, material supply department in accordance with their respective contractors, use of fixed price lump sum contract price of a packet die from start to finish.
(3)Designed t o implement limit
For a Construction project, investment in its construction phase involves the design, material procurement and construction management of three areas. The quality of investment Construction projects, the level of Construction project cost, play a decisive role is to design. Engineering design stage is the formation of the first phase of the Construction project price, at this stage investment opportunities to save many, the amount of large, small price to pay. The quality of the Construction project construction period the Construction project features, Construction project life and Construction project return on investment at the design stage and so to the cost of technology and investment form. Budget management over the current emphasis is often placed on the construction phase of the construction cost management, while ignoring the design stage and material cost of the procurement phase of management, a budget ultra-budget, ultra-budget settlement is inevitable phenomenon.In the Construction project bidding system, the characteristics of engineering design work are technical decisions of economic, technical economic constraints, thus enabling us to do a good job in Construction project bidding price limits effective control must be designed not only to achieve the design of the scale, design standards, design depth, engineering quantity and amount of investment and other aspects of effective control.
(4)Improve material procurement management system，step by step with the market.
Building at the installation, the materials about the Construction project costs Jian'an around 70%. At the installation, the equipment also account for a large proportion. Therefore affect the bidding price is another factor material procurement management system. To really make the market price mechanism for the formation of the effective operation, it is necessary to have the materials suited to the procurement management system.
Economic conditions in the market, whether the owners or contractors material procurement, or quotation in the tender should be stipulated in the contract variety, quantity, quality, price limits the scope of the implementation of procurement, efforts to reduce the equipment and materials costs. For instance, the implementation rate of procurement management, it is necessary to shop around, the purchase price can not be higher than the budget price，cost price; the other would also like to set up and perfect the internal procurement audit system, the implementation of the decision-making power, the implementation of the right to examine the right of separation of powers, and so on，in order to effectively control the Construction project cost.
(5)Claim works bidding price controls are another important
job
Construction project bidding price controls are another feature of the Construction project claims management. Claim contracts are legal and legitimate right to give, we should establish a sense of Claim,Claim importance, good claims, set up a sound mechanism for claims management.Contractor should give full play to the initiative, not wait until the loss of another way to think, but to claim as an important way to improve economic efficiency, in the case before they happen to consider measures to be taken at the time of going ahead, and actively take the initiative to study use and ways to control risk. Statute of limitations in the claim，the Claim in accordance with the procedures，according to reliable evidence, the reasons put forward claims and claim the contents of documents for the claim is reported.
4.Conclusion
To sum up, economic conditions in the market, bidding the Construction project is a systematic Construction project, involving every aspect of the price formation mechanism has the inherent characteristics and operation rules, so we want according to their characteristics and operation rules, and seriously prepare Price bidding for engineering calculation and control, enhance competitiveness, it is necessary to ensure the successful, but also to ensure that economic benefits must be able to obtain.
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[1]MEDLEY, LARRY G. The life-cycle perspective:managing cost before it occurs[J]. Cost Engineering, 1996 (8):584- 590.
Rashmi Malhotra,D.K.MaIhotra.Differentiation between Good Credits and Bad Credits Using Neuro-Fuzzy Systems [J].European Journal of Operational Research,20
工业设计原著选读 优秀的产品设计 第一个拨号电话1897年由卡罗耳Gantz 第一个拨号电话在1897年被自动电器公司引入，成立于1891年布朗强，一名勘萨斯州承担者。在1889年，相信铃声“中央交换”将转移来电给竞争对手，强发明了被拨号系统控制的自动交换机系统。这个系统在1892年第一次在拉波特完成史端乔系统中被安装。1897年，强的模型电话，然而模型扶轮拨条的位置没有类似于轮齿约170度,以及边缘拨阀瓣。电话，当然是被亚历山大格雷厄姆贝尔（1847—1922）在1876年发明的。第一个商业交换始建于1878（12个使用者），在1879年，多交换机系统由工程师勒罗伊B 菲尔曼发明,使电话取得商业成功,用户在1890年达到250000。 直到1894年，贝尔原批专利过期，贝尔电话公司在市场上有一个虚拟的垄断。他们已经成功侵权投诉反对至少600竞争者。该公司曾在1896年，刚刚在中央交易所推出了电源的“普通电池”制度。在那之前，一个人有手摇电话以提供足够的电力呼叫。一个连接可能仍然只能在给予该人的名义下提出要求达到一个电话接线员。这是强改变的原因。 强很快成为贝尔的强大竞争者。他在1901年引进了一个桌面拨号模型，这个模型在设计方面比贝尔的模型更加清晰。在1902年，他引进了一个带有磁盘拨号的墙面电话，这次与实际指孔，仍然只有170度左右在磁盘周围。到1905年，一个“长距离”手指孔已经被增加了。最后一个强的知名模型是在1907年。强的专利大概过期于1914年，之后他或他的公司再也没有听到过。直到1919年贝尔引进了拨号系统。当他们这样做，在拨号盘的周围手指孔被充分扩展了。 强发明的拨号系统直到1922年进入像纽约一样的大城市才成为主流。但是一旦作为规规范被确立，直到70年代它仍然是主要的电话技术。后按键式拨号在1963年被推出之后，强发明的最初的手指拨号系统作为“旋转的拨号系统”而知名。这是强怎样“让你的手指拨号”的。 埃姆斯椅LCW和DCW 1947 这些带有复合曲线座位，靠背和橡胶防震装置的成型胶合板椅是由查尔斯埃姆斯设计，在赫曼米勒家具公司生产的。 这个原始的概念是被查尔斯埃姆斯（1907—1978）和埃罗沙里宁（1910—1961）在1940年合作构想出来的。在1937年，埃姆斯成为克兰布鲁克学院实验设计部门的领头人，和沙里宁一起工作调查材料和家具。在这些努力下，埃姆斯发明了分成薄片和成型胶合板夹板，被称作埃姆斯夹板，在1941年收到了来自美国海军5000人的订单。查尔斯和他的妻子雷在他们威尼斯，钙的工作室及工厂和埃文斯产品公司的生产厂家一起生产了这批订单。 在1941年现代艺术博物馆，艾略特诺伊斯组织了一场比赛用以发现对现代生活富有想象力的设计师。奖项颁发给了埃姆斯和沙里宁他们的椅子和存储碎片，由包括埃德加考夫曼，大都会艺术博物馆的阿尔弗雷德，艾略特诺伊斯，马尔塞布鲁尔，弗兰克帕里什和建筑师爱德华达雷尔斯通的陪审团裁决。 这些椅子在1946年的现代艺术展览博物馆被展出，查尔斯埃姆斯设计的新的家具。当时，椅子只有三条腿，稳定性问题气馁了大规模生产。 早期的LCW（低木椅）和DWC（就餐木椅）设计有四条木腿在1946年第一次被埃文斯产品公司（埃姆斯的战时雇主）生产出来，被赫曼米勒家具公司分配。这些工具1946年被乔治纳尔逊为赫曼米勒购买，在1949年接手制造权。后来金属脚的愿景在1951年制作，包括LCW（低金属椅）和DWC（就餐金属椅）模型。配套的餐饮和咖啡桌也产生。这条线一直
Load and Ultimate Moment of Prestressed Concrete Action Under Overload-Cracking Load It has been shown that a variation in the external load acting on a prestressed beam results in a change in the location of the pressure line for beams in the elastic range.This is a fundamental principle of prestressed construction.In a normal prestressed beam,this shift in the location of the pressure line continues at a relatively uniform rate,as the external load is increased,to the point where cracks develop in the tension fiber.After the cracking load has been exceeded,the rate of movement in the pressure line decreases as additional load is applied,and a significant increase in the stress in the prestressing tendon and the resultant concrete force begins to take place.This change in the action of the internal moment continues until all movement of the pressure line ceases.The moment caused by loads that are applied thereafter is offset entirely by a corresponding and proportional change in the internal forces,just as in reinforced-concrete construction.This fact,that the load in the elastic range and the plastic range is carried by actions that are fundamentally different,is very significant and renders strength computations essential for all designs in order to ensure that adequate safety factors exist.This is true even though the stresses in the elastic range may conform to a recognized elastic design criterion. It should be noted that the load deflection curve is close to a straight line up to the cracking load and that the curve becomes progressively more curved as the load is increased above the cracking load.The curvature of the load-deflection curve for loads over the cracking load is due to the change in the basic internal resisting moment action that counteracts the applied loads,as described above,as well as to plastic strains that begin to take place in the steel and the concrete when stressed to high levels. In some structures it may be essential that the flexural members remain crack free even under significant overloads.This may be due to the structures’being exposed to exceptionally corrosive atmospheres during their useful life.In designing prestressed members to be used in special structures of this type,it may be necessary to compute the load that causes cracking of the tensile flange,in order to ensure that adequate safety against cracking is provided by the design.The computation of the moment that will cause cracking is also necessary to ensure compliance with some design criteria. Many tests have demonstrated that the load-deflection curves of prestressed beams are approximately linear up to and slightly in excess of the load that causes the first cracks in the tensile flange.(The linearity is a function of the rate at which the load is applied.)For this reason,normal elastic-design relationships can be used in computing the cracking load by simply determining the load that results in a net tensile stress in the tensile flange(prestress minus the effects of the applied loads)that is equal to the tensile strength of the concrete.It is customary to assume that the flexural tensile strength of the concrete is equal to the modulus of rupture of the
外文翻译 原文 World Trade and International Trade Material Source:https://www.doczj.com/doc/2f2700844.html, Author: Ted Alax In today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills. This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity. As a result of this trade and activity, international finance and banking have evolved. For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any or its own. Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala) that grow coffee efficiently. On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them. If nations traded item for item, such as one automobile for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive. So instead of batter, which is trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United State receives money in payment for what it sells. It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to buy wool from Australia, which in turn can buy textiles Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United State. Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons. The first, as mentioned above is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs. Raw materials are scattered around the world. Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East. Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them. Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs. Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.
E---MARKETING (From:E--Marketing by Judy Strauss,Adel El--Ansary,Raymond Frost---3rd ed.1999 by Pearson Education pp .G4-G25.) As the growth of https://www.doczj.com/doc/2f2700844.html, shows, some marketing principles never change.Markets always welcome an innovative new product, even in a crowded field of competitors ,as long as it provides customer value.Also,Google`s success shows that customers trust good brands and that well-crafted marketing mix strategies can be effective in helping newcomers enter crowded markets. Nevertheless, organizations are scrambling to determine how they can use information technology profitably and to understand what technology means for their business strategies. Marketers want to know which of their time-ested concepts will be enhanced by the Internet, databases,wireless mobile devices, and other technologies. The rapid growth of the Internet and subsequent bursting of the dot-com bubble has marketers wondering,"What next?" This article attempts to answer these questions through careful and systematic examination of successful e-mar-keting strategies in light of proven traditional marketing practices. （Sales Promotion;E--Marketing；Internet；Strategic Planning ） 1.What is E--Marketing E--Marketing is the application of a broad range of information technologies for: Transforming marketing strategies to create more customer value through more effective segmentation ,and positioning strategies；More efficiently planning and executing the conception, distribution promotion,and pricing of goods,services,and ideas;andCreating exchanges that satisfy individual consumer and organizational customers` objectives. This definition sounds a lot like the definition of traditional marketing. Another way to view it is that e-marketing is the result of information technology applied to traditional marketing. E-marketing affects traditional marketing in two ways. First,it increases efficiency in traditional marketing strategies.The transformation results in new business models that add customer value and/or increase company profitability.
Interaction design Moggridge Bill Interaction design，Page 1-15 USA Art Press, 2008 Interaction design (IxD) is the study of devices with which a user can interact, in particular computer users. The practice typically centers on "embedding information technology into the ambient social complexities of the physical world."[1] It can also apply to other types of non-electronic products and services, and even organizations. Interaction design defines the behavior (the "interaction") of an artifact or system in response to its users. Malcolm McCullough has written, "As a consequence of pervasive computing, interaction design is poised to become one of the main liberal arts of the twenty-first century." Certain basic principles of cognitive psychology provide grounding for interaction design. These include mental models, mapping, interface metaphors, and affordances. Many of these are laid out in Donald Norman's influential book The Psychology of Everyday Things. As technologies are often overly complex for their intended target audience, interaction design aims to minimize the learning curve and to increase accuracy and efficiency of a task without diminishing usefulness. The objective is to reduce frustration and increase user productivity and satisfaction. Interaction design attempts to improve the usability and experience of the product, by first researching and understanding certain users' needs and then designing to meet and exceed them. (Figuring out who needs to use it, and how those people would like to use it.) Only by involving users who will use a product or system on a regular basis will designers be able to properly tailor and maximize usability. Involving real users, designers gain the ability to better understand user goals and experiences. (see also: User-centered design) There are also positive side effects which include enhanced system capability awareness and user ownership. It is important that the user be aware of system capabilities from an early stage so that expectations regarding functionality are both realistic and properly understood. Also, users who have been active participants in a product's development are more likely to feel a sense of ownership, thus increasing overall satisfa. Instructional design is a goal-oriented, user-centric approach to creating training and education software or written materials. Interaction design and instructional design both rely on cognitive psychology theories to focus on how users will interact with software. They both take an in-depth approach to analyzing the user's needs and goals. A needs analysis is often performed in both disciplines. Both, approach the design from the user's perspective. Both, involve gathering feedback from users, and making revisions until the product or service has been found to be effective. (Summative / formative evaluations) In many ways, instructional
Journal of Industrial Textiles https://www.doczj.com/doc/2f2700844.html,/ Optimization of Parameters for the Production of Needlepunched Nonwoven Geotextiles Amit Rawal, Subhash Anand and Tahir Shah 2008 37: 341Journal of Industrial Textiles DOI: 10.1177/1528083707081594 The online version of this article can be found at: https://www.doczj.com/doc/2f2700844.html,/content/37/4/341 Published by: https://www.doczj.com/doc/2f2700844.html, can be found at:Journal of Industrial TextilesAdditional services and information for https://www.doczj.com/doc/2f2700844.html,/cgi/alertsEmail Alerts: https://www.doczj.com/doc/2f2700844.html,/subscriptionsSubscriptions: https://www.doczj.com/doc/2f2700844.html,/journalsReprints.navReprints: https://www.doczj.com/doc/2f2700844.html,/journalsPermissions.navPermissions: https://www.doczj.com/doc/2f2700844.html,/content/37/4/341.refs.htmlCitations: - Mar 28, 2008Version of Record >>
Strategic transformations in Danish and Swedish big business in an era of globalisation, 1973-2008 The Danish and Swedish context In the difficult inter-war period, a state-supported, protected home market orientation had helped stabilise both Denmark’s and Sweden’s economies, but after WorldWar II priorities changed. Gradually and in accordance with the international economic development, restrictions on foreign trade were removed, and Danish and Swedish industry was exposed to international competition. As a consequence, several home market oriented industries –such as the textile and the shoe industry –were more or less outperformed, while in Sweden the engineering industry soon became the dominant leader of Swedish industry, with companies such as V olvo, Ericsson, Electrolux, ASEA and SKF. In the Danish case, the SMEs continued to be dominant but in combination with expanding export oriented industrial manufacturers such as Lego, Danfoss, Carlsberg and the shipping conglomerates ok and A.P. moller-Marsk. In Sweden and Denmark stable economic growth continued into the 1970s, but due to the problems during the oil crises, the economies came into fundamental structural troubles for the first time since World War II. In the beginning this was counteracted by traditional Keynesian policy measures. However, because of large budget deficits, inflation and increasing wages, both the Danish economy from 1974 and the Swedish economy from 1976 encountered severe problems. Towards the late 1970s Denmark’s and Sweden’s economic policies were thus increasingly questioned. It was clear that Keynesian policy could not solve all economic problems. Expansive fiscal policies in terms of continued deficits on the state budget could not compensate for the loss of both national and international markets and step by step the Keynesian economic policy was abandoned. The increased budget deficit also made it difficult for the state to support employment and regional development. These kinds of heavy governmental activities were also hardly acceptable under the more market oriented policy that developed first in Great Britain and the USA, but in the 1980s also in Denmark and Sweden (Iversen & Andersen, 2008, pp. 313–315; Sjo¨ gren, 2008, pp. 46–54). These changes in political priorities were especially noticeable in the financial market. After being the most state regulated and coordinated sector of the economy since the 1950s, then between 1980 and 1985 the Danish and Swedish financial markets underwent an extensive deregulation resulting in increased competition. Lending from banks and other credit institutes was no longer regulated, and neither were interest rates. The bond market was also opened as the issuance of new bond loans was deregulated in Sweden in 1983. When the control of foreign capital flows was liberalised in the late 1980s the last extraordinary restriction was now gone. Together with the establishment of the new money market with options and derivates, this opened up to a much larger credit market and the possibility for companies to finance investments and increase business domestically as well as abroad (Larsson, 1998, pp. 205–207). Another important part of the regulatory changes in the early 1980s were new rules for the Copenhagen and Stockholm stock exchanges. Introduction on the stock exchange was made much
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译) 中英文翻译原文：
DESIGN and ENVIRONMENT Product design is the principal part and kernel of industrial design. Product design gives uses pleasure. A good design can bring hope and create new lifestyle to human. In spscificity,products are only outcomes of factory such as mechanical and electrical products,costume and so on.In generality,anything,whatever it is tangibile or intangible,that can be provided for a market,can be weighed with value by customers, and can satisfy a need or desire,can be entiled as products. Innovative design has come into human life. It makes product looking brand-new and brings new aesthetic feeling and attraction that are different from traditional products. Enterprose tend to renovate idea of product design because of change of consumer's lifestyle , emphasis on individuation and self-expression,market competition and requirement of individuation of product. Product design includes factors of society ,economy, techology and leterae humaniores. Tasks of product design includes styling, color, face processing and selection of material and optimization of human-machine interface. Design is a kind of thinking of lifestyle.Product and design conception can guide human lifestyle . In reverse , lifestyle also manipulates orientation and development of product from thinking layer.
毕业论文外文文献翻译 毕业设计（论文）题目关于企业内部环境绩效审计的研究翻译题目最高审计机关的环境审计活动 学院会计学院 专业会计学 姓名张军芳 班级09020615 学号09027927 指导教师何瑞雄
最高审计机关的环境审计活动 1最高审计机关越来越多的活跃在环境审计领域。特别是1993-1996年期间，工作组已检测到环境审计活动坚定的数量增长。首先，越来越多的最高审计机关已经活跃在这个领域。其次是积极的最高审计机关，甚至变得更加活跃：他们分配较大部分的审计资源给这类工作，同时出版更多环保审计报告。表1显示了平均数字。然而，这里是机构间差异较大。例如，环境报告的数量变化，每个审计机关从1到36份报告不等。 1996-1999年期间，结果是不那么容易诠释。第一，活跃在环境审计领域的最高审计机关数量并没有太大变化。“活性基团”的组成没有保持相同的：一些最高审计机关进入，而其他最高审计机关离开了团队。环境审计花费的时间量略有增加。二，但是，审计报告数量略有下降，1996年和1999年之间。这些数字可能反映了从量到质的转变。这个信号解释了在过去三年从规律性审计到绩效审计的转变（1994-1996年，20％的规律性审计和44％绩效审计;1997-1999：16％规律性审计和绩效审计54％）。在一般情况下，绩效审计需要更多的资源。我们必须认识到审计的范围可能急剧变化。在将来，再将来开发一些其他方式去测算人们工作量而不是计算通过花费的时间和发表的报告会是很有趣的。 在2000年，有62个响应了最高审计机关并向工作组提供了更详细的关于他们自1997年以来公布的工作信息。在1997-1999年，这62个最高审计机关公布的560个环境审计报告。当然，这些报告反映了一个庞大的身躯，可用于其他机构的经验。环境审计报告的参考书目可在网站上的最高审计机关国际组织的工作组看到。这里这个信息是用来给最高审计机关的审计工作的内容更多一些洞察。 自1997年以来，少数环境审计是规律性审计（560篇报告中有87篇，占16％）。大多数审计绩效审计（560篇报告中有304篇，占54％），或组合的规律性和绩效审计（560篇报告中有169篇，占30％）。如前文所述，绩效审计是一个广泛的概念。在实践中，绩效审计往往集中于环保计划的实施（560篇报告中有264篇，占47％），符合国家环保法律，法规的，由政府部门，部委和/或其他机构的任务给访问（560篇报告中有212篇，占38％）。此外，审计经常被列入政府的环境管理系统（560篇报告中有156篇，占28％）。下面的元素得到了关注审计报告：影响或影响现有的国家环境计划非环保项目对环境的影响;环境政策;由政府遵守国际义务和承诺的10％至20％。许多绩效审计包括以上提到的要素之一。 1本文译自：S. Van Leeuwen.(2004).’’Developments in Environmental Auditing by Supreme Audit Institutions’’ Environmental Management Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 163–1721