the relation between semantics and pragmatics

语言学考研真题和答案第一章语言学Fill in the blanks1. Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the _______it is associated with. （人大2007研）meaning 语言有任意性，其所指与形式没有逻辑或内在联系2. Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as _______. （北二外2003研）displacement 移位性指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、事件和观点3. By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the _______ level are composed of elements of the __________ level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. （北二外2006研）primary, secondary 双重性指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则4. The features that define our human languages can be called _______ features. （北二外2006）design人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。

chapter6Semantics. chapter6 SemanticsⅠ.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.2. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.3. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.4. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.5. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.6. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.7. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.8. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning.2. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.3. R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Words that are close in meaning are called s________.5. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________.6.R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal ofa relationship between the two items.7. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.8. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a lan-guage are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD.behaviourism3. Which of the following is not true ?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of thelinguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.6. “alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above7. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemyC. hyponymsD. synonymsIV. Define the following terms:1. semantics2. sense3 . reference 4. synonymy5. polysemy6. homonymy7. homophones 8. Homographs9. complete homonyms 10. hyponymy 11.antonymy。

编译原理英文版课后答案Chapter 1: Introduction to Compilation1. What is compilation?Compilation is the process of translating a high-level programming language code into a low-level machine language code that can be directly executed by a computer.2. What are the main components of a compiler?The main components of a compiler are:•Lexer: also known as a tokenizer, it breaks the source code into a sequence of tokens.•Parser: it verifies the syntax of the source code and builds an intermediate representation such as an abstract syntax tree (AST).•Semantic Analyzer: it checks for semantic correctness and assigns meaning to the program.•Intermediate Code Generator: it generates a representation of the program that can be easily translated into machine code.•Optimizer: it improves the efficiency of the program by performing various optimizations.•Code Generator: it translates the intermediate code into the target machine code.3. What are the advantages of compilation over interpretation?•Performance: Compiled code runs faster than interpreted code as the compilation process optimizes the code for a specific target machine.•Portability: Once a program is compiled, it can be executed on any machine that supports the target machine code, eliminating the need for aruntime environment.•Security: The source code is not distributed with the compiled program, making it harder for others to access and modify the code.4. What are the disadvantages of compilation?•Longer development cycle: Compilation requires additional time and effort compared to interpretation, as it involves multiple stages such as code generation and optimization.•Platform dependency: Compiled code is specific to the target machine, so it may not run on different architectures or operating systems withoutrecompilation.•Lack of flexibility: Changes made to the source code may require recompilation of the entire program.5. What is the difference between a compiler and an interpreter?A compiler translates the entire source code into machine code before execution, while an interpreter translates and executes the source code line by line.Chapter 2: Lexical Analysis1. What is lexical analysis?Lexical analysis, also known as tokenization, is the process of dividing the source code into a sequence of tokens.2. What are tokens?Tokens represent the basic building blocks of a programming language. They can be keywords, identifiers, constants, operators, or punctuation symbols.3. What is a regular expression?A regular expression is a sequence of characters that defines a search pattern. It is used in lexical analysis to describe the patterns of tokens.4. What are regular languages?Regular languages are a class of formal languages that can be described by regular expressions. They can be recognized by finite automata.5. What is a finite automaton?A finite automaton is a mathematical model of a computation process. It consists of a finite set of states and transitions between those states based on input.Chapter 3: Parsing1. What is parsing?Parsing is the process of analyzing the structure of a program according to the rules of a formal grammar. It involves constructing an abstract syntax tree (AST) from the given source code.2. What is an abstract syntax tree (AST)?An abstract syntax tree is a hierarchical representation of the syntactic structure of a program. It captures the relationships between different elements of the code, such as expressions and statements.3. What is a context-free grammar (CFG)?A context-free grammar is a formal way to describe the syntax of a programming language. It consists of a set of production rules that define how valid program statements can be constructed.4. What is the difference between a parse tree and an abstract syntax tree (AST)?A parse tree represents the complete syntactic structure of a program, including all the intermediate steps taken during parsing. An abstract syntax tree (AST) is a simplified version of the parse tree, where redundant information is removed, and only the essential structure of the program is retained.5. What is ambiguous grammar?An ambiguous grammar is a grammar that allows for multiple parse trees for a single input string. It can lead to parsing conflicts and difficulties in determining the correct interpretation of a program.Chapter 4: Semantic Analysis1. What is semantic analysis?Semantic analysis is the phase of the compilation process that checks the semantic correctness of a program. It assigns meaning to the code and ensures that it adheres to the rules and constraints of the programming language.2. What are static semantics?Static semantics are the properties of a program that can be determined at compile-time. These include type checking, scope rules, and variable declarations.3. What are dynamic semantics?Dynamic semantics are the properties of a program that can only be determined at runtime. These include program behavior, control flow, and runtime errors.4. What is type checking?Type checking is the process of verifying that the types of expressions and variables in a program are compatible according to the rules of the programming language. It prevents type-related errors during execution.5. What is symbol table?A symbol table is a data structure used by the compiler to store information about variables, functions, and other symbols in a program. It enables efficient semantic analysis and name resolution.Note: These answers are for reference purposes only and may vary depending on the specific context and requirements of the course or textbook.。

专八加油↖(^ω^)↗语言学（缩略版）1 语言的四个特征:任意性（Arbitrariness），二重性（Duality），创造性（Creativity），移位性（Displacement）2 语言的七个功能：信息功能（Informative），人际功能（Interpersonal Function），施为功能（Performative），感情功能（Emotive Function），寒暄功能（Phatic Communion），娱乐功能（Recreation Function）元语言功能（Metalingual Function）3 语言学的主要分支：语音学（Phonetics），音系学（Phonology）形态学（Morphology），句法学（Syntax)，语义学（Semantics），语用学（Pragmatics），4 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）的分支：心理语言学（Psycholinguistics），社会语言学（Sociolinguistics），人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics，计算机语言学（Computational linguistics）5 规定式（Prescriptive）---描述事情应该是怎样的（describe how things ought to be）描写式（Descriptive）---描述事情本是怎样的（describe how thing are）6 共时研究（Synchronic）---以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象（takes a fixed instant as its point of observation）历时研究（Diachronic）---研究语言各个阶段的发展变化（Study of a language through the course of its history）7 语言（Langue）---说话者的语言能力(the linguistic competence of the speaker）言语（Parole）---语言的实际现象或语料（the actual phenomena or data of linguistic）----索绪尔（Saussure）区分8 语言能力（Competence）---理想语言使用者关于语言的知识储备（underlying knowledge)语言运用（Performance）---真实的语言使用者在实际场景中语言的使用（Actual use ofLanguage)----乔姆斯基（Chomsk）区分9 语音学主要分支:发音语言学（Articulatory Phonetics），声学语言学（Acoustic Phonetics）。

全国2006年4月高等教育自学考试英语词汇学试题课程代码：00832I．Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that best completes thestatement and put the letter in the bracket. (30%)1. Extension can be illustrated by the following example: _________.（）A. butcher →one who kills goatsB. journal →periodicalC. companion →one who shares breadD. allergic →too sensitive to medicine2. The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas, namely, _________.（）A. extension, increase and expansionB. denotation, connotation and applicationC. comprehension, understanding and knowingD. polysemy, homograph and homophone3. Affixes attached to other morphemes to create new words are known as _________.（）A. inflectional affixesB. derivational affixesC. bound rootsD. free morphemes4. Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and _________.（）A. synonymyB. antonymyC. homonymyD. hyponymy5. The semantic unity of idioms is reflected in the _________ relationship between the literal meaning of each word andthe meaning of the idiom as in “rain cats and dogs”.（）A. illogicalB. logicalC. mutualD. natural6. Idioms verbal in nature are _________.（）A. verb phrasesB. phrasal verbsC. verb idiomsD. all the above7. The idiom “new brooms sweep clean” was created probably by _________.（）A. seamenB. housewivesC. farmersD. hunters8. The following are all denominal suffixes EXCEPT _________.（）A. –fulB. –wiseC. –lessD. –ike9. Both English and _________ belong to the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family.（）A. CelticB. DansihC. FrenchD. Scottish10. Chiefly found in derived words, bound morphemes include _________.（）A. bound rootsB. inflectional affixesC. derivational affixesD. all the above11. Motivation accounts for the connection between the word-form and _________.（）A. its referentB. its referring expressionsC. its meaningD. its concept12. Words can be classified according to the following criteria EXCEPT _________.（）A. notionB. use frequencyC. foundationD. origin13. Which of the following is NOT correct? _________（）A. A word is a meaningful group of letters.B. A word is a unit of meaning.C. A word is a sound or combination of sounds.D. A word is a form that cannot function alone in a sentence.14. If one wants to find out the minute difference between shades of meaning, the best source is _________.（）A. a thesaurusB. a synonym finderC. an encyclopediaD. an encyclopedic dictionary15. Which of the following can be said about a British Dictionary?（）A. It is always better than an American dictionary.B. One can always expect to find American usages in it.C. One can never expect to find American usages in it.D. It tends to include more grammatical information.II. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book. (10%)16.The Norman Conquest in 1066 started a continual flow of ___________ words into English.17. The attitudes of classes have made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or ___________.18. Context can help eliminate ambiguity, provide clues for inferring word-meaning and give ___________ of referents.19. Compounds are different from free phrases in ___________ unit.20. Content words have both meanings, and ___________ meaning in particular.III. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) types of figures of speech; 2) types of motivation; 3) types of changes in word meaning. (10%)A B( )21. senior citizen A. metonymy( )22. the pot calls the cattle black B. narrowing( )23. earn one’s bread C. euphemism( )24. from cradle to grave D. synecdoche( )25. sit on the fence E. hiss( )26. constable (a policeman) F. personification( )27. criticize(find fault with) G. morphologically motivated( )28. liquor(alcoholic drink) H. degradation( )29. snakes I. metaphor( )30. hopeless J. elevationIV. Study the following words or expressions and identify 1) types of affixes; 2) types of word formation; 3) types ofmeaning. (10%)31. harder ( )32. Fridge ( )33. autocide ( )34. tremble with fear ( )35. notorious, skinny ( )36. two-layer ( )37. UNESCO ( )38. cloudy ( )39. subway ( )40. police, money ( )V. Define the following terms.(10%)41. extra-linguistic context42. prefixation43. semantic change44. conceptual meaning45. specializationVI. Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short. Write your answers in the space givenbelow. (12%)46. What is semantic unity of idioms?47. What are the three areas to account for the difference between synonyms? Illustrate your points.48. What are the major differences between basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary?VII. Analyze and comment on the following. Write your answers in the space given below.(18%)49. Analyse the morphological structures of the following words and point out the types of the morphemes.dishearten, idealistic, unfriendly50. Collocation can affect the meaning of words.Comment on the statement with your own example.2006年4月英语词汇学试卷参考答案1．1．B 2．B 3．B 4．C 5．A 6．D 7．B 8．B 9．B l0．D ll．C l2．C l3．D l4．B l5．DⅡ．l6．French l7．degradation18．indication l9．semantic20．1exicalⅢ．21．C 22．F 23．D 24．A 25．I 26．J 27．H 28．B 29．E 30．GⅣ．31．inflectional suffix 32．clipping33．blendin934．collocative35．affective／pejorative 36．compoundin9／composition37．acronymy／initialism 38．suffix39．Drefix 40．stylistic／neutralV．41．(1)extra．1inguistic context=non-linguistic context = physical situation(2)includes people，time，place，even the whole cultural background42．Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems．43． Semantic change means mn old word form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need·44．conceptual meaning is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meanin9．45．the opposite of widening meanin9．A process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized meanin9．V1．46．(1)an idiom may consist of more than one word，each has its meanin9，and part of speech·(2)has a single meaning(3)functions as one word—equivalent(4)In many ca8es，illogical relationship between the literal meaning of the constituent word and the meaningof the whole idiom．47．(I)difference in denotation(2)difference in connotation ．(3)difference in application48．(1)Basic word stock possesses five obvious characteristics，but nonbasic vocabulary doesn’t (2)Basic word stock forms the common，core of the language，whereas nonbasic vocabulary deesn’t belongto the common core of the language．V11．49．(1)Each of the three words consists of three morphemes，dishearten(dis+heart+ca)，idealistic(ideal+ist +ic) unfriendly(an+friend+ty)(2)of the nine morphemes，only heart，／dea／and friend are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves·(3)All the rest dis-，-en，-ist，-ic，-un and-ty are bound as none of them call,stand alone as words. 50． (1)Collocation refers to the words before or after the word in discussion，and coUocative meaning consists of the associations the word acquires in its collocation．(2)Words with the same conceptual meaning may have different meanings due to the range of words they mayaycollocate with．In other words，collocation call affect the meaning of words．(3)For example，‘pretty’and‘handsome’share the conceptual meaning of‘good lookin9’．but aredistin． guished by the range of nouns they collocate with．。

semantics知识点总结Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It is concerned with how words and sentences are interpreted, how meaning is assigned to linguistic expressions, and how meaning is inferred from language. In this summary, we will explore some key concepts and topics in semantics, including the following:1. Meaning and reference2. Sense and reference3. Truth-conditional semantics4. Lexical semantics5. Compositional semantics6. Pragmatics and semantics7. Ambiguity and vagueness8. Semantic changeMeaning and referenceMeaning is a fundamental concept in semantics. It refers to the content or interpretation that is associated with a linguistic expression. The study of meaning in linguistics is concerned with understanding how meaning is established and conveyed in language. Reference, on the other hand, is the relationship between a linguistic expression and the real world entities to which it refers. For example, the word "dog" refers to the concept of a four-legged animal that is commonly kept as a pet. The study of reference in semantics is concerned with understanding how words and sentences refer to objects and entities in the world.Sense and referenceThe distinction between sense and reference is an important concept in semantics. Sense refers to the meaning or concept associated with a linguistic expression, while reference refers to the real world entities to which a linguistic expression refers. For example, the words "morning star" and "evening star" have the same reference - the planet Venus - but different senses, as they are used to describe the planet at different times of the day. Frege, a prominent philosopher of language, introduced this important distinction in his work on semantics.Truth-conditional semanticsTruth-conditional semantics is an approach to semantics that seeks to understand meaning in terms of truth conditions. According to this view, the meaning of a sentence isdetermined by the conditions under which it would be true or false. For example, the meaning of the sentence "The cat is on the mat" is determined by the conditions under which this statement would be true - i.e. if there is a cat on the mat. Truth-conditional semantics has been influential in the development of formal semantics, and it provides a formal framework for analyzing meaning in natural language.Lexical semanticsLexical semantics is the study of meaning at the level of words and lexical items. It is concerned with understanding the meanings of individual words, as well as the relationships between words in a language. Lexical semantics examines how words are related to each other in terms of synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, and other semantic relationships. It also explores the different senses and meanings that a word can have, and how these meanings are related to each other. Lexical semantics plays a crucial role in understanding the meaning of sentences and discourse.Compositional semanticsCompositional semantics is the study of how the meanings of words and sentences are combined to create complex meanings. It seeks to understand how the meanings of individual words are combined in sentences to produce the overall meaning of a sentence or utterance. Compositional semantics is concerned with understanding the rules and principles that govern the composition of meaning in natural language. It also explores the relationship between syntax and semantics, and how the structure of sentences contributes to the interpretation of meaning.Pragmatics and semanticsPragmatics is the study of how language is used in context, and how meaning is influenced by the context of language use. Pragmatics is closely related to semantics, but it focuses on the use of language in communication, and how meaning is affected by factors such as the speaker's intentions, the hearer's inferences, and the context in which the language is used. While semantics is concerned with the literal meaning of linguistic expressions, pragmatics is concerned with the implied meaning that arises from the use of language in context.Ambiguity and vaguenessAmbiguity and vagueness are common phenomena in natural language, and they pose challenges for semantic analysis. Ambiguity refers to situations where a linguistic expression has multiple possible meanings, and it is unclear which meaning is intended. For example, the word "bank" can refer to a financial institution or the edge of a river. Vagueness, on the other hand, refers to situations where the boundaries of a linguistic expression are unclear or indistinct. For example, the word "tall" is vague because it is not always clear what height qualifies as "tall". Semantics seeks to understand how ambiguity and vagueness arise in language, and how they can be resolved or managed in communication.Semantic changeSemantic change refers to the process by which the meanings of words and linguistic expressions evolve over time. Over the course of history, languages undergo semantic change, as words acquire new meanings, lose old meanings, or change in their semantic associations. Semantic change can occur through processes such as metaphor, metonymy, broadening, narrowing, and generalization. Understanding semantic change is important for the study of historical linguistics and the diachronic analysis of language.ConclusionSemantics is a rich and complex area of study that plays a fundamental role in understanding the meaning of language. It encompasses a wide range of topics and concepts, and it has important implications for fields such as philosophy of language, cognitive science, and natural language processing. By exploring the key concepts and topics in semantics, we can gain valuable insights into how meaning is established and conveyed in language, and how we can analyze and understand the rich complexity of linguistic expressions.。

外国语2010级6班王丽红201005140626the relation between semantics and pragmatics IntroductionLanguage is the bridge connecting the man and the physical world .in other words, language is the reflection of man’s knowledge about the objective world, by the language, we are able to express our ideas so as to communicate with others for kinds of purposes. And whether with body language or formal written or spoken language, the meaning is the core of the language.but meaning varies in the different situations or context even with the same syntactic form of a language.so what makes these differences ? Among the study of linguistics on the meaning, the are two main kinds study of meaning, semantics and pragmatics. The two are close but different in the study of meaning. Over the past years ,many linguists do many research on the study of the meaning and make attempt to take semantics ,instead of the syntax,s the prerequisite of the study of the linguistics . But the deeper the study ,the more they find the necessity of relating the semantics and the context, which produce the existing of pragmatics. So this paper is mainly dealing with the relation between the semantics and pragmatics.1.The definition of semantics and pragmatics.Semantics is the study of meaning, which focuses on the relation between signifiers, such as words, phrases, signs, and symbols, and what they stand for.Linguistic semantics is the study of meaning that is used to understand human expression through language. Other forms of semantics include the semantics of programming languages, formal logics, and semiotics.Pragmatics is the study of meaning, which focuses on the specified conversational context.In a given languages, linguistic pragmatics is the study of meaning that the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge (e.g., grammer, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and listener, but also on the context of the utterance, any preexisting knowledge about those involved, the inferred intent ofthe speaker, and other factors. In this respect, pragmatics explains how language users are able to overcome apparent ambiguity, since meaning relies on the manner, place, time etc. of an utterance.The inner relation between semantics and pragmatics.In conclusion, semantics is the level of linguistics which has been most affected by pragmatics, but the relation between semantics (in the sense of conceptual semantics) and pragmatics has remained a matter of fundamental disagreement. Three logically distinct positions in this debate can be distinguished (Leech, 1981). 1) Pragmatics should be subsumed under semantics. 2) Semantics should be subsumed under pragmatics. 3) Semantics and pragmatics are distinct and complementary fields of study. The reductionist approach, runs counter into the fact that there are linguistic phenomena such as entailment which are relatively uncontroversially semantic, and there are also linguistic phenomena such as conversational implication which are relatively uncontroversially pragmatic(Huang, 2007).The complementarist viewpoint is more widely accepted in which semantics and pragmatics is considered as two different components in language system. They are independent and complementary. It is on the basis of complementarism that there becomes the boundary between semantics and pragmati cs.2,The difference between semantics and pragmatics.The difference can be divided in two ways .firstly, it is the relation between language and context. Semantics is the study of meaning isolating from the context,is purely the linguistic meaning ,which just concerns the language only while pragmatics is the study of meaning related to language users, to conversational context. We can include that semantics concerns the relation between the symbols and reference,and pragmatics deals with the relation between symbols and users. For example, when A say,---you are a fool .B say what does fool means? And C say what do you mean by a fool? In this case ,b actually want to know the literary(conceptual) meaning of the word FOOL. And c want to know the situational meaning of a fool.to a extent , we can say ,pragmatics not only conclude the linguistic meaning but extra meaning implied by the speech users.Second,according to Huang’s criticism on the distinction between semantic s and pragmatics.The distinction between semantics and pragmatics has been formulated in a variety of different ways. Of these formulations, three, according to Bach (1999a, 2004), are particularly influential. They are (i) truth-conditional versus non-truth-conditional meaning, (ii) conventional versus non-conventional meaning, and (iii) context independence versus context dependence (Huang, 2007).1)Truth-conditional versus non-truth-conditional meaningAccording to this formulation, semantics deals with truth-conditional meaning, or words-world relations , semantics is just the linguistic meaning ,it do mot denote anything ; pragmatics has to do with non-truth-conditional meaning. But the meaning in pragmatics often implied in a indirect way.----the conversational implicatures ,meaning implied by the speakers under a particular circumstance.so it violates the manner of quantity in cooperative principles. It is the non conditional meaning.2)Conventional versus non-conventional meaningOn this view, semantics studies the conventional aspects of meaning; pragmatics concerns the non conventional aspects of meaning. Consequently, while a semantic interpretation, being conventional in nature, can not be cancelled, a pragmatic inference, which is non-conventional in nature, can but, as pointed out by Bach, among others, this way of invoking the semantics-pragmatics division runs into trouble with the fact that there are linguistic expressions that whose conventional meaning is closely associated with use.3)Context independence and context dependenceSemantics is concerned with isolated word meaning and sentence meaning, meanings predictable from linguistics knowledge alone.and pragmatics deals with the relation between the language and context that are basic to an account of language understanding.ConclusionPragmatics and Semantics are completely separable from each other. What is more,Pragmatics could not manage without Semantics.with both two in cooperation ,it can deepen our understanding of the function of language and the world,in which Semantics help us master the conceptual meaning and pragmatics facilitate the conversational meaning in actual use.Reference \/s/blog_4c00a2ac0100qq5z. html/jpwu2/info_nr.asp?id=1/semantics-and-pragmatics./wiki/PragmaticsLeech G. Semantics [M].Penguin Books, 1981.Huang, Y. 2007.Pragmatics [M]. Oxford: OUP.。

The Relationship Between Pragmatics and SemanticsIn terms of the relationships between pragmatics and semantics, Leech Geoffery have grouped them into three types. One holds that pragmatics is attached to semantics, that is Semanticism; one holds that semantics is attached to pragmatics, that is Pragmaticism; another holds that pragmatics and semantics are two different subjects, but to a large extent, they complement each other, that is Complementarism.I approve the third group.Pragmatics is a study of the intended meaning of speakers in a particular context. It deals with the relationship between language and context that are basic to an account of language understanding.while semantics is concerned with isolated word meaning and sentence meaning, meaning predictable from linguistic knowledge alone. Firstly, according to their definitions, we know that semantics and pragmatics differ in their assignments and orientations of development. Semantics studies the relationship between symbols as the words and sentences and the referents as the objects in the world. Pragmatics is a study of the symbles and language speakers. In other words, the main difference lies in whether the speakers are taken into consideration. Secondly, the speakers are capable of telling from synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, ambiguity, entailment, contradictory and presupposition, etc. Besides, the speakers can compose word meaning into sentence meaning via the structure of syntax. The speech act that speakers use language to achieve some communicative intentions belongs to the application of semantics. Generally, semantics focuses on the semantic expression, while pragmatics puts its emphasis on the rules of communicative situations. People confuse semantics with pragmatics mostly because of the different understandings of the concept of meaning. Meaning in semantics is bivalent/dyadic but in pragmatics is trivalent/triadic. For example, when a hostess says to her maid “Janet, Donkeys!”, the utterance of the hostess is meaningless from semantics’s prospective, but it is meaningful from the pragmatics’s point of view, which means that the hostess asks the maid to drive the donkeys away from the grassland.From the speakers’prospective and according to the study of the meaning with context, pragmatics is the complementary and development of semantics. On the one hand, language is used to encode information of the world, express our perceptions of the world, namely, ideational function. On this plane, the study of meaning is free from context and limited to literal meaning. On the other hand, language is used to enable us to participate in communicative acts with other people, to take on roles and to express and understand feelings, attitude and judgements under some circumstances, namely, interpersonal function. On this plane, it not only studies the literal meaning but also studies what the speakers intend to refer to in a certain context. Therefore, meaning is not a still system any more in pragmatics, but a speech act that the speakers make an impact on the hearers. Also, meaning is an interaction----the speakers and the hearers will try to find the most approppriate interpetation in that particular context by inference on the basis of their shared knowledge.Of course, the study of meaning in semantics is essential. Language can be used as a communicative toolas a result of its convention, i.e. as users of a language, we allagree to call a certain thing in a certain name. Without the convention, we cannot communicate in many situations. Obviously, the study of semantics is indispensible to the complementary of pragmatics. What’ s more, the relationship between pragmatics and semantics can be shown in the following famous formula concluded by Gazdar:Pragmatics=Meaning—Truth—ConditionTo make it clear, we should know the following terms: sentence, utterance, sense of utterance and force of utterance. Sentence, studied in semantics, is regarded as an abstract entity. In contrast, pragmatics studies utterance, which is an concrete sentence in a particular context. Sense of utterance means the concept and logical meaning of the utterance, or the literal meaning, which belongs to the range of semantics; force of utterance is related to illocutionary force, which belongs to the range of pragmatics. Thus, studying the force of utterance is very necessary to pragmatics and is a complementary to the theory of pragmatics. Grice introduced the concept of conversational implicature according to the disagreement between the sense of utterance and the force of e, that is, there exists differences between what’s said and what’s meant. Therefore, conversational implicature is closely related to entailment in semantics. In making conversation, Grice introduced the Cooprative Principle, including the maxim of quantity, quality, relation and manner, among which the maxim of relation is thought to be the most important one. Grice holds that CP is not an arbitrary prescription, but an ideal way of a cooperative conversation. Meanwhile, he also pointed that people seemingly break the CP, but as a matter of fact, people still keep to the CP in a deeper sense. Conversational implicature is on the basis of conventional meaning, by which conventional meaning can be developed into conversational implicature, in other words, implicature is attached to what’s meant not what’s said, which shows the difference and relationship between pragmatic meaning and semantic meaning, also shows the relationship between pragmatics and semantics. 参考文献:Leech Geoffrey 1983 Principles of PragmaticsAustin, J.L. 1962 How to do Things with WordsGrice, H. P. 1975 Logic and Conversation外国语学院2010级3班201005140302 陈金园。

The relation between semantics and pragmaticsIn the early 1970s, some linguists attempted to take semantics as the basis for the study of linguistics to replace the central position of syntax. As a result, this movement enhances the rapid development of semantics, which focuses on the study of meaning in language. The further study into semantics made linguists realize the importance of context in the study of meaning. Once context was taken into consideration of pragmatics as an independent in semantics, the existence discipline had become inevitable. Semantics and pragmatics are the two subdisciplines of linguistics which are concerned with the study of meaning. But their close relationship has made it difficult to set a clear boundary between them and the distinction between semantics and pragmatics have puzzled and are still puzzling linguists and philosophers of language.For ease of reference, Leech distinguished these three positions by using the terms: (1)SEMANTICISM, (2)PRAGMATICISM, (3)COMPLEMENTARISM. Yan Huang (Huang, 2007) summarizes the first two views under the camp of reductionism and the third view as complementaryism.The reductionist approach, runs counter into the fact that there arc linguistic phenomena such as entailment which are relatively uncontroversially semantic, and there are also linguistic phenomena suchas conversational implicate re which arc relatively uncontroversially pragmatic(Huang, 2007).The complementarist viewpoint is more widely accepted in which semantics and pragmatics arc considered as two different language system. They are independent and complementaryIt is on the basis of complementarism that there becomes the boundary between semantics and pragmatics. -Levinson (1983) believes that the definition of pragmatics is by no means easy to provide, therefore he considers a set of possible definitions of pragmatics and finds that each of them has deficiencies or difficulties of a sort that would equally hinder definitions of other fields. One of his definition for pragmatics is the following. Pragmatics is the study of all those aspects of meaning not captured in a semantic theory.This definition in fact makes a distinction between semantics and pragmatics. But such a definition may cause puzzlement because there will he doubt for how much is left for pragmatics to study with semantics being the study of meaning in its entirety. The problem for the semantic theorist is how much to bite off certainly no single coherent semantic theory can contain all divergent aspects of meaning. Such difficulties might motivate a retreat to a semantic theory that deals only with truth itions or conventional impliciture. whatever kind of semantic theory is adopted, many aspects of meaning in a broad sense simply cannot heaccommodated if the theory is to have an internal coherence and consistency.Pragmatics used to be regarded as a convenient waste-bin to which to consign annoying facts which could not he explained by semantics. The development in semantics has enhanced the existence of pragmatics. It is the close relationship between semantics and pragmatics that have caused the problems in the distinction.Pragmatics as a modern branch of linguistic inquiry has its origin in the philosophy of langnage. The modern use of the term pragmatics is attributable to philosopher Charles Morris, who made a threefold classification of semiotics.syntax: the formal relation of signs to one another;semantics: the relations of signs to the objects to which thesigns arc applicablepragmatics: the relation of signs to interpreters.within each branch of semiotics, one could make the distinction between pure studies, concerned with the elaboration of the relevant metalanguage, and descriptive studies which applied the metalanguage to the description of specific signs and their usages(Levinson, 1983).Even today, Morris' semiotic trichotomy is roughly the way most philosophers and linguists conceive of the fundamental divisions within the domain of theoretical linguists.This trichotomy was taken up by Carnap, who posited an order of degree of abstractness for the three branches of inquiry: syntax is the most and pragmatics the least abstract, with semantics lying somewhere in between. Consequently, syntax provides input to semantics, which provides input to pragmatics. Narrowing signs to linguistics signs, this would give ns a view of pragmatics as the study of the speaker/hearer's interpretation of language.It is the close relationship between the two. there are a set of postulates on the distinction between semantics and pragmaticsIn its most general sense, pragmatics studies the relation between linguistic expressions and their users. The distinction between semantics and pragmatics, therefore, tends to go with the distinction between meaning and use, or more generally, that between competence and performance(Lecch,1983)Semantics is the level of linguistics which has been most effected by pragmatics, but the relation between semantics (in the sense of conceptual semantics)and pragmatics has remained a matter of fundamental disagreement.In practice, the problem of distinguishing 'language(langne) and 'language use' (parole) has centered on a boundary dispute between semantics and pragmatics. Both fields are concerned with meaning, but the difference between them can he traced to two different uses of theverb to mean:[1] what does X mean?[2] what did you mean by X?Semantics traditionally deals with meaning as a dyadic relation, as in [1], while pragmatics deals with meaning as a triadic relation, as in [2]. Thus meaning in pragmatics is defined relative to a speaker or user of the language, whereas meaning in semantics is defined purely as a property of expressions in a given language, in abstraction from particular situations, speakers, or hears.Semantics and pragmatics arc distinct and complementary fields of study, both concerning the transmission of meaning through language. Semantics and pragmatics arc distinct and complementary fields of study, both concerning the transmission of meaning through language. Drawing the line between the two fields is difficult and controversial. Lyons (1977a:17)states that” the applicability of the distinction between syntax, semantics and pragmatics1 to the description of natural languages, in contrast to the description or construction of logical calculi, is, to say the least, uncertain”. “current presentations of the distinction between semantics and pragmatics tend to be riddled with inconsistencies and unjustified assumptions'(Thomas,1995). Even though it is difficult to pinpoint the demarcation line between semantics and pragmatics, a discussion on this will deepen our understanding of the characteristicsand function of language.。

语言学名词解释Semantic triangle suggests that matching , a cognitive process , is involved in language learning , and a certain amount of matching can lead to the state of semantic point . The conceptualist view is best illustrated by the classic semantic triangle triangle of significance suggested by Odgen and Richards. New "Semantic Triangle "——World , Recognition and LanguageSyntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds, namely, positional relations, relations of substitutability, and the relations of co-occurrenceChapter 1Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(Language is a means of verbal communication.)Arbitrariness 任意性 There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.( refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.)Duality 二层性is the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Creativity (productivity) 创造性 Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(Language is resourceful because of its duality and itsrecursiveness.)Displacement 移位性Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.( means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present( in time and space) at the moment of communication.)Linguistics 语言学 is the scientific study of language.Saussure distinguished the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Langue and Parole.Competence 语言能力the ideal user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules of his language.Performance 语言运用the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.Chapter 2Phonetics 语音学 (the study of sounds) studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Phonology 音系学 is the study of sound patterns and sound systems of languages.Coarticulation 协同发音 When a speech sound changes, and becomes more like another sound which follows it or precedes it, this is called coarticulation.(When simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call this process coarticulation.)Broad Transcription 宽式音标the transcription with letter-symbols only.Narrow transcription 窄式音标the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics 读音符号.Phone 音素 A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme 音位 A phoneme is a phonological unit which is the smallest unit of sound in language which can distinguish two words.Allophone 音位变体 the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Assimilation 同化 is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Syllable 音节 A syllable is composed of a compulsory nucleus(peak), a non-compulsory onset and a non-compulsory coda.Stress 重音 refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.Intonation 语调 involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.Chapter 3Morpheme 词素 is the smallest meaning minimal meaningful units in a language.(Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.)Morphology 形态学 studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Free morphemes 自由音素 those that may occur alone, thatis those which may constitute words by themselves.Bound morphemes 黏着音素 those must appear with at least another morpheme, that is, they cannot stand alone.Root 词根 is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning.Affixes 词缀forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.(is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound.Stem 词干 is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.Inflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case. It will not change the grammatical class of the stem to which it is attached.Word formation refers to the process of how words are formed.Compounding 复合法 the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.(The term compound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.)Derivation (affixation) 派生法the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to stems.ConversionChapter 4Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways differentconstituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.Syntax is the study of the formation of sentences.Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds, namely, positional relations, relations of substitutability, and the relations of co-occurrence 同现关系.Positional relation (word order) 位置关系refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. The sequential arrangement of words can either be well-formed or ill-formed (ungrammatical or nonsensical).Relations of substitutability 可替换关系Firstly, it refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. Secondly, it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.Grammatical construction/construct 语法结构 can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.- Constituents are the components within one sentence (a term used for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger unit).Immediate constituents 直接成分are constituents immediately, or directly, below the level of a construction, which may be a sentence, a word group or even a word (which can be further analyzed into morphemes).Endocentric construction 向心结构 is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of itsconstituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable center or head.Exocentric construction 离心结构refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable center or head.- Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.- Object Traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of an action (the agent), then object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of the action (the patient), and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.PS rules provide explanations on how syntactic categories are formed and sentences generated.Chapter 5Semantics is the study of meaning, or more specifically, the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Referential theory 指称论The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for, is known as the referential theory.- Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in the world.Chapter 8Pragmatics 语用学Speaker’s meaning (utterance or contextual meaning) – the interpretation of a sentence depends on who the speaker is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. In a word, it depends on the context. The discipline which concentrates on this kind of meaning is called pragmatics.Locutionary Act 发话行为（以言指事）When we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning. The act performed in this sense is called a locutionary act.Illocutionary act 行事行为（以言行事）When we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meaning (locution), but also make our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood. This is the second sense in which to say something is to do something,and the act performed is known as an illocutionary act.Perlocutionary act 取效行为（以言成事）- It refers to the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer.By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce his to do something, etc.- Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed.。