the relation between semantics and pragmatics

语言学考研真题和答案第一章语言学Fill in the blanks1. Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the _______it is associated with. （人大2007研）meaning 语言有任意性，其所指与形式没有逻辑或内在联系2. Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as _______. （北二外2003研）displacement 移位性指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、事件和观点3. By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the _______ level are composed of elements of the __________ level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. （北二外2006研）primary, secondary 双重性指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则4. The features that define our human languages can be called _______ features. （北二外2006）design人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。

chapter6Semantics. chapter6 SemanticsⅠ.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.2. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.3. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.4. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.5. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.6. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.7. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.8. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning.2. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.3. R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Words that are close in meaning are called s________.5. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________.6.R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal ofa relationship between the two items.7. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.8. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a lan-guage are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD.behaviourism3. Which of the following is not true ?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of thelinguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.6. “alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above7. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemyC. hyponymsD. synonymsIV. Define the following terms:1. semantics2. sense3 . reference 4. synonymy5. polysemy6. homonymy7. homophones 8. Homographs9. complete homonyms 10. hyponymy 11.antonymy。

编译原理英文版课后答案Chapter 1: Introduction to Compilation1. What is compilation?Compilation is the process of translating a high-level programming language code into a low-level machine language code that can be directly executed by a computer.2. What are the main components of a compiler?The main components of a compiler are:•Lexer: also known as a tokenizer, it breaks the source code into a sequence of tokens.•Parser: it verifies the syntax of the source code and builds an intermediate representation such as an abstract syntax tree (AST).•Semantic Analyzer: it checks for semantic correctness and assigns meaning to the program.•Intermediate Code Generator: it generates a representation of the program that can be easily translated into machine code.•Optimizer: it improves the efficiency of the program by performing various optimizations.•Code Generator: it translates the intermediate code into the target machine code.3. What are the advantages of compilation over interpretation?•Performance: Compiled code runs faster than interpreted code as the compilation process optimizes the code for a specific target machine.•Portability: Once a program is compiled, it can be executed on any machine that supports the target machine code, eliminating the need for aruntime environment.•Security: The source code is not distributed with the compiled program, making it harder for others to access and modify the code.4. What are the disadvantages of compilation?•Longer development cycle: Compilation requires additional time and effort compared to interpretation, as it involves multiple stages such as code generation and optimization.•Platform dependency: Compiled code is specific to the target machine, so it may not run on different architectures or operating systems withoutrecompilation.•Lack of flexibility: Changes made to the source code may require recompilation of the entire program.5. What is the difference between a compiler and an interpreter?A compiler translates the entire source code into machine code before execution, while an interpreter translates and executes the source code line by line.Chapter 2: Lexical Analysis1. What is lexical analysis?Lexical analysis, also known as tokenization, is the process of dividing the source code into a sequence of tokens.2. What are tokens?Tokens represent the basic building blocks of a programming language. They can be keywords, identifiers, constants, operators, or punctuation symbols.3. What is a regular expression?A regular expression is a sequence of characters that defines a search pattern. It is used in lexical analysis to describe the patterns of tokens.4. What are regular languages?Regular languages are a class of formal languages that can be described by regular expressions. They can be recognized by finite automata.5. What is a finite automaton?A finite automaton is a mathematical model of a computation process. It consists of a finite set of states and transitions between those states based on input.Chapter 3: Parsing1. What is parsing?Parsing is the process of analyzing the structure of a program according to the rules of a formal grammar. It involves constructing an abstract syntax tree (AST) from the given source code.2. What is an abstract syntax tree (AST)?An abstract syntax tree is a hierarchical representation of the syntactic structure of a program. It captures the relationships between different elements of the code, such as expressions and statements.3. What is a context-free grammar (CFG)?A context-free grammar is a formal way to describe the syntax of a programming language. It consists of a set of production rules that define how valid program statements can be constructed.4. What is the difference between a parse tree and an abstract syntax tree (AST)?A parse tree represents the complete syntactic structure of a program, including all the intermediate steps taken during parsing. An abstract syntax tree (AST) is a simplified version of the parse tree, where redundant information is removed, and only the essential structure of the program is retained.5. What is ambiguous grammar?An ambiguous grammar is a grammar that allows for multiple parse trees for a single input string. It can lead to parsing conflicts and difficulties in determining the correct interpretation of a program.Chapter 4: Semantic Analysis1. What is semantic analysis?Semantic analysis is the phase of the compilation process that checks the semantic correctness of a program. It assigns meaning to the code and ensures that it adheres to the rules and constraints of the programming language.2. What are static semantics?Static semantics are the properties of a program that can be determined at compile-time. These include type checking, scope rules, and variable declarations.3. What are dynamic semantics?Dynamic semantics are the properties of a program that can only be determined at runtime. These include program behavior, control flow, and runtime errors.4. What is type checking?Type checking is the process of verifying that the types of expressions and variables in a program are compatible according to the rules of the programming language. It prevents type-related errors during execution.5. What is symbol table?A symbol table is a data structure used by the compiler to store information about variables, functions, and other symbols in a program. It enables efficient semantic analysis and name resolution.Note: These answers are for reference purposes only and may vary depending on the specific context and requirements of the course or textbook.。

专八加油↖(^ω^)↗语言学（缩略版）1 语言的四个特征:任意性（Arbitrariness），二重性（Duality），创造性（Creativity），移位性（Displacement）2 语言的七个功能：信息功能（Informative），人际功能（Interpersonal Function），施为功能（Performative），感情功能（Emotive Function），寒暄功能（Phatic Communion），娱乐功能（Recreation Function）元语言功能（Metalingual Function）3 语言学的主要分支：语音学（Phonetics），音系学（Phonology）形态学（Morphology），句法学（Syntax)，语义学（Semantics），语用学（Pragmatics），4 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）的分支：心理语言学（Psycholinguistics），社会语言学（Sociolinguistics），人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics，计算机语言学（Computational linguistics）5 规定式（Prescriptive）---描述事情应该是怎样的（describe how things ought to be）描写式（Descriptive）---描述事情本是怎样的（describe how thing are）6 共时研究（Synchronic）---以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象（takes a fixed instant as its point of observation）历时研究（Diachronic）---研究语言各个阶段的发展变化（Study of a language through the course of its history）7 语言（Langue）---说话者的语言能力(the linguistic competence of the speaker）言语（Parole）---语言的实际现象或语料（the actual phenomena or data of linguistic）----索绪尔（Saussure）区分8 语言能力（Competence）---理想语言使用者关于语言的知识储备（underlying knowledge)语言运用（Performance）---真实的语言使用者在实际场景中语言的使用（Actual use ofLanguage)----乔姆斯基（Chomsk）区分9 语音学主要分支:发音语言学（Articulatory Phonetics），声学语言学（Acoustic Phonetics）。

全国2006年4月高等教育自学考试英语词汇学试题课程代码：00832I．Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that best completes thestatement and put the letter in the bracket. (30%)1. Extension can be illustrated by the following example: _________.（）A. butcher →one who kills goatsB. journal →periodicalC. companion →one who shares breadD. allergic →too sensitive to medicine2. The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas, namely, _________.（）A. extension, increase and expansionB. denotation, connotation and applicationC. comprehension, understanding and knowingD. polysemy, homograph and homophone3. Affixes attached to other morphemes to create new words are known as _________.（）A. inflectional affixesB. derivational affixesC. bound rootsD. free morphemes4. Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and _________.（）A. synonymyB. antonymyC. homonymyD. hyponymy5. The semantic unity of idioms is reflected in the _________ relationship between the literal meaning of each word andthe meaning of the idiom as in “rain cats and dogs”.（）A. illogicalB. logicalC. mutualD. natural6. Idioms verbal in nature are _________.（）A. verb phrasesB. phrasal verbsC. verb idiomsD. all the above7. The idiom “new brooms sweep clean” was created probably by _________.（）A. seamenB. housewivesC. farmersD. hunters8. The following are all denominal suffixes EXCEPT _________.（）A. –fulB. –wiseC. –lessD. –ike9. Both English and _________ belong to the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family.（）A. CelticB. DansihC. FrenchD. Scottish10. Chiefly found in derived words, bound morphemes include _________.（）A. bound rootsB. inflectional affixesC. derivational affixesD. all the above11. Motivation accounts for the connection between the word-form and _________.（）A. its referentB. its referring expressionsC. its meaningD. its concept12. Words can be classified according to the following criteria EXCEPT _________.（）A. notionB. use frequencyC. foundationD. origin13. Which of the following is NOT correct? _________（）A. A word is a meaningful group of letters.B. A word is a unit of meaning.C. A word is a sound or combination of sounds.D. A word is a form that cannot function alone in a sentence.14. If one wants to find out the minute difference between shades of meaning, the best source is _________.（）A. a thesaurusB. a synonym finderC. an encyclopediaD. an encyclopedic dictionary15. Which of the following can be said about a British Dictionary?（）A. It is always better than an American dictionary.B. One can always expect to find American usages in it.C. One can never expect to find American usages in it.D. It tends to include more grammatical information.II. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book. (10%)16.The Norman Conquest in 1066 started a continual flow of ___________ words into English.17. The attitudes of classes have made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or ___________.18. Context can help eliminate ambiguity, provide clues for inferring word-meaning and give ___________ of referents.19. Compounds are different from free phrases in ___________ unit.20. Content words have both meanings, and ___________ meaning in particular.III. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) types of figures of speech; 2) types of motivation; 3) types of changes in word meaning. (10%)A B( )21. senior citizen A. metonymy( )22. the pot calls the cattle black B. narrowing( )23. earn one’s bread C. euphemism( )24. from cradle to grave D. synecdoche( )25. sit on the fence E. hiss( )26. constable (a policeman) F. personification( )27. criticize(find fault with) G. morphologically motivated( )28. liquor(alcoholic drink) H. degradation( )29. snakes I. metaphor( )30. hopeless J. elevationIV. Study the following words or expressions and identify 1) types of affixes; 2) types of word formation; 3) types ofmeaning. (10%)31. harder ( )32. Fridge ( )33. autocide ( )34. tremble with fear ( )35. notorious, skinny ( )36. two-layer ( )37. UNESCO ( )38. cloudy ( )39. subway ( )40. police, money ( )V. Define the following terms.(10%)41. extra-linguistic context42. prefixation43. semantic change44. conceptual meaning45. specializationVI. Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short. Write your answers in the space givenbelow. (12%)46. What is semantic unity of idioms?47. What are the three areas to account for the difference between synonyms? Illustrate your points.48. What are the major differences between basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary?VII. Analyze and comment on the following. Write your answers in the space given below.(18%)49. Analyse the morphological structures of the following words and point out the types of the morphemes.dishearten, idealistic, unfriendly50. Collocation can affect the meaning of words.Comment on the statement with your own example.2006年4月英语词汇学试卷参考答案1．1．B 2．B 3．B 4．C 5．A 6．D 7．B 8．B 9．B l0．D ll．C l2．C l3．D l4．B l5．DⅡ．l6．French l7．degradation18．indication l9．semantic20．1exicalⅢ．21．C 22．F 23．D 24．A 25．I 26．J 27．H 28．B 29．E 30．GⅣ．31．inflectional suffix 32．clipping33．blendin934．collocative35．affective／pejorative 36．compoundin9／composition37．acronymy／initialism 38．suffix39．Drefix 40．stylistic／neutralV．41．(1)extra．1inguistic context=non-linguistic context = physical situation(2)includes people，time，place，even the whole cultural background42．Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems．43． Semantic change means mn old word form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need·44．conceptual meaning is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meanin9．45．the opposite of widening meanin9．A process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized meanin9．V1．46．(1)an idiom may consist of more than one word，each has its meanin9，and part of speech·(2)has a single meaning(3)functions as one word—equivalent(4)In many ca8es，illogical relationship between the literal meaning of the constituent word and the meaningof the whole idiom．47．(I)difference in denotation(2)difference in connotation ．(3)difference in application48．(1)Basic word stock possesses five obvious characteristics，but nonbasic vocabulary doesn’t (2)Basic word stock forms the common，core of the language，whereas nonbasic vocabulary deesn’t belongto the common core of the language．V11．49．(1)Each of the three words consists of three morphemes，dishearten(dis+heart+ca)，idealistic(ideal+ist +ic) unfriendly(an+friend+ty)(2)of the nine morphemes，only heart，／dea／and friend are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves·(3)All the rest dis-，-en，-ist，-ic，-un and-ty are bound as none of them call,stand alone as words. 50． (1)Collocation refers to the words before or after the word in discussion，and coUocative meaning consists of the associations the word acquires in its collocation．(2)Words with the same conceptual meaning may have different meanings due to the range of words they mayaycollocate with．In other words，collocation call affect the meaning of words．(3)For example，‘pretty’and‘handsome’share the conceptual meaning of‘good lookin9’．but aredistin． guished by the range of nouns they collocate with．。

semantics知识点总结Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It is concerned with how words and sentences are interpreted, how meaning is assigned to linguistic expressions, and how meaning is inferred from language. In this summary, we will explore some key concepts and topics in semantics, including the following:1. Meaning and reference2. Sense and reference3. Truth-conditional semantics4. Lexical semantics5. Compositional semantics6. Pragmatics and semantics7. Ambiguity and vagueness8. Semantic changeMeaning and referenceMeaning is a fundamental concept in semantics. It refers to the content or interpretation that is associated with a linguistic expression. The study of meaning in linguistics is concerned with understanding how meaning is established and conveyed in language. Reference, on the other hand, is the relationship between a linguistic expression and the real world entities to which it refers. For example, the word "dog" refers to the concept of a four-legged animal that is commonly kept as a pet. The study of reference in semantics is concerned with understanding how words and sentences refer to objects and entities in the world.Sense and referenceThe distinction between sense and reference is an important concept in semantics. Sense refers to the meaning or concept associated with a linguistic expression, while reference refers to the real world entities to which a linguistic expression refers. For example, the words "morning star" and "evening star" have the same reference - the planet Venus - but different senses, as they are used to describe the planet at different times of the day. Frege, a prominent philosopher of language, introduced this important distinction in his work on semantics.Truth-conditional semanticsTruth-conditional semantics is an approach to semantics that seeks to understand meaning in terms of truth conditions. According to this view, the meaning of a sentence isdetermined by the conditions under which it would be true or false. For example, the meaning of the sentence "The cat is on the mat" is determined by the conditions under which this statement would be true - i.e. if there is a cat on the mat. Truth-conditional semantics has been influential in the development of formal semantics, and it provides a formal framework for analyzing meaning in natural language.Lexical semanticsLexical semantics is the study of meaning at the level of words and lexical items. It is concerned with understanding the meanings of individual words, as well as the relationships between words in a language. Lexical semantics examines how words are related to each other in terms of synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, and other semantic relationships. It also explores the different senses and meanings that a word can have, and how these meanings are related to each other. Lexical semantics plays a crucial role in understanding the meaning of sentences and discourse.Compositional semanticsCompositional semantics is the study of how the meanings of words and sentences are combined to create complex meanings. It seeks to understand how the meanings of individual words are combined in sentences to produce the overall meaning of a sentence or utterance. Compositional semantics is concerned with understanding the rules and principles that govern the composition of meaning in natural language. It also explores the relationship between syntax and semantics, and how the structure of sentences contributes to the interpretation of meaning.Pragmatics and semanticsPragmatics is the study of how language is used in context, and how meaning is influenced by the context of language use. Pragmatics is closely related to semantics, but it focuses on the use of language in communication, and how meaning is affected by factors such as the speaker's intentions, the hearer's inferences, and the context in which the language is used. While semantics is concerned with the literal meaning of linguistic expressions, pragmatics is concerned with the implied meaning that arises from the use of language in context.Ambiguity and vaguenessAmbiguity and vagueness are common phenomena in natural language, and they pose challenges for semantic analysis. Ambiguity refers to situations where a linguistic expression has multiple possible meanings, and it is unclear which meaning is intended. For example, the word "bank" can refer to a financial institution or the edge of a river. Vagueness, on the other hand, refers to situations where the boundaries of a linguistic expression are unclear or indistinct. For example, the word "tall" is vague because it is not always clear what height qualifies as "tall". Semantics seeks to understand how ambiguity and vagueness arise in language, and how they can be resolved or managed in communication.Semantic changeSemantic change refers to the process by which the meanings of words and linguistic expressions evolve over time. Over the course of history, languages undergo semantic change, as words acquire new meanings, lose old meanings, or change in their semantic associations. Semantic change can occur through processes such as metaphor, metonymy, broadening, narrowing, and generalization. Understanding semantic change is important for the study of historical linguistics and the diachronic analysis of language.ConclusionSemantics is a rich and complex area of study that plays a fundamental role in understanding the meaning of language. It encompasses a wide range of topics and concepts, and it has important implications for fields such as philosophy of language, cognitive science, and natural language processing. By exploring the key concepts and topics in semantics, we can gain valuable insights into how meaning is established and conveyed in language, and how we can analyze and understand the rich complexity of linguistic expressions.。

外国语2010级6班王丽红201005140626the relation between semantics and pragmatics IntroductionLanguage is the bridge connecting the man and the physical world .in other words, language is the reflection of man’s knowledge about the objective world, by the language, we are able to express our ideas so as to communicate with others for kinds of purposes. And whether with body language or formal written or spoken language, the meaning is the core of the language.but meaning varies in the different situations or context even with the same syntactic form of a language.so what makes these differences ? Among the study of linguistics on the meaning, the are two main kinds study of meaning, semantics and pragmatics. The two are close but different in the study of meaning. Over the past years ,many linguists do many research on the study of the meaning and make attempt to take semantics ,instead of the syntax,s the prerequisite of the study of the linguistics . But the deeper the study ,the more they find the necessity of relating the semantics and the context, which produce the existing of pragmatics. So this paper is mainly dealing with the relation between the semantics and pragmatics.1.The definition of semantics and pragmatics.Semantics is the study of meaning, which focuses on the relation between signifiers, such as words, phrases, signs, and symbols, and what they stand for.Linguistic semantics is the study of meaning that is used to understand human expression through language. Other forms of semantics include the semantics of programming languages, formal logics, and semiotics.Pragmatics is the study of meaning, which focuses on the specified conversational context.In a given languages, linguistic pragmatics is the study of meaning that the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge (e.g., grammer, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and listener, but also on the context of the utterance, any preexisting knowledge about those involved, the inferred intent ofthe speaker, and other factors. In this respect, pragmatics explains how language users are able to overcome apparent ambiguity, since meaning relies on the manner, place, time etc. of an utterance.The inner relation between semantics and pragmatics.In conclusion, semantics is the level of linguistics which has been most affected by pragmatics, but the relation between semantics (in the sense of conceptual semantics) and pragmatics has remained a matter of fundamental disagreement. Three logically distinct positions in this debate can be distinguished (Leech, 1981). 1) Pragmatics should be subsumed under semantics. 2) Semantics should be subsumed under pragmatics. 3) Semantics and pragmatics are distinct and complementary fields of study. The reductionist approach, runs counter into the fact that there are linguistic phenomena such as entailment which are relatively uncontroversially semantic, and there are also linguistic phenomena such as conversational implication which are relatively uncontroversially pragmatic(Huang, 2007).The complementarist viewpoint is more widely accepted in which semantics and pragmatics is considered as two different components in language system. They are independent and complementary. It is on the basis of complementarism that there becomes the boundary between semantics and pragmati cs.2,The difference between semantics and pragmatics.The difference can be divided in two ways .firstly, it is the relation between language and context. Semantics is the study of meaning isolating from the context,is purely the linguistic meaning ,which just concerns the language only while pragmatics is the study of meaning related to language users, to conversational context. We can include that semantics concerns the relation between the symbols and reference,and pragmatics deals with the relation between symbols and users. For example, when A say,---you are a fool .B say what does fool means? And C say what do you mean by a fool? In this case ,b actually want to know the literary(conceptual) meaning of the word FOOL. And c want to know the situational meaning of a fool.to a extent , we can say ,pragmatics not only conclude the linguistic meaning but extra meaning implied by the speech users.Second,according to Huang’s criticism on the distinction between semantic s and pragmatics.The distinction between semantics and pragmatics has been formulated in a variety of different ways. Of these formulations, three, according to Bach (1999a, 2004), are particularly influential. They are (i) truth-conditional versus non-truth-conditional meaning, (ii) conventional versus non-conventional meaning, and (iii) context independence versus context dependence (Huang, 2007).1)Truth-conditional versus non-truth-conditional meaningAccording to this formulation, semantics deals with truth-conditional meaning, or words-world relations , semantics is just the linguistic meaning ,it do mot denote anything ; pragmatics has to do with non-truth-conditional meaning. But the meaning in pragmatics often implied in a indirect way.----the conversational implicatures ,meaning implied by the speakers under a particular circumstance.so it violates the manner of quantity in cooperative principles. It is the non conditional meaning.2)Conventional versus non-conventional meaningOn this view, semantics studies the conventional aspects of meaning; pragmatics concerns the non conventional aspects of meaning. Consequently, while a semantic interpretation, being conventional in nature, can not be cancelled, a pragmatic inference, which is non-conventional in nature, can but, as pointed out by Bach, among others, this way of invoking the semantics-pragmatics division runs into trouble with the fact that there are linguistic expressions that whose conventional meaning is closely associated with use.3)Context independence and context dependenceSemantics is concerned with isolated word meaning and sentence meaning, meanings predictable from linguistics knowledge alone.and pragmatics deals with the relation between the language and context that are basic to an account of language understanding.ConclusionPragmatics and Semantics are completely separable from each other. What is more,Pragmatics could not manage without Semantics.with both two in cooperation ,it can deepen our understanding of the function of language and the world,in which Semantics help us master the conceptual meaning and pragmatics facilitate the conversational meaning in actual use.Reference \/s/blog_4c00a2ac0100qq5z. html/jpwu2/info_nr.asp?id=1/semantics-and-pragmatics./wiki/PragmaticsLeech G. Semantics [M].Penguin Books, 1981.Huang, Y. 2007.Pragmatics [M]. Oxford: OUP.。

The Relationship Between Pragmatics and SemanticsIn terms of the relationships between pragmatics and semantics, Leech Geoffery have grouped them into three types. One holds that pragmatics is attached to semantics, that is Semanticism; one holds that semantics is attached to pragmatics, that is Pragmaticism; another holds that pragmatics and semantics are two different subjects, but to a large extent, they complement each other, that is Complementarism.I approve the third group.Pragmatics is a study of the intended meaning of speakers in a particular context. It deals with the relationship between language and context that are basic to an account of language understanding.while semantics is concerned with isolated word meaning and sentence meaning, meaning predictable from linguistic knowledge alone. Firstly, according to their definitions, we know that semantics and pragmatics differ in their assignments and orientations of development. Semantics studies the relationship between symbols as the words and sentences and the referents as the objects in the world. Pragmatics is a study of the symbles and language speakers. In other words, the main difference lies in whether the speakers are taken into consideration. Secondly, the speakers are capable of telling from synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, ambiguity, entailment, contradictory and presupposition, etc. Besides, the speakers can compose word meaning into sentence meaning via the structure of syntax. The speech act that speakers use language to achieve some communicative intentions belongs to the application of semantics. Generally, semantics focuses on the semantic expression, while pragmatics puts its emphasis on the rules of communicative situations. People confuse semantics with pragmatics mostly because of the different understandings of the concept of meaning. Meaning in semantics is bivalent/dyadic but in pragmatics is trivalent/triadic. For example, when a hostess says to her maid “Janet, Donkeys!”, the utterance of the hostess is meaningless from semantics’s prospective, but it is meaningful from the pragmatics’s point of view, which means that the hostess asks the maid to drive the donkeys away from the grassland.From the speakers’prospective and according to the study of the meaning with context, pragmatics is the complementary and development of semantics. On the one hand, language is used to encode information of the world, express our perceptions of the world, namely, ideational function. On this plane, the study of meaning is free from context and limited to literal meaning. On the other hand, language is used to enable us to participate in communicative acts with other people, to take on roles and to express and understand feelings, attitude and judgements under some circumstances, namely, interpersonal function. On this plane, it not only studies the literal meaning but also studies what the speakers intend to refer to in a certain context. Therefore, meaning is not a still system any more in pragmatics, but a speech act that the speakers make an impact on the hearers. Also, meaning is an interaction----the speakers and the hearers will try to find the most approppriate interpetation in that particular context by inference on the basis of their shared knowledge.Of course, the study of meaning in semantics is essential. Language can be used as a communicative toolas a result of its convention, i.e. as users of a language, we allagree to call a certain thing in a certain name. Without the convention, we cannot communicate in many situations. Obviously, the study of semantics is indispensible to the complementary of pragmatics. What’ s more, the relationship between pragmatics and semantics can be shown in the following famous formula concluded by Gazdar:Pragmatics=Meaning—Truth—ConditionTo make it clear, we should know the following terms: sentence, utterance, sense of utterance and force of utterance. Sentence, studied in semantics, is regarded as an abstract entity. In contrast, pragmatics studies utterance, which is an concrete sentence in a particular context. Sense of utterance means the concept and logical meaning of the utterance, or the literal meaning, which belongs to the range of semantics; force of utterance is related to illocutionary force, which belongs to the range of pragmatics. Thus, studying the force of utterance is very necessary to pragmatics and is a complementary to the theory of pragmatics. Grice introduced the concept of conversational implicature according to the disagreement between the sense of utterance and the force of e, that is, there exists differences between what’s said and what’s meant. Therefore, conversational implicature is closely related to entailment in semantics. In making conversation, Grice introduced the Cooprative Principle, including the maxim of quantity, quality, relation and manner, among which the maxim of relation is thought to be the most important one. Grice holds that CP is not an arbitrary prescription, but an ideal way of a cooperative conversation. Meanwhile, he also pointed that people seemingly break the CP, but as a matter of fact, people still keep to the CP in a deeper sense. Conversational implicature is on the basis of conventional meaning, by which conventional meaning can be developed into conversational implicature, in other words, implicature is attached to what’s meant not what’s said, which shows the difference and relationship between pragmatic meaning and semantic meaning, also shows the relationship between pragmatics and semantics. 参考文献:Leech Geoffrey 1983 Principles of PragmaticsAustin, J.L. 1962 How to do Things with WordsGrice, H. P. 1975 Logic and Conversation外国语学院2010级3班201005140302 陈金园。

The relation between semantics and pragmaticsIn the early 1970s, some linguists attempted to take semantics as the basis for the study of linguistics to replace the central position of syntax. As a result, this movement enhances the rapid development of semantics, which focuses on the study of meaning in language. The further study into semantics made linguists realize the importance of context in the study of meaning. Once context was taken into consideration of pragmatics as an independent in semantics, the existence discipline had become inevitable. Semantics and pragmatics are the two subdisciplines of linguistics which are concerned with the study of meaning. But their close relationship has made it difficult to set a clear boundary between them and the distinction between semantics and pragmatics have puzzled and are still puzzling linguists and philosophers of language.For ease of reference, Leech distinguished these three positions by using the terms: (1)SEMANTICISM, (2)PRAGMATICISM, (3)COMPLEMENTARISM. Yan Huang (Huang, 2007) summarizes the first two views under the camp of reductionism and the third view as complementaryism.The reductionist approach, runs counter into the fact that there arc linguistic phenomena such as entailment which are relatively uncontroversially semantic, and there are also linguistic phenomena suchas conversational implicate re which arc relatively uncontroversially pragmatic(Huang, 2007).The complementarist viewpoint is more widely accepted in which semantics and pragmatics arc considered as two different language system. They are independent and complementaryIt is on the basis of complementarism that there becomes the boundary between semantics and pragmatics. -Levinson (1983) believes that the definition of pragmatics is by no means easy to provide, therefore he considers a set of possible definitions of pragmatics and finds that each of them has deficiencies or difficulties of a sort that would equally hinder definitions of other fields. One of his definition for pragmatics is the following. Pragmatics is the study of all those aspects of meaning not captured in a semantic theory.This definition in fact makes a distinction between semantics and pragmatics. But such a definition may cause puzzlement because there will he doubt for how much is left for pragmatics to study with semantics being the study of meaning in its entirety. The problem for the semantic theorist is how much to bite off certainly no single coherent semantic theory can contain all divergent aspects of meaning. Such difficulties might motivate a retreat to a semantic theory that deals only with truth itions or conventional impliciture. whatever kind of semantic theory is adopted, many aspects of meaning in a broad sense simply cannot heaccommodated if the theory is to have an internal coherence and consistency.Pragmatics used to be regarded as a convenient waste-bin to which to consign annoying facts which could not he explained by semantics. The development in semantics has enhanced the existence of pragmatics. It is the close relationship between semantics and pragmatics that have caused the problems in the distinction.Pragmatics as a modern branch of linguistic inquiry has its origin in the philosophy of langnage. The modern use of the term pragmatics is attributable to philosopher Charles Morris, who made a threefold classification of semiotics.syntax: the formal relation of signs to one another;semantics: the relations of signs to the objects to which thesigns arc applicablepragmatics: the relation of signs to interpreters.within each branch of semiotics, one could make the distinction between pure studies, concerned with the elaboration of the relevant metalanguage, and descriptive studies which applied the metalanguage to the description of specific signs and their usages(Levinson, 1983).Even today, Morris' semiotic trichotomy is roughly the way most philosophers and linguists conceive of the fundamental divisions within the domain of theoretical linguists.This trichotomy was taken up by Carnap, who posited an order of degree of abstractness for the three branches of inquiry: syntax is the most and pragmatics the least abstract, with semantics lying somewhere in between. Consequently, syntax provides input to semantics, which provides input to pragmatics. Narrowing signs to linguistics signs, this would give ns a view of pragmatics as the study of the speaker/hearer's interpretation of language.It is the close relationship between the two. there are a set of postulates on the distinction between semantics and pragmaticsIn its most general sense, pragmatics studies the relation between linguistic expressions and their users. The distinction between semantics and pragmatics, therefore, tends to go with the distinction between meaning and use, or more generally, that between competence and performance(Lecch,1983)Semantics is the level of linguistics which has been most effected by pragmatics, but the relation between semantics (in the sense of conceptual semantics)and pragmatics has remained a matter of fundamental disagreement.In practice, the problem of distinguishing 'language(langne) and 'language use' (parole) has centered on a boundary dispute between semantics and pragmatics. Both fields are concerned with meaning, but the difference between them can he traced to two different uses of theverb to mean:[1] what does X mean?[2] what did you mean by X?Semantics traditionally deals with meaning as a dyadic relation, as in [1], while pragmatics deals with meaning as a triadic relation, as in [2]. Thus meaning in pragmatics is defined relative to a speaker or user of the language, whereas meaning in semantics is defined purely as a property of expressions in a given language, in abstraction from particular situations, speakers, or hears.Semantics and pragmatics arc distinct and complementary fields of study, both concerning the transmission of meaning through language. Semantics and pragmatics arc distinct and complementary fields of study, both concerning the transmission of meaning through language. Drawing the line between the two fields is difficult and controversial. Lyons (1977a:17)states that” the applicability of the distinction between syntax, semantics and pragmatics1 to the description of natural languages, in contrast to the description or construction of logical calculi, is, to say the least, uncertain”. “current presentations of the distinction between semantics and pragmatics tend to be riddled with inconsistencies and unjustified assumptions'(Thomas,1995). Even though it is difficult to pinpoint the demarcation line between semantics and pragmatics, a discussion on this will deepen our understanding of the characteristicsand function of language.。

语言学名词解释Semantic triangle suggests that matching , a cognitive process , is involved in language learning , and a certain amount of matching can lead to the state of semantic point . The conceptualist view is best illustrated by the classic semantic triangle triangle of significance suggested by Odgen and Richards. New "Semantic Triangle "——World , Recognition and LanguageSyntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds, namely, positional relations, relations of substitutability, and the relations of co-occurrenceChapter 1Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(Language is a means of verbal communication.)Arbitrariness 任意性 There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.( refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.)Duality 二层性is the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Creativity (productivity) 创造性 Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(Language is resourceful because of its duality and itsrecursiveness.)Displacement 移位性Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.( means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present( in time and space) at the moment of communication.)Linguistics 语言学 is the scientific study of language.Saussure distinguished the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Langue and Parole.Competence 语言能力the ideal user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules of his language.Performance 语言运用the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.Chapter 2Phonetics 语音学 (the study of sounds) studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Phonology 音系学 is the study of sound patterns and sound systems of languages.Coarticulation 协同发音 When a speech sound changes, and becomes more like another sound which follows it or precedes it, this is called coarticulation.(When simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call this process coarticulation.)Broad Transcription 宽式音标the transcription with letter-symbols only.Narrow transcription 窄式音标the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics 读音符号.Phone 音素 A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme 音位 A phoneme is a phonological unit which is the smallest unit of sound in language which can distinguish two words.Allophone 音位变体 the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Assimilation 同化 is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Syllable 音节 A syllable is composed of a compulsory nucleus(peak), a non-compulsory onset and a non-compulsory coda.Stress 重音 refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.Intonation 语调 involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.Chapter 3Morpheme 词素 is the smallest meaning minimal meaningful units in a language.(Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.)Morphology 形态学 studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Free morphemes 自由音素 those that may occur alone, thatis those which may constitute words by themselves.Bound morphemes 黏着音素 those must appear with at least another morpheme, that is, they cannot stand alone.Root 词根 is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning.Affixes 词缀forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.(is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound.Stem 词干 is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.Inflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case. It will not change the grammatical class of the stem to which it is attached.Word formation refers to the process of how words are formed.Compounding 复合法 the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.(The term compound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.)Derivation (affixation) 派生法the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to stems.ConversionChapter 4Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways differentconstituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.Syntax is the study of the formation of sentences.Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds, namely, positional relations, relations of substitutability, and the relations of co-occurrence 同现关系.Positional relation (word order) 位置关系refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. The sequential arrangement of words can either be well-formed or ill-formed (ungrammatical or nonsensical).Relations of substitutability 可替换关系Firstly, it refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. Secondly, it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.Grammatical construction/construct 语法结构 can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.- Constituents are the components within one sentence (a term used for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger unit).Immediate constituents 直接成分are constituents immediately, or directly, below the level of a construction, which may be a sentence, a word group or even a word (which can be further analyzed into morphemes).Endocentric construction 向心结构 is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of itsconstituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable center or head.Exocentric construction 离心结构refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable center or head.- Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.- Object Traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of an action (the agent), then object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of the action (the patient), and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.PS rules provide explanations on how syntactic categories are formed and sentences generated.Chapter 5Semantics is the study of meaning, or more specifically, the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Referential theory 指称论The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for, is known as the referential theory.- Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in the world.Chapter 8Pragmatics 语用学Speaker’s meaning (utterance or contextual meaning) – the interpretation of a sentence depends on who the speaker is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. In a word, it depends on the context. The discipline which concentrates on this kind of meaning is called pragmatics.Locutionary Act 发话行为（以言指事）When we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning. The act performed in this sense is called a locutionary act.Illocutionary act 行事行为（以言行事）When we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meaning (locution), but also make our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood. This is the second sense in which to say something is to do something,and the act performed is known as an illocutionary act.Perlocutionary act 取效行为（以言成事）- It refers to the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer.By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce his to do something, etc.- Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed.。

Chapter 6 Pragmatics---- the study of language in use or language communication; the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning.---- the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.What are the differences between the two linguistic studies of meaning – semantics and pragmatics Semantics studies literal, structural or lexical meaning, while pragmatics studies non-literal, implicit, intended meaning, or speaker’s meaning.Semantics is context independent, decontextualized, while pragmatics is context dependent, contextualized.Semantics deals with what is said, while pragmatics deals with what is implicated or inferred.What essentially distinguish semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is consideredIf it is not, it is semantics.If it is, it is pragmatics.Pragmatic analysis of meaning is first and foremost concerned with the study of what is communicated by a speaker/writer and interpreted by a listener/reader.Analysis of intentional meaning necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do through language in a particular context.Intended meaning may or may not be explicitly expressed. Pragmatic analysis also explores how listeners/readers make inferences about what is communicated.Some basic notions in PragmaticsContextPragmatics vs. semanticsSentence meaning vs. utterance meaningContextContext---- a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation(time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc.….Pragmatics vs. semanticsSemantics---- is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration). Pragmatics---- the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration), .“Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week; pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this, all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation…Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning---- Sentence meaning:Abstract and context-independent meaning;literal meaning of a sentence;having a dyadic relation as in: What does X mean----utterance meaning:concrete and context-dependent meaning;intended meaning of a speaker;having a triadic relation as in: What did you mean by XFor example, “The bag is heavy” can meana bag being heavy (sentence meaning);an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag;the speaker is declining someone’s request for help.The dog is barking.If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation, then we treat it as a sentence.If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Note: The meaning of an utterance is based on the sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context; utterance meaning is richer than sentence meaning; it is identical with the purpose for which the speaker utters the sentence.Speech acts is a term derived from the work of the philosopher J. Austin (1962) and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. I t aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language”In linguistic communication, people do not merely exchange information. They actually do something through talking or writing in various circumstances. Actions performed via speaking are called speech acts.Two types of utterancesConstatives (叙述句) ---- statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable;Performatives (施为句) ---- sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.Note: Sometimes they are easy to get confused, .“It is raining outside”can be a constative, and also a performative, for by uttering such a sentence, we may not only state a fact, but involve in the act of informing someone about the rain.Some Examples of Performatives“I do”“I name this ship Elizabeth.”“I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.”“I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.”“I declare the meeting open.”Austin’s new model of speech acts----According to Austin’s new model, a speaker might be perfo rming three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.The locutionary act----an act of saying something,uttering words, phrases,clauses, . an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance);It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.The illocutionary act----an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking).The perlocutionary act----an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.It is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.For example,“It is cold here.”Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is clod here;Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to shut the window;Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request.----Analyze one more example: “You have left the door wide open.”Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:----(the telephone rings)----H: That’ the phone. (1)----W: I’m in the bathroom. (2)----H: Okay. (3)This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understand each other’s illocutionary acts:(1) Making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.(2) A refusal to comply with the request; issuing a request of her husband to answer the phone instead.(3) Accepting the wife’s refusal and accepting her request, meaning “all right, I’ll answer it.”Linguists are more concerned about or interested in illocutionary act.The classification of illocutionary act made by American philosopher-linguist John Searle.Searle’s classification of speech acts (1969)Assertives/representatives(陈述)Directives(指令)Commissives(承诺)Expressives(表达)Declarations(宣布)Assertives/representatives---- Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, .I think the film is moving.I’m certain I have never seen the man before.I solemnly swear that he had got it.…Directives---- Trying to get the hearer to do something, .I order you to leave right now.Open the window, please.Your money or your life!…Commissives---- Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, .I promise to come.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.…Expressives----Expressing the speaker’s psychological state about something, .I’m sorry for being late.I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people.…Declarations----Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, .I now appoint you chairman of the committee.You are fired.I now declare the meeting open.…Note: (1) All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force, .I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer.Note: (2) In order to get someone open the door, we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below: Could you open the door, please!Can you open the door!Do you mind opening the doorOpen the door!The door please!Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)Cooperative principle (CP)---- According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Four maxims of CPThe maxim of quality----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.The maxim of relation----Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).The maxim of manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid ambiguity.----Be brief.----Be orderly.Significance: it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than is literary said.CP is nearly always observed, while these maxims are not, which gives rise to “Conversational implicatures”, . the language becomes indirect.Conversational implicatureIn real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is blantantly violated, . both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises.Violation of Maxim of quality----A: Would you like to go movie with me tonight----B: The final exam is approaching. I’m afraid I have to prepare for it.----A: would you like to come to our party tonight----B:I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well tonight.----A: Who was that lady I saw you with last night----B: That was no lady, that was my wife.Violation of maxim of quantityAt a party a young man introduces himself by saying “I’m Robert Sampson from Leeds, 28, unmarried…”“War is war.”“Girls are girls.”----A:When is Susan’s farewell party----B:Sometime next month.Violation of maxim of relation----A: How did the math exam go today, Jonnie----B: We had a basketball match with class 2 and we beat them.----A: The hostess is an awful bore.----B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they----A: What time is it----B: The postman has just arrived.Violation of maxim of manner----A: Shall we get something for the kids----B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.本章重点难点：Types of speech actsLocutionary speech act – the action of making the sentenceIllocutionary speech act – the intentionsPerlocutionary speech act – the effectsOf these dimensions, the most important is the illocutionary act.In linguistic communication people respond to an illocutionary act of an utterance, because it is the meaning intended by the speaker.If a teacher says, “I have run out of chalk” in the process of lecturing, the act of saying is locutionary, the act of demanding for chalk is illocutionary, and the effect the utterance brings about – one of the students will go and get some chalk – is perlocutionary.In English, illocutionary acts are also given specific labels, such as request, warning, promise, invitation, compliment, complaint, apology, offer, refusal, etc. these specific labels name various speech functions.Supplementary ExercisesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication2. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.3. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.4. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.5. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.6. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.7. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.8. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences9. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.10. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.11. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.12. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s inten tion.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:13. P_________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.14. What essentially distinguishes s_______ and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.15. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.16. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an u___________.17. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontexualized.18. C________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.19. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.20. A l_________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.21. An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speak er’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.22. A c_________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.23. An e________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.24. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. _________ does not study meaning in isolation, but in context.A. PragmaticsB. SemanticsC. Sense relationD. Concept26. The meaning of language was considered as something _______ in traditional semantics.A. contextualB. behaviouristicC. intrinsicD. logical27. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context28. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual29. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a(n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive30. Which of the following is trueA. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.31. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century.32. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act33. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.34. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.A. in their illocutionary acts.B. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about35. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle36. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l. F 2. FII. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:13. Pragmatics 14. semantics 15. context 16. utterance 17. abstract19. Performatives 20. locutionary 21. illocutionary22. commissive 23. expressive 24. quantityIII. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A35. AIV. Define the terms below:37. pragmatics 38. context 39. utterance meaning40. sentence meaning 41. constative 42. performative43. locutionary act 44. illocutionary act 45. perlocutionary act 46.. Cooperative PrincipleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:47. How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other48. How does a sentence differ from an utterance49. How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning50. Discuss in detail the locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.51. Searle classified illocutionary act into five categories. Discuss each of them in detail with examples.52. What are the four maxims under the cooperative principle53. How does the flouting of the maxims give rise to conversational implicaturesSuggested answers to supplementary exercises:IV. Define the terms below:37. pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.38. Context: Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.39. utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.40. sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is often considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.41. Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable ;42. Performative: performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.43. locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.44. illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.45. perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.46. Cooperative Principle: It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviours. The content is : Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary: 47. How are semantics and pragmatics different from each otherTraditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, . a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.48. How does a sentence differ from an utteranceA sentence is a grammatical concept. It usually consists of a subject and predicate. An utterance is the unit of communication. It is the smallest linguistic unit that has a communicative value. If we regard a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance. Whether “Mary is beautiful.” is a sentence or an utterance depends on how we look at it. If we regard it as a grammatical unit or a self-contained unit in isolation, then it is a sentence. If we look at it as something uttered in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then it is an utterance. Most utterances take the form of complete sentences, but some utterances are not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.49. How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaningA sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, the understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is a dog at the door” de pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.50. Discuss in detail the locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. For example:You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words " you,' " have," " door," " left," " open," etc. and expressed what the word literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance, he has expressed his intention of asking the hearer to close the door.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer understands that the speaker intends him to close the door and closes the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutiohary act is successfully performed .51. Searle classified illocutionary act into five categories. Discuss each of them in detail with examples.1) representatives: representatives are used to state, to describe, to report, etc.. The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said. For example:(I swear) I have never seen the man before.(I state) the earth is a globe.2) directives: Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, warning, threatening, ordering are all specific instances of this class.For example:Open the window!3) commissives: Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action. When the speaker is speaking, he puts himself under obligation. For example:I promise to come.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4) expressives: The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs, . apologizing, thanking, congratulating. For example:I'm sorry for the mess I have made.5) declarations: Declarations have the characteristic that the successful performance of such an act brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. For example:I now declare the meeting open.52. What are the four maxims under the cooperative principleThe maxim of quantity1. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) .2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.The maxim of quality1. Do not say what you believe to be false.2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of relationBe relevant.The maxim of manner1. Avoid obscurity of expression.2. Avoid ambiguity.3. Be brief ( avoid unnecessary prolixity) .4. Be orderly.53. How does the flouting of the maxims give rise to conversational implicaturesA: Do you know where Mr. Smith livesB: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.This is said when both A and B know that B does know Mr. Smith' s address. Thus B does not give enough information that is required, and he has flouted the maxim of quantity. Therefore, such conversational implicature as "I do not wish to tell you where Mr. Smith lives" is produced.A: Would you like to come to our party tonightB: I'm afraid I' m not feeling so well today.This is said when both A and B know that B is not having any health problem that will prevent him from going to a party. Thus B is saying something that he himself knows to be false and he is violating the maxim of quality. The conversational implicature " I do not want to go to your party tonight" is then produced.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don't you thinkB: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren't theyThis is said when both A and B know that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess. Thus B is saying something irrelevant to what A has just said, and he has flouted the maxim of relation. The conver-sational implicature "I don't wish to talk about the hostess in such a rude manner" is produced.A: Shall we get something for the kidsB: Yes. But I veto I - C - E - C - R - E - A - M.This is said when both A and B know that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word "ice-cream." Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. The conversati onal implicature "I don’t want the kids to know we are talking about ice-cream" is then produced.。

TEM-8 语言学知识复习总结重要概念梳理CNU 张旭ZX第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1.任意性Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2.双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds andmeaning）3.多产性productive:语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）4.移位性Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5.文化传播性Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）1. 1. 传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main function2. 2. 人际功能Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity3. 3. 行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses4. 4. 表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatoryexpressions5. 5. 寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！”等等6. 6. 元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguisticl 语音学Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。

语言学A1.__ A__ is the study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference to their distribution and patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation.A. PhonologyB. LexicographyC. LexicologyD. MorphologyC2. ___C_ is defined as the scientific study of language, studying language in general.A. PsycholinguisticsB. NeurolinguisticsC. LinguisticsD. PhoneticsB3. Which of the linguistic items listed below is best described as the smallest unit of meaning?A. the wordB. the morphemeC. the phonemeD. the clauseB4. A prefix is an affix which appears ____.A. after the stemB. before the stemC. in the middle of the stemD. below the stemC 5. Which of the following is true?____By any other name would smell as sweetSo Romeo would, were he not Romeo called,”(Romeo and Juliet, Act 2, Scene 2, 43~5)To what characteristic of language dose Shakespeare refer? ___A. CreativityB. ProductivityC. DualityD. ArbitrarinessA7. Language, as a system, consists of two sets of structures or two levels, which is known as ____, one of a design features of human language.A. DualityB. DisplacementC. ProductivityD. ArbitrarinessD8. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make one word different from another in meaning, are ____.A. phonemesB. phonesC. soundsD. allophonesA. MorphemeB. VocabularyC. RootD. LexiconB1. Cold and hot are called ____ antonyms.A. complementaryB. gradableC. reversalD. converseC2. “I regret that I can ’thelp you.”This is an example of __ _.A. representativesB. directivesC. expressivesD. commissivesD. What is the duality of the language? ____A. Letters and soundsB. Sounds and symbolsC. Symbols and meaningD. sounds and meaningA4. “I bought some roses”___ “I bought some flowers ”.A. entailsB. presupposesC. is inconsistent withD. is synonymous withA. BloomfieldB. SaussureC. JakobsonD. FirthC6. Damage in and around the angular gyrus of the parietal lobe often causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is often referred to as acquired ____.A. diglossiaB. aphasiaC. dyslexiaD. dysgraphiaA7. ____ A Dictionary of the English Language established a uniform standard for the spelling and word use.A. Samuel Johnson’sB. Bishop Lowth’sC. Firth’sD. Samuel John’sB8. What is phonology? ____B. The study of the function, behavior and organization of speech sounds as linguistic items.C. The study of the International Phonetic Alphabet.D. The study of all possible speech sounds.D9. The morpheme “cast”in the common word “ telecast is a”(n) ____.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morphemeD10. A phoneme is ____.A. a set of different realization of a phoneB. a set of contrastive allophones in free variationC. a set of phones in complementary distributionD. a set of phonetically similar noncontrastive phonesA1. Firstly, to which of these language groups dose English belong? ____A. GermanicB. SlavonicC. romanceD. BalticA. MorphologyB. SemanticsC. PhonologyD. SyntaxD3. According to Krashen, ___ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.A. learningB. competenceC. performanceD. acquisitionC4. There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “ed”in the word “learned”is known as a(n) ____.A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD.free formC5. ____ studies the total stock of morphemes of a language, especially those items which have clear semantic references.A. PhonologyB. LexicologyC. MorphologyD. LexicographyA6. As a type of linguistic system in L2 learning, ____ is a product of L2 training, mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and learning and communicative strategies of the learner.A. interlanguageB. interferenceC. language transferD. linguistic relativityA7. ____ means the lack of a logical connection between the form of something and its expression in sounds.A. ArbitrarinessB.AbstractnessC. AmbiguityD. FuzzinessB8. The term ___ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. comparativeD. historical comparativeD9. When a speech sound changes and becomes more like another sound that follows or precedes it, it is said to be ____.A. nasalizedB. voicedC. aspiratedD. assimilatedC10. F. de Saussure is a (n) ____ linguist.A. AmericanB. BritishC. SwissD. RussianA1. N. Chomsky is a (n) ____ linguist.A. AmericanB. CanadaC. SwissD. FrenchA3. A special language variety that mixes or blends languages and used by people who speak different language for restricted purpose is ____.A. pidiginB. creoleC. dialectD. blendsB4. By ____, we refer to word forms which differ from each other only by one sound, e.g.“pin”and“bin”.A. complementally distributionB. minimal pairC. Adjacency pairD. code—switchingA5. When two sounds never occur in the same environment they said to be in ___.A. complementary distributionB. free variationC. co-occurrenceD. minimal pairD6. ___ century is considered to be the beginning of Modern English.A. 18thB. 17thC. 19thD. 16thB7. Conventionally a __ __ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phonemeC. phoneD. morphemeD8. __ __ is a principle of scientific method, based on the belief that the only things valid enough to confirm or refute o scientific theory are interpersonally observable phenomena, rather than people ’s introspections or intuitions.A. MentalismB. Functional grammarC. Case grammarD. BehaviorismC9. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called __C.A. expressivesB. directivesC. commisivesD. declaratives*C 10. A __ _ is often seen as part of a word, but it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning.A. morphemeB. wordC. rootD. phonemeD1. Linguistics is the scientific study of ___.A. a particular languageB. the English languageC. human language in generalD. the system of a particular languageA2. __ __ is the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA.A. InterlanguageB. IdeologyC. DialectD. InterferenceB3. Phonological rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called __ _ rule.A. DeletionB. SequentialC. superasegmentalD. AssimilationB 4. “ Thereis no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to”.This is the __ view concerning thestudy of meaning.A. naming theoryB. conceptualistC. contextualistD. behavioristA5. English consonants can be classified into stops, fricatives, nasals, etc. , in terms of _.A. manner of articulationB. openness of mouthC. place of articulationD. voicingA6. According to Chomsky, _ __ is the ideal user’s internalized knowledge of his language.A. competenceB. paroleC. performanceD. langueA7. __ is not a suprasegmental feature.A. AspirationB. IntonationC. StressD. ToneA8 __ is a phenomenon that L2 learners subconsciously use their L1language in their learning process.A. Language transferB. BlendingC. InterferenceD. CooperativeC9. _ are affixes added to an existing form to create a new word, e.g. in-,-er.A. inflectional morphemeB. free morphemeC. derivational morphemeD. rootB10. Writing is the secondary language form based on ___.A. soundB. speechC. gestureD. signC1. ____ covers the study of language use in relation to context, and in particular the study of linguistic communication.A. SemanticsB. SociolinguisticsC. PragmaticsD. LinguisticsA2. Morphemes that represent “tense”,“ number,”“gender ”,“case”and so on are called ____ morphemes.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivationalC3. Which of the following is not a compound word? ___A. clearwayB. rainbowC. scarcityD. withoutA4. The fact that ability to speak a language is transmitted from generation to generation by process of learning, and not genetically is referred to as ____.A. culture transmissionB. performanceC. competenceD. acquisitionC5. ____ is the language of Angles, Saxons and Jutes who invaded Britain after AD 450.A. Old NorseB. CleticC. Old EnglishD. Middle EnglishA. arresting clusterB. releasing clusterC. consonant clusterD. syllableA8. ____ is to refer to an auxiliary language used to enable routine communication to take place between groups of people who speak different native languages.A9. ____ is the study of the relationship between brain and language, including research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning.A. NeurolinguisticsB. PsyhcholingisticsC. Applied LinguisticsD. SociolinguisticsB10. Modern synchronic linguistics traditionally dates from the ____ of Swiss scholar Ferdinand de Saussure.A. Syntactic structureB. Cours de Linguitique GeneralC. De Lingua LatinaD.Language and MindA1. According to the strong version of the ____ hypothesis, language determines speakers ’perceptions and patterns their way of life.A. Sapir WhorfB. inputC. GrimD. InnatenessD2. Which of the following is true? ____A. In the history of any language the writing system always came into being before the spoken form.B. A compound is the combination of only two words.C. The division of English into old English, Middle English, and Modern English is nonconventional and notarbitrary.D. If a child is deprived of linguistic environment, he or she is unlikely to learn a language successfully lateron.A. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.B. Language is human specificC. Language is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situational constraintsD.The first language was invented by Adam, the first man.B 4. A group of people who do in fact have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not justa single language with its related varieties but also attitudes to- ward linguistic norms are defined as ____.A. speech varietyB. speech communityC. registerD. sociolectC5. “Your money or your life? ”is an example of ___.A. representativeB. expressiveC. directivesmissivesD6. Which of the following distinctive features can be used to separate [p] and [b]? __A. stopB. fricativesC. bilabialD. voicedD7. ____ studies the total stock of morphemes of a language particularly those items which have clear semantic references.A. LexicographyB. PhonologyC. LexicologyD.MorphologyC8. ____ theorized that acquisition of language is an innate process determined by biological factors which limit the important period for acquisition of a language from roughly two years of age to puberty.A. Input hypothesisB. Interaction hypothesisC. Critical period hypothesisD.Sapir-Whorf HypothesisC9. An example of ___ would be the change in meaning undergone by the OE word, docga, modern day dog. In OE docga referred to a particular breed of dog, while in modern usage it refers to the class of dogs as a whole.A. semantic degradationsB. semantic reductionsC. semantic extensionsD. semantic elevationC10. According to Chomsky, the child is born with a built –in set of rules, which have the specific function of enabling her to construct the grammar of her mother tongue. This view is to be seen as ____.A. Input hypothesisB. X-theoryC. Language acquisition deviceD. Universal grammarD1. “Old”and “Young”are a pair of ____ opposites.A. complementaryB. relationalC. converseD. gradableB2. Systemic-Functional Grammar, one of the most influential linguistic theories in the 20th century, is put forward by ____.A. ChomskyB. HallidayC. FirthD. MalinowskiD3. Vowels that are produced between the positions for a front and back vowel are called ____ vowel.A. backB. frontC. unroundedD.centralD4. From Halliday’s viewpoint, language is a form of realization of ____ rather than a form of realization of______.A. knowing, doingB. thinking, knowingC. doing, thinkingD. doing, knowingC5. ___ believes that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.A. The innatistB. The interactionistC. The behavioristD.The mentalistC6.____studies the physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted between mouth and ear.A. Articulatory phoneticsB. Physiological phoneticsC Acoustic phonetics D. Auditory phoneticsB7. Creativity refers to ____.A. the unconscious knowledge that language users have in their mindsB. the capacity of language users to produce and understand an indefinitely large number of sentencesC. a property claimed to be characteristic of all languagesD. animals’ capacity to learn more than one human languageA8. Fossilization is a process _ _.A. in which incorrect linguistic features became a permanent part of a le arner ’ s competenceB. in which incorrect as well as correct linguistic features beca me a permanent part of a learner’ s competence,but the correct items gradually delete the incorrect itemsC. which can happen as a result of teachers’ disapproval of an incorrect itemD.A and C are correctB9. “Competence”refers to ____.A. knowledge of meaning of words and sentencesB. a speaker’ s unconscious knowledge about his/her languageC. the actual use of a speaker’ s unconscious kn o wledgeuthis/herablanguageD. the laws that pertain to all languages throughout the worldA10. ___ refers to unintentionally deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker.A. An errorB. A mistakeC. A slip of the tongueD. Fossilizationbe deduced from theC1. ____ is a multiword construction that is a semantic unit whose meaning cannotmeanings of its constituents.A. semantic componentB. collocationC. idiomD. referenceB2. The distinction between langue and parole is similar to that between ____.A. prescriptive and descriptiveB. competence and performanceC. speech and writingD. synchronic and diachronicA3. Nouns, verbs, and adjectives can be classified as ____.A. open class wordsB. grammatical wordsC. closed class wordsD. function wordsB4. What is the meaning relationship between the two words“ furniture/bed”?A. polysemyB. hyponymyC. homonymyD. antonymyB5. Which description of componential analysis for the w ord“ woman” is right?____A. +human,-adult, -maleB. +human,+ adult, -maleC. +human, + adult, +maleD. +human, -adult, +maleB6. The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a ____.A. regional dialectB. registerC. fieldD. repertoireD7. In structural grammar, distributional analysis is used to define ____, which are taken as the basic building blocks.A. morphemesB. wordsC. syllableD. phonemesD8. “Speech Act Theory”was proposed by ____ in 1962.A. SaussureB. ChomskyC. Jane AustinD. John AustinD9. The major new development in linguistics in 20th century was ____ grammar.A. speculativeB. traditionalC. structuralD. transformational-generativeA10. ____ refers to the tendency of many learners to stop developing their inter-language grammar in the direction of the target language.A. FossilizationB. Error analysisC. OvergeneralizationD. InterferenceD1. The most recognizable difference between American English and British English are in ____ and vocabulary.A. structureB. grammarC. usageD. pronunciationC2. The study of how we do things with utterance is the study of ____, the nature of which is determined by context.A. contextB. pragmaticsC. speech actD. semanticsA3. A(n) ___ is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression that replaces a taboo word or serves to avoid more direct wording that might be harsh, unple asantly direct, or offensive, e.g.“ passdie”away.” for“A. euphemismsB. deleteC. coinageD. tabooB4. In many societies of the world, we find a large number of people who speak more than one language. As a characteristic of societies, ____ inevitably results from the coming into contact of people with different culturesand different languages.A. transferB. bilingualismC. diglossiaD. inter-languageD5. Pragmatics differs from traditional semantics in that it studies meaning not in isolation, but in ____.C6.____ is a design feature of human language that enables speakers to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and space.A. cultural transmissionB. dualityC. displacementD. productivityB7. Traditional grammarians begin with ____ definition of the sentence and components.A. structuralB. notionalC. descriptiveD. prescriptiveA8. ____ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified by shared linguistic system.A. Speech communityB. A raceC. A societyD. A countryA9. ___ invasions established three major groups in England: Saxons, Angles and Jutes.A. GermanicB. NormanC. FrenchD. RomanD10. Japanese is the only major language that uses ___ writing system.A. a word-writingB. a logographicC. an alphabeticD. a syllabicC1. ____ is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e. a wordor group of words, which serves as a definable“ center” or“ head”.A. Exocentric constructionB. CoordinationC. Endocentric constructionD. CollocationA2. Of the following linguists, ____ should not be grouped into American school.A. FirthB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. BoasD3. When people learn a foreign language for external goals such as passing exams, financial rewardsor furthering a career, we say they learn a foreign language with a (n) ___.A. intrinsic motivationB. resultative motivationC. integrative motivationD. instrumental motivationB4. What is the sense relation in the sen tence My“ unmarried sister is married to a bachelor. ____”A. PresupposeB. ContradictionC. EntailmentD. InconsistentB5. ---TRUTH.---Do not say what you believe to be false.---Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.Those can be defined as the features of ____ of Gricean maxims.A. maxim of quantityB. maxim of qualityC. maxim of relationD. maxim of mannerC6. ____ caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords refers to the use of pitch in language to distinguish words.A. IntonationB. StressC. ToneD. AspirationC7. ____ is a socially prestigious dialect that is supported by institutions.A. Ethnic dialectB. IdeolectC. Standard dialectD. CreoleD8. Which of the following country are those loanwords“garage, champion, beauty, parliament”borrowed from____.A. LatinB. DutchC. GermanD.FrenchB9. In the sentence “The angry man went furiously through the rooms. ”The first division into immediateconstitute should be between ____.A. angry and manB. man and wentC. furiously and throughD. The and angryC10. ____ refers to the effect of the utterance.A. Illocutionary actB. Locutionary actC. Perlocutionary actD. Speech actA1. The consonant sound /p/ is described as ___.A. voiceless bilabial stopB. voiceless alveolar stopC. voiced bilabial stopD.voiced alveolar stopC2. A new word created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part is referred to as ____.A. acronymB. borrowingC. clippingD.blendingC3. According to the author our brain is divided into two hemispheres. Language functions are mainly located in ____.A. right hemispheresB. front hemispheresC. left hemispheresD.back hemispheresC4. “A language pattern which occurs in all known language ”is called ____.A. a phonemic representationB. a phonetic representationC. a language universalD. language changeC5. In the sentence-------“The child found the puppy ”,____ is not a constituent.A. The childB. found the puppyC. found theD. the puppyA6. A ____ is a word or phrase which people use in place of terms which they consider to be more disagreeable or offensive to themselves and /or to their audience.A. EuphemismB. metaphorC. denotationD.jargonC7. ____ is the learner’sprocess of adapting to the culture and value system of the target language community.A. AcquisitionB. AssimilationC. AcculturationD. ArticulationC8.What is the relationship between the two words “flower / rose ”? ____A. HomonymyB. AntonymyC. hyponymyD. PolysemyD9.The function of the sentence“How are you?”____A. directiveB. informativeC. performativeD. phaticC10. Homonyms ____.A. are words that share the same phonetic features and the same semantic featuresB. are words that share the same semantic features but have different sets of phonetic featuresC. are words that share the same phonetic features but have different sets of semantic featuresD. are two words that all but one of semantic features in commonB1.The distinction between language and parole is proposed by ____.A. HallidayB. SaussureC. ChomskyD. FirthC2. In the following dialogue, the maxim of ____ is not observed.A. What time is it?B. It’s terribly cold in here.A. qualityB. quantityC. relevanceD. mannerB3.____ are linguistic units larger than sentences.A. MovesB. DiscoursesC. TopicsD. TendenciesA4. Which of the following two-term sets shows the feature of complementarity?__A. single/marriedB. big/smallC. hot / coldD. old /youngA5. Usually ____ refers to the use of linguistic research in language teaching, but linguistics is used in other areas, as well.A. applied linguisticsB. theoretical linguisticsC. contextual linguisticsD. general linguisticsD6. Two words that are differentiated by one phoneme, such as“cat”and“rat”, are known as a ____.A. distinctive featureB. argumentC. codeD. minimal pairD7. ____ is often regarded as the founder of the study of sociolinguistics.A. SaussureB. HallidayC. ChomskyD. LabovC8. ____ is the academic discipline concerned with the study of the processes by which people learn languages in addition to their native tongue.A. IPAB. IC AnalysisC. SLAD. TGC9. The ____ is the primary lexical unit of a word, which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents.A. bound morphemeC. rootA10. In terms of S earle will win the game.A. representativeB.affixD. prefix’ s classification system of illocutionary acts, the sentence Ten bucks say that The“ Yankee” used to bet belongs to.B. commissiveC. directiveD. declarationB1. Three factors involved in describing vowels are ____.A. place of articulation / part of the tongue raised / voicingB. tongue height / part of the tongue raised / lip roundingC. articulators / extreme vowel positions / tongue positionD. teeth position / alveolar ridge position / voicingC2. In ____ the structure of words is studied.A. phoneticsB. phonologyC. morphologyD. syntaxD3. Which one is not a source of error? ____A the native language B. the target languageC. learner’s style of thinkingD. noneC4. “Love”and “hate ”are ____.A. binary antonymsB. complementary pairsC. gradable antonymsD. relational oppositesA5. ___ refers to sentences not only describe or report information, but also help speakers accomplish things.A. Speech actB. DiscourseC. ContextD. CommunicationB6. The feature that distinguishes“ hotdog” and“.hot dog”isA. toneB. stressC. intonationD. aspirationA7. ____ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. NeurolinguistcsD. Anthropological linguisticsD8. The study of language at some point of time is generally termed as ____ linguistics.A. appliedB. diachronicC. comparativeD. synchronicA9. Of the following linguists, ____ should be grouped into London school.A. FirthB. BloomfieldC. BoasD. TrubetzkoyC10. ____ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.A. Lingua francaB. CreoleC. PidginD. Standard languageD1. The basic essentials of the first language are acquired in the short period from about age two to puberty, which is called the ____ period for the first language acquisition.A. initialB. one-word stageC. pubertyD. criticalA2. The study of the linguistic meaning of words, phrases, and sentences is called ____.A. semanticsB. pragmaticsC. syntaxD. language changeD3. In making conversation, the general principle that all participants are expected to observe is called the ____ principle proposed by J. Grice.A. comprehensiveB. generativeC. discourseD. cooperativeC4. ___ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.A. referenceB. lexical meaningC. senseD. wordB5. “Autumn ”and “fall ”are used respectively in Britain and America, but refer to the same thing. The words are___ synonyms.A. collocationalB. dialectalC. completeD. stylisticD6. ____ is the abstract syntactic representation of a sentence, namely, the underlying level of structural organization which specifies all the factors governing the way the sentence should be interpreted.A. surface structureB. syntactic ambiguityC. syntactic componentD. deep structureC7. London speech that was illustrated by Shakespeare’ s writing was generall.y termedA. Old EnglishB. Middle EnglishC. Early Modern EnglishD. Late ModernA8. If we begin interpretation of a sentence spontaneously and automatically on the basis of whatever information is available to us, that is called ____.A. top-down processingB. bottom-up processingC. inductive analysisD. comparative analysisB9. ____ is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.A. DialectB. IdiolectC. Ethnic dialectD. Linguistic repertoireA10. Of the following words, ____ is an initialism.A. UNB. NATOC. BASICD. UNESCO。

语⾔学chapter4习题Chapter 4 SyntaxMultiple Choice1. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator3. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional4. The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome5. The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate6. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is a __________ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complex7. In the sentence “Mary gave a book to him”, “him” is with a(n) _________ case.A. accusativeD. nominative8. The relation between any two words in “What a nice day!” is known as ___________.A. choice relationB. paradigmatic relationC. vertical relationD. syntagmatic relation9. __________is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.A. GenderB. TenseC. AspectD. Number10. Paradigmatic relation is known as _______________.A. horizontal relationB. chain relationC. choice relationD. semantic relation11. Which of the following phrases is exocentric?A. a clever girlB. an ugly manC. in timeD. fork and knife12. refers to the relations holding between elements replaceable with each at particular place in structure, or between one element present and the others absent.A. Syntagmatic relationB. Paradigmatic relationC. Co-occurrence relationD. Exocentric relation13. ______ is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as masculine: feminine: neuter, animate: inanimate, etc.A. CaseB. GenderC. NumberD. Category14. Syntactically, English is an example of ________ language.C. SOVD. OSV15. What is the construction of the sentence “The boy smiled”?A. ExocentricB. EndocentricC. CoordinateD. Subordinate16. the relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc. e.g between s, p and r in a form such as spring, or between a subject and a verb in constructions such Bill hunts is called .A. syntagmatic relationB. paradigmatic relationC. positional relationD. relation of substitutabilityFill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:1. A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.2. A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.3. A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.4. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.5. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an __________ clause.6. construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be complement) construction.7. IC is the short form of immediate used in the study of syntax.8. A sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word, such as "and", "but", "or".Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement.1. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.2. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.3. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.4. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.5. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.6. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.7. In the phrase “in the near future”, the word “future” is head.8. Words like “actor”and “actress” manifest that grammatical gender strictly corresponds to biological gender.9. Paradigmatic relation in syntax is alternatively called horizontal relation.10.“The student” in the sentence “The student liked the linguistic lecture.”, and “The linguistic lecture” in the sentence “The linguistic lecture liked the student.” belong to the same syntactic category.Define the following terms1. Syntax2. IC analysisAnswer the following questions.1.What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉⼤学，2004）2.Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis. （北京第⼆外国语⼤学，2004）3. Suggest a tree diagram of the sentence The little girl ran into the garden. The student wrote a letter yesterday. Examine each of the following sentences and indicate if it is a simple, coordinate, complex or compound complex sentences:（1）Jane did it because she was asked to.（2）The soldiers were warned to remain hidden and not to expose themselves.（3）David was never there, but his brother was. （4）She leads a tranquil life in the country. （5）Unless I hear from her, I won’t leave this town..Draw on your linguistic knowledge of English and paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different ways to show how syntactic rules account for the ambiguity of sentences:（1）After a two-day debate, they finally decided on the helicopter.（2）The little girl saw the big man with the telescope.(3) The shooting of the hunters might be terrible.(4) He saw young men and women present.。

人文知识部分的考察一共有10道题目，包括四道文化题目、三道文学题目、三道语言学题目。

纵观历年真题，英语语言学部分主要考察语言学的概念，并根据概念进行实例分析。

对于语言学，英语专业的学生要掌握以下知识点：1.语言的基本概念及特征：任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性和文化传递性。

2.语言学的基本概念：口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言语、语言能力与语言运用、语言潜势与语言行为。

3.语音学：发音器官的英文名称、英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法、语音学的定义，发音语音学、听觉语音学、声学语音学、元音及辅音的分类、严式与宽式音标。

4.音位学：音位理论、最小对立体，自由变异、互补分布、语音的相似性、区别性特征、超音段音位学、音节、重音等。

5.词法学：词法的定义、曲折词与派生词、构词法、词素的定义、词素变体、自由词素、粘着词素等。

6.句法：句法的定义、范畴、短语规则、句子规则，表层结构和深层结构、转换与生成。

7.语义学：语义的定义、语义的有关理论、意义种类、词汇意义关系、句子语义关系。

8.语用学：语用学的定义、语义学与语用学的区别、语境与意义、言语行为理论、合作原则语言变化。

9.语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）10.语言与社会：社会语言学的概念、语言变体、语域、双语现象与双言制。

11.语言思维与文化：语言与文化的定义、萨皮尔-沃尔夫假说、语言与思维的关系、语言与文化的关系、中西文化的异同。

12.语言习得：语言习得的基本理论、语言习得的认知因素、语言环境与关键期假设，语言习得的过程、语言习得过程中的非典型性发展。

13.二语习得：母语习得与二语习得之间的关系、对比分析、错误分析、中介语、输入假说。

个体差异等。

14.语言与大脑：神经语言学与心理语言学的基本概念15.现代语言学理论与流派语言和语言学1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language任意性 arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性 duality 指语言由两层结构组成创造性 creativity 指语言可以被创造移位性 displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点2、语言的功能信息功能 informative人际功能 interpersonal施为功能 performative感情功能 emotive function寒暄功能 phatic communication娱乐功能 recreational function元语言功能 metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学 phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音音位学 phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学 morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学 syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则语义学 semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。

外国语2010级6班王丽红 2the relation between semantics and pragmatics IntroductionLanguage is the bridge connecting the man and the physical world .in other words, language is the reflection of man’s knowledge about the objective world, by the language, we are able to express our ideas so as to communicate with others for kinds of purposes. And whether with body language or formal written or spoken language, the meaning is the core of the language.but meaning varies in the different situations or context even with the same syntactic form of a language.so what makes these differences ? Among the study of linguistics on the meaning, the are two main kinds study of meaning, semantics and pragmatics. The two are close but different in the study of meaning. Over the past years ,many linguists do many research on the study of the meaning and make attempt to take semantics ,instead of the syntax,s the prerequisite of the study of the linguistics . But the deeper the study ,the more they find the necessity of relating the semantics and the context, which produce the existing of pragmatics. So this paper is mainly dealing with the relation between the semantics and pragmatics.1.The definition of semantics and pragmatics.Semantics is the study of meaning, which focuses on the relation between signifiers, such as words, phrases, signs, and symbols, and what they stand for.Linguistic semantics is the study of meaning that is used to understand human expression through language. Other forms of semantics include the semantics of programming languages, formal logics, and semiotics.Pragmatics is the study of meaning, which focuses on the specified conversational context.In a given languages, linguistic pragmatics is the study of meaning that the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge (e.g., grammer, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and listener, but also on the context of the utterance, any preexisting knowledge about those involved, the inferred intent ofthe speaker, and other factors. In this respect, pragmatics explains how language users are able to overcome apparent ambiguity, since meaning relies on the manner, place, time etc. of an utterance.The inner relation between semantics and pragmatics.In conclusion, semantics is the level of linguistics which has been most affected by pragmatics, but the relation between semantics (in the sense of conceptual semantics) and pragmatics has remained a matter of fundamental disagreement. Three logically distinct positions in this debate can be distinguished (Leech, 1981). 1) Pragmatics should be subsumed under semantics. 2) Semantics should be subsumed under pragmatics. 3) Semantics and pragmatics are distinct and complementary fields of study. The reductionist approach, runs counter into the fact that there are linguistic phenomena such as entailment which are relatively uncontroversially semantic, and there are also linguistic phenomena such as conversational implication which are relatively uncontroversially pragmatic(Huang, 2007).The complementarist viewpoint is more widely accepted in which semantics and pragmatics is considered as two different components in language system. They are independent and complementary. It is on the basis of complementarism that there becomes the boundary between semantics and pragmati cs.2,The difference between semantics and pragmatics.The difference can be divided in two ways .firstly, it is the relation between language and context. Semantics is the study of meaning isolating from the context,is purely the linguistic meaning ,which just concerns the language only while pragmatics is the study of meaning related to language users, to conversational context. We can include that semantics concerns the relation between the symbols and reference,and pragmatics deals with the relation between symbols and users. For example, when A say,---you are a fool .B say what does fool means? And C say what do you mean by a fool? In this case ,b actually want to know the literary(conceptual) meaning of the word FOOL. And c want to know the situational meaning of a fool.to a extent , we can say ,pragmatics not only conclude the linguistic meaning but extra meaning implied by the speech users.Second,according to Huang’s criticism on the distinction between semantics and pragmatics.The distinction between semantics and pragmatics has been formulated in a variety of different ways. Of these formulations, three, according to Bach (1999a, 2004), are particularly influential. They are (i) truth-conditional versus non-truth-conditional meaning, (ii) conventional versus non-conventional meaning, and (iii) context independence versus context dependence (Huang, 2007).1)Truth-conditional versus non-truth-conditional meaningAccording to this formulation, semantics deals with truth-conditional meaning, or words-world relations , semantics is just the linguistic meaning ,it do mot denote anything ; pragmatics has to do with non-truth-conditional meaning. But the meaning in pragmatics often implied in a indirect way.----the conversational implicatures ,meaning implied by the speakers under a particular circumstance.so it violates the manner of quantity in cooperative principles. It is the non conditional meaning.2)Conventional versus non-conventional meaningOn this view, semantics studies the conventional aspects of meaning; pragmatics concerns the non conventional aspects of meaning. Consequently, while a semantic interpretation, being conventional in nature, can not be cancelled, a pragmatic inference, which is non-conventional in nature, can but, as pointed out by Bach, among others, this way of invoking the semantics-pragmatics division runs into trouble with the fact that there are linguistic expressions that whose conventional meaning is closely associated with use.3)Context independence and context dependenceSemantics is concerned with isolated word meaning and sentence meaning, meanings predictable from linguistics knowledge alone.and pragmatics deals with the relation between the language and context that are basic to an account of language understanding.ConclusionPragmatics and Semantics are completely separable from each other. What is more,Pragmatics could not manage without Semantics.with both two in cooperation ,it can deepen our understanding of the function of language and the world,in which Semantics help us master the conceptual meaning and pragmatics facilitate the conversational meaning in actual use.Reference \. html.Leech G. Semantics [M].Penguin Books, 1981.Huang, Y. 2007.Pragmatics [M]. Oxford: OUP.。

英语语言学练习题Ⅰ. MatchingMatch each of the following terms in Column A with one of the appropriate definitions in Column B.Column A1.displacementngue3.suprasegmentalfeature4.deep structure5.predicationanalysis6.idiolect7.pidgin8.mistakes9.interlanguage 10.motivation11.arbitrarinesspetence13.broadtranscription14.morphology15.category16.errorsponentialanalysis18.context19.blending20.culture21.learningstrategies22.selectionalrestrictions23.phrase structurerules24.culturediffusionColumn BA.Learners’ independent system of the second language, which isof neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the targetlanguage. 9B.Learner’s atti tudes and affective state or learning drive,having a strong impact on his efforts n learning a second language.21C.The rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories.23D.Through communication, some elements of culture A enter cultureB and become part of culture B. 24E. A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combineselements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.6F. A special language variety that mixes or blends languages and itis used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. 7G.The kind of analysis which involves the breaking down ofpredications into their constituents---- arguments and predicates. 5H.They refer to constraints on what lexical items can go with whatothers. 22I.The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ssubcategorization properties. 4J.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.3K.The study of the internal structure of words, and the rules that govern the rule of word formation. 14L.The abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 2nguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. It is one of the distinctive features of human language. 1N.Learner’s conscious, goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. 10O.The total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. 20P.The common knowledge shared by both the speaker and hearer. 18Q.The way of word formation by which new words may be formed by combining parts of other words. 19R. A group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language, such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. 15S. A way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. This approach believes that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components. 17T.The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 12 U.One of the properties of human language. It means that there isno logical connection between meanings and sounds. 11V. A way to transcribe speech sounds with letter-symbols only. 13W.They reflec t gaps in a learner’s knowledge of the target language, not self-corrigible. 16X.They reflect occasional lapses in performance. 8Ⅱ.Blank-filling.Fill in the following blanks with a word, whose initial letter has been given.1.“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” This quotationis a good illustration of the a____ nature of language.Arbitrary2.The description of a language at some point of time in historyis a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a d____ study. Diachronic3.Chomsky defines c____ as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rulesof his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Competence4.In the production of vowels the air stream coming from the lungsmeets with no o____. This marks the essential difference between vowels and consonants. Obstruction5.The different phones that can represent a phoneme in differentphonetic environments are called the a____ of the phoneme.Allophone6.Allophones of the same phoneme cannot occur in the same phoneticenvironment. They are said to be in c____ distribution.Complementary7.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentencerather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i____. Intonation8.The m____ unit of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.Minimum9.I____ morphemes are bound morphemes that are for the most partpurely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. Inflectional10.Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually containthree elements: head, specifier, and c____. Complement11.Concerning the study of meaning, conceptualist view holds thatthere is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of c____ in the mind. concept12.The sense relation between “animal” and “dog” is called h____.hyponymy13.P____ refers to the phenomenon that the same word may have a setof different meanings. Polysemy14.What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics iswhether in the study of meaning the c____ of use is taken into consideration. Context15.S____ refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of aparticular social class. Sociolect16.WHO is an a____ derived from the initials of “World HealthOrganization”. Acronym17.According to Halliday, language varies as its function varies;it differs in different situations. The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a r____.Register18.In cross-cultural communication, some elements of culture Aenter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about the phenomenon of cultural d____. Diffusion19.While the first language is acquired s____, the second or foreignlanguage is more commonly learned consciously. Subconsciouslynguage a______ refers to a natural ability for learning asecond language. Acquisition21.Vibration of vocal cords results in a quality of speech soundscalled “v”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. Voice22.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segmentare called s____ features. Suprasegmental23.Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of wordsand rules for word f____. Formation24.The minimal unit of meaning is traditionally called m____.Morpheme25.The sense relation between “autumn” and “fall” is calleds____. Synonym26.H____ refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form, . , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. Homonymy27.In daily communication, people do not always observe the fourmaxims of the co-operative principle. Conversational i____ would arise when the maxims are flouted. Implicature28.SARS is an a____ derived from the initials of “Severe AcuteRespiratory Syndrome”. Acronym29.I____ is a personal dialect of an individual speaker thatcombines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. Idiolect30.RP, the sh ort form of “R____ Pronunciation” refers to theparticular way of pronouncing standard English. ReceivedⅢ.Multiple choice.Choose the best answer to the following items.1.____ is considered to be the father of modern linguistics.A. N. ChomskyB. F. de SaussureC. Leonard BloomfieldD. M. A. K. Halliday2.In the scope of linguistics, ____ form the part of language whichlinks together the sound pattern and meaning.A. morphology and syntaxB. phonetics andsemanticsC. semantics and syntaxD. morphology andsemantics3.____ studies the sounds from the hearer’s point of view, ., howthe sounds are perceived by the hearer.A. auditory phoneticsB. acoustic phoneticsC. articulatoryphonetics4.Which of the following words begins with a velar voiced stop?____A. godB. bossC. cockD. dog5.Which of the following words ends with a dental, voicelessfricative? ____A. roseB. waveC. clothD. massage6.Which of the following words contains a back, open and unroundedvowel? ____A. godB. bootC. walkD. task7.Which of the following is Not a velar sound? _____A. [h]B. [k]C. [g]D. [?]8.Which of the following is Not a minimal pair?____A. bat, biteB. kill, pillC. peak, pig,D. meat, seat9.Which of the following is an open class words?____A. emailB. butC. theD. they10.The underlined morphemes in the following belong to theinflectional morphemes except ____.A. paintsB. painterC. paintedD. painting11.Which of the following words has more than three morphemes? ____A. psychophysicsB. boyfriendsC. forefatherD.undesirability12.The pair of words “dead and alive” is called ____.A.gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC.complementary antonyms13.Which pair of the following words can be categorized as stylisticsynonyms?____A. torch & flashlightB. die & deceaseC. amaze & astoundD. luggage & baggage14.X: John has given up smoking.Y: John used to smoke.The sense relation between the above sentences is ____A. X entails YB. X presupposes YC. X is synonymous with YD. X is inconsistent with Y15.X: My father has been to London.Y: My father has been to UK.The sense relation between the above sentences is ____A. X entails YB. X presupposes YC. X is synonymous with YD. X is inconsistent with Y16.When we violate any of the maxims of Co-operative Principle, ourlanguage might become ____.A. impoliteB. incorrectC. indirectD. unclear17.According to Searl’s classification of speech acts, which ofthe following is an instance of directives? ____A.I fire you!B.Your money or your life!C.I’m sorry for the mes s I have made.D.I have never seen the man before.18.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang19.The word “Kodak” is a(n) ____.A. blendB. coined wordC. clipped wordD. acronym20.Which of the following words is Not formed by means ofclipping?_____A. memoB. motelC. quakeD. gym21.According to Halliday, mode of discourse refers to the _____ ofcommunication.A. subjectB. roleC. situationD. means22.Which of the following theories of language acquisition believesthat language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation? ____.A.The behaviorist viewB. The innatist viewC. The interactionist viewD. The cognitive theory23.Which of the following sentences is an example ofovergeneralization? ____.A.Jane told me to give up smoking.B.Jane asked me to give up smoking.C.Jane advised me to give up smoking.D.Jane suggested me to give up smoking.24.Which of the following hypotheses is put forth by Dr. Krashen?____.A.Critical Period HypothesisB. InputHypothesisC. Language Acquisition Device HypothesisD. Sapir-WhorfHypothesis25.Who among the following linguists put forward Co-operativePrinciples?A.Paul GriceB. John SearleC. KrashenD. Leech26.Which of the following linguists is the initiator oftransformational generative grammar?A. F. de SaussureB. N. ChomskyC. G. LeechD. M. A.K. Halliday27.When a ______ comes to be adopted by a population as its primarylanguage and children learn it as their first language, itbecomes .B. A. creole... pidgin B. pidgin...creoleC. C. regional dialect... sociolectD.sociolect ... regional dialect28.____ studies the sounds from the speaker’s point of view, .,how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate speech sounds.A. Auditory phoneticsB. Acoustic phoneticsC. Articulatoryphonetics29.We know the verb “put” requires an NP followed by a PP or Adv.Thus, the process of putting words of the same lexical categoryinto smaller classes according to their syntactic characteristic is called .A. categorizationB. subcategorizationC. syntactic categoriesD. coordination30.Which of the following words contains a front, close andunrounded vowel? ____A. badB. bedC. beatD. but31.The underlined morphemes in the following belong to thederivational morphemes except ____.A. fasterB. writerC. lovelyD. conversion32.Which of the following is an open class words?____A. emailB. butC. theD. they33.The pair of words “borrow and lend” is called ____.A.gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC.complementary antonyms34.Which pair of the following words can be categorized ascollocational synonyms?____A. torch & flashlightB. pretty & handsomeC. amaze & astoundD. luggage & baggage35.X: My sister will soon be divorced.Y: My sister is a married woman.The sense relation between the above sentences is ____A. X entails YB. X presupposes YC. X is synonymous with YD. X is inconsistent with Y36.X: John married a blond heiress.Y: John married a blond.The sentence relation between X and Y is ____A. X entails YB. X presupposes YC. X is synonymous with YD. X is contradictory with Y37.According to Searl’s classification of speech acts, which ofthe following is Not an instance of directives? ____A. Open the window!B. Your money or your life!C. Would you like to go to the picnic with us?D. I have never seen the man before.38.The word “brunch” is a(n) ____.A. blendB. coined wordC. clipped wordD. acronym39.According to Halliday, field of discourse refers to the _____of communication.A. subjectB. roleC. situationD. means40.There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix "ed"in the word "learned" is known as a( n)A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free form41.Which of the following theories of language acquisition holdsthat human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking? ____.A. The behaviorist viewB.The innatist viewC.The interactionist viewD.The cognitive theory42.The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred toas .A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula43.Which of the following hypotheses is put forward by EricLenneberg? ____.A. Critical Period HypothesisB.Input Hypothesisnguage Acquisition Device HypothesisD.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis44.Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case arecalled ____morpheme.A. inflectional B .free C. bound D. derivational45.There are ____ morphemes in the word denationalization?A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. sixnguage isA. instinctiveB. non-instinctiveC. staticD. genetically transmitted47.Pitch variation is known as ____ when its patterns are imposedon sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice48.Which one is different from the others according to manners ofarticulation?A. [z]B.[w]C.[e]D.[v]49.21. Which one is different from the others according to placesof articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [b]D. [p]50.Which vowel is different from the others according to thecharacteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [u]C. [e]D. [i]51.What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords arevibrating?A. VoicelessB. VoicedC. Glottal stopD.Consonant52.When a child uses “mummy” to refer to any woman, most probablyhis “mummy” means .A. + HumanB. + Human + AdultC. + Human + Adult – MaleD. + Human + Adult - Male + Parent53.The utterance "We're already working 25 hours a day, eight daysa week." obviously violates the maxim of ______.A. qualityB. quantityC. relationD. manner54.The pair of words “north” and “south” is ___.A. gradable oppositesB. relational oppositesC. co-hyponymsD. synonyms55.Which of the following sentences is NOT an example ofcross-association?A. other / anotherB. much / manyC. stalagmite / stalagtiteD. bow / bow56. describes whether a proposition is true or false.A. TruthB. Truth valueC. Truth conditionD. Falsehood57."John sent Mary a post card." is a case ofA. one-place predicationB. two-place predicationC. three-place predicationD. no-place predication58."John killed Bill but Bill didn't die" is a( n)A. entailmentB. presuppositionC. anomalyD. contradiction59. refers to the process whereby a word is shortened withouta change in the meaning and in the part of speech.60.A. Blending B. Back-formation C. Clipping D. Conversion61.Which of the following aspects is NOT the core of the study ofgeneral linguistics?A. soundB. structureC. meaningD. applicationⅣ.True of false judgment.Judge whether the following statements are true or false. Write T in the corresponding bracket for a true statement and F for a false one.1.Linguistics studies languages in general, but not any particularlanguage, . English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, etc. T2.Modern linguistics regards the written language as the naturalor primary medium of human language. F3.In narrow transcription, we transcribe the speech sounds withletter-symbols only while in broad transcription we transcribe the speech sounds with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. T4.By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and developmentof language. Tplete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.T6.Of the three phonetics branches, the longest established one, anduntil recently the most highly developed, is acoustic phonetics.F7.The meaning of the word “seal” in the sentence “the seal couldnot be found” cannot be determined unless the context in which the sentence occurs is restored. T8.An Innatist view of language acquisition holds that human beingsare biologically programmed for language. T9.According to co-operative principle, the conversationalparticipants have to strictly observe the four maxims, so that the conversation can go on successfully. F10.The same word may stir up different association in people underdifferent cultural background. T11.A child who enters a foreign language speech community by the ageof three or four can learn the new language without the trace of an accent. T12.In communication it will never be the case that what isgrammatical is not acceptable, and what is ungrammatical may not be inappropriate. F13.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. T14.Since there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds,language is absolutely arbitrary. F15.Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back accordingto the manner of articulation. F16.Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principlesand theories to language teaching and learning. F17.A phonological feature of the English compounds is that the stressof the word always falls on the first element, and the second element receives secondary stress. F18.All the affixes belong to bound morphemes. T19.A polysemic word is the result of the evolution of the primarymeaning of the word. T20.According to the innatist view of language acquisition, only whenthe language is modified and adjusted to the level of children’s comprehension, do they process and internalize the language items.F21.When a child acquires his mother tongue, he also acquires alanguage-specific culture and becomes socialized in certain ways.T22.According to Austin, the performative utterance is used toperform an action, it also has truth value. F23.Children can learn their native language well whenever they startand whatever kinds of language samples they receive. F24.Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refersto the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings. T25.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have differentreferences in different situations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the same sense. FⅤ.Give a short answer to e ach of the following questions.1.Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the studyof word meaning. What are they and how are they related to each other? P662.According to Halliday, what is register? What are the socialvariables that determine the register? P117-1183.What are the main features of human language that essentially makeit different from other animal communication systems? P8-94.Give a brief illustration to the “semantic triangle” suggestedby Ogden andⅥ. Essay question.1.According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possiblyperforming while making an utterance? Give an example to illustrate this? P80-822.What are the four maxims of the CP? Illustrate with examples howflouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?P85-883.Please observe the following sentences; all of them are not wellformed. What rules does each of the following sentences violate?And what are the two aspects in terms of sentence meaning? Please illustrate briefly.1) He ated the cake yesterday.2) We will gone to Beijing tomorrow.3) The table intended to marry the chair.4) My favorite fruit is red pears.Please take a look at the section (page 73) to the first paragraph on page 74.1. The meaning of sentence is not the sum total of the meaningsof all its components. And it includes both grammatical meaning and semantic meaning.2. The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, which is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. Any violation can result in mistakes, making a sentence unacceptable. Such as sentence 1) has a wrong word “ated” and 2) has “will gone”;3. But grammatically well-formed sentences can still be unacceptable because whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is decided by rules called selectional restrictions, in other words, constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. Some sentences may be grammatically well-formed, yet they may not be semantically meaningful because they contain words which are not supposed to go together. For example, as we can find in sentence 3) and 4), no table would intend to marry the chair unless in a children’s story and there is no red pears usually in the world. Therefore, some selectional restrictions have been violated.。