1.葵丘会盟：公元前651年齐国为确立霸主地位而举行的会盟。公元前651年，齐桓公在葵
丘大会诸侯，参加会盟的有齐、鲁、送、卫、郑、许、曹等国的国君，周天子也派代表参加。盟约申明：“凡我同盟之人，既盟之后，言归于好。”还规定同盟国不要乱筑河堤，不要囤积粮食，不要擅以田邑封给别人而不去报告天子。葵丘会盟使齐桓公成为中原的首位霸主。2.城濮之战：春秋时期晋楚之间的一次争霸战争。公元前632年，楚北上围宋，宋向晋告急，晋文公率军救宋。晋军为避开楚军的北进锋芒，在末战之前，主动退军“三舍”。至城濮，晋文公会晋、宋、齐、秦等军，大破楚军。此战后，晋文公大会诸侯于践土，确立了其霸主地位。
3.践土之盟：春秋时期晋文公为确立霸主地位而举行的会盟。城濮之战后，晋文公大会诸侯于践土，参加会盟的有晋、鲁、齐、宋、蔡、郑、卫等国，周天子也派代表参加。盟约规定：“皆奖王室，无相害也。”践土之盟使晋文公成为中原诸侯的霸主。
弭兵之会：春秋时期由宋国发起的倡导停战、结盟的运动。弭兵运动前后共有两次,公元前546年宋大夫向戌发起的弭兵之会最为重要。公元前546年，晋、齐、楚、秦、鲁、宋、郑等十四国诸侯会与宋，共尊晋、楚两大诸侯国为盟主；又齐、秦两大国，商定不作为从属国看待，其它原从属于晋、楚的较小诸侯国今后要互朝晋、楚两大国，并承担晋、楚给予的
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义务。这次会盟之后，晋、楚之间四十多年没有发生大的战争，其他国家的战争也很少。．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．
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1. Transcendentalism The origin of it is a philosophical and literary movement centered in Concord and Boston, which marks the summit of American Transcendentalism. 19th-century movement of writers and philosophers in New England who were loosely bound together by adherence to an idealistic system of thought based on a belief in the essential unity of all creation, the innate goodness of man, and the supremacy of insight over logic and experience for the revelation of the deepest truths. The major features of American Transcendentalism are:It emphasis on spirit, or the Oversoul, as the most important thing in the universe. It stressed the importance of the individual. To them the individual was the most important element of society. It offered a fresh perception of nature as symbolic of the Spirit or God. 2.Romanticism The Romanticism period stretches from the end of the 18th century through the outbreak of the Civil War. It is a term associate with imagination boundlessness, and in critical usage is contrasted with classicism which is commonly associated with reason and restriction. The features of Romanticism are: American Romanticism was in a way derivative: American romantic writing was some of them modeled on English and European works. American romanticism was in essence the expression of "a real new experience "and contained"an alien quality".Representatives:William Cullen Bryant; Henry Longfellow and James Cooper, Washington Irving. 3.Realism: In American literature, the Civil War brought the Romantic Period to an end. The Age of Realism came into existence. It came as a reaction against the lie of romanticism and sentimentalism. Realism turned from an emphasis on the strange toward a faithful rendering of the ordinary, a slice of life as it is really lived. It expresses the concern for commonplace and the low, and it offers an objective rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.The representatives are Howells, James, and Mark Twain. 4. Naturalism American naturalism was a new and harsher realism, it had come from Europe. Naturalism was an outgrowth of realism that responded to theories in science, psychology, human behavior and social thought current in the late nineteenth century. The background of naturalism are: In the last decade of the nineteenth century, with the development of industry and modern science, intelligent minds began to see that man was no longer a free ethical being in a cold, indifferent and essentially Godless universe. In this chance world he was both helpless and hopeless.Major Features of it are:Humans are controlled by laws of heredity and environment.The universe is cold, godless, indifferent and hostile to human desires.Representatives of it such as Stephen Crane, Frank Norris and Theodore Dreiser. 5.New Criticism The New Criticism as a school of poetry and criticism established itself in the 1940s as an academic orthodoxy in the United States. The school has its beginning in the 1920s. It focus on the analysis of the text rather paying attention to external elements such as its social background, its author's intention and political attitude, and its impact on society. Then it explores the artistic structure of the work rather than its author's frame of mind or its reader's responses. It also see a literary work as an organic entity, the unity of content and form, and places emphasis on the close reading of the text. These New Critics included T.S. Eliot,I.A.Richards,John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate and some other critics. The New Criticism has tended to divorce criticism from social and moral concerns, which was to become one salient feature of the movement. 6.Imagism: Between 1912 and 1922 there came a great poetry boom in which about 1000 poets published over 1000 volumes of poetry. Indeed ,to express the modern spirit, the sense of fragmentization and dislocation, was in large measure the aim of quite a few modern literary movements, of which Imagism was one.The first Imagist theorist, the English writer T.E.Hulme. Hulme suggests that modern art deals with expression and communication of momentary phases in the poet's mind. The most effective means to express these momentary impressions is through the use of dominant image.It is a literary movement launched American poets early in the 20th century that advocated the use of free verse, common speech patterns, and clear concrete images as a reaction to Victorian sentimentalism. The representatives are Ezra pound, William Carlos Williams and some other poets.
三国干涉还辽：1985年中国清政府因甲午战败被迫与日本签订《马关条约》，其中规定把台湾、澎湖列岛和辽东半岛割让给日本，激化了列强争夺中国的矛盾。俄国联合法国和德国共同干涉，迫使日本放弃了割占辽东半岛的要求。日本则再向中国勒索3000万两白银“赎辽费”作为补偿。俄、德、法三国借口干涉还辽“有功”，要求租借中国港湾作为报酬，由此掀起了瓜分中国的狂潮。 皖系军阀——段祺瑞 直系军阀——冯国璋 奉系军阀——张作霖 《天朝田亩制度》：是太平天国的纲领性文件。遵循“凡天下田，天下人同耕”的原则，希望建立“有田同耕，有饭同食，有衣同穿，有钱同使，无处不均匀，无处不饱暖”的理想社会。《天朝田亩制度》从根本上否定了封建社会的基础即封建地主的土地所有制，表现了广大农民要求平均分配土地的强烈愿望, 是对以往农民战争中“均贫富”、“等贵贱”和“均平”、“均田”思想的超越和发展，具有进步意义。但它并没有超出农民小生产者的狭隘眼界，所描绘的理想天国，具有不切实际的空想的性质，从未实行。 《资政新篇》：是太平天国后期洪仁玕提出的统筹全局的社会发展方案，这是一个带资本主义色彩的施政纲领。它的出现，表现了太平天国领导人学习西方“摸索救国救民的真理”，发展资本主义的主张。然而这些措施未能真正实行。 借师助剿：在太平天国进军江南时，清朝地方官闻风丧胆，有人建议把镇压太平军的希望寄托在借助外国军队上，这就是中外反动势力勾结、联合镇压太平天国的“借师助剿”方略。 公车上书：公元1895年4月，清政府在中日甲午战争中失败，派李鸿章赴日签订不平等的《马关条约》，引起全国人民的反对。是年，康有为在京会试，他号召各省举人一千三百余人联名上万言书，提出拒签和约、迁都抗战、变法图强三项主张，震撼全国。史称“公车上书”。 百日维新：1898年6月11日，光绪颁布了“明定国是”谕旨，宣布开始变法，在此后的103天中，接连发布了一系列推行新政的政令，史称戊戌变法，又称百日维新。维新运动遭到封建守旧势力的激烈反对，康有为、梁启超出逃，谭嗣同、杨锐、刘光第、林旭、杨深秀、康广仁被杀，史称“戊戌六君子”，维新失败。维新运动是一场资产阶级性质的改良运动。 虎门销烟：道光1839年6月3日，历时23天的虎门销烟，在林则徐的指挥下，共销毁鸦片2376254斤。向全世界宣告了中华民族决不屈服于侵略的决心。虎门销烟是我国近代史上反帝国主义的光辉一页。为鸦片战争的导火线。 平壤之战：发生于1894年９月１５日，是双方陆军首次大规模作战。当时驻守平壤的清军共三十五营，一万七千人；进攻平壤的日军有一万六千多人，双方兵力旗鼓相当。但清军总统（总指挥）叶志超贪生怕死，于午后四时树白旗停止抵抗，并下令全军撤退。六天里，清军狂奔五百里，于２１日渡鸭绿江回国。日军占领朝鲜全境。 黄海海战：发生于1894年９月１７日，是发生于鸭绿江口大东沟附近海面的中日双方海军一次主力决战。 海战的结果是北洋舰队损失“致远”、“经远”、“超勇”、“扬威”、“广甲”(“广甲”逃离战场后触礁，几天
名词解释: 主户与客户:宋代划分的两种户籍类型。划分的根据就是土地占有与赋税承担情况。主户指占有土地并交纳赋税的人,客户则指无地而耕种地主土地的佃户。主户按照土地的多少,分成五等;一二徭役不分主、客户,一律承担 朱熹:南宋思想家、教育家。朱熹就是理学形成的关键人物,其学主要承自程顾,而于周敦顾、张载、邵雍等人亦多有所吸收,基本上做到了集宋学诸家诸派之大成,形成了一套完整而系统的思想体系,因其以“理”为哲学核心,故有理学之名,亦称程朱理学。她认为“理”就是万物生长的本源,而“气”只就是构成万物的材料。主张以天理来克制人欲,以道心来主宰人心,要“去人欲,存天理”,以此来调与阶级矛盾。 理学:两宋时期产生的主要哲学流派。理学就是以儒家学说为中心,兼容佛道两家的哲学理证了封建纲常名教的合理性与永恒性,至南宋被采纳为官方哲学。重要的理学家有北宋的局敦颐,程颗、程顾及南宋的朱熹、陆九渊等,她们的哲学的中心观念就是“理”,把“理”说成就是产生世界万物的精神的东西。理学的出现对后世政治文化产生了深远影响。 市舶司:唐宋时设里的管理对外事务的机构。唐代仅在广州一地设市舶司,负责对外务、宋代增设了杭州、明州、泉州、密州、秀州。宋代的市舶司类似近代的海关而权力较大,国内商船出海必须向它申请:外国商船到达港口后,须向市舶司申报,并接受检查;市舶司另征收货物的十分之一的入口税,就是为抽解。 程朱理学 宋元时期思想文化领域中占统治地位的思想体系。理学就是以儒家思想为主,糅合佛、道唯心主义思想而形成的。在形成过程中,周敦颐、张载、二程与朱熹起了至关重要的作用。周敦颐就是理学的先驱与奠基者,张载也就是早期的理学创始人之一,程颢及其弟程颐共同建立了一套比较完整的、有系统的客观唯心主义哲学体系,对北宋理学的发展起了重要作用。她们哲学体系的核心就是“理”或“天理”,二程关于“理”的思想学说为程朱理学奠定了基础。朱熹就是理学思想的集大成者,使理学思想更丰富、更缜密,由此奠定了理学在中国封建社会后期的统治地位。 靖难之役 明初皇族内部为争夺最高统治权而爆发的一场内战。建文帝继位后,采纳齐泰、黄子澄的意见削藩,使皇族内部的矛盾迅速激化。建文元年七月(1399),燕王朱棣以诛齐、黄为名,于北平起兵,号称“靖难”。经过三年战争,燕王终于取得了帝位,改元永乐,就是为成祖,建文帝下落不明。这一事件,史称“靖难之役”。 四等人制 四等人制就是中国元代法定的民族等级制度。元代,蒙古贵族以少数民族统治阶级成为全国的统治者,为保持自己的特权地位与维护对人口远远超过本族的汉族及其她少数民族的统治,进一步推行民族压迫与民族分化政策,根据民族与被征服的先后,分人为蒙古、色目、汉人、南人四等。第一等蒙古人为元朝的“国族”; 第二等为色目人;第三等汉人,概指淮河以北原金朝境内的汉族与契丹﹑女真等族﹐以及较早为蒙古征服的云南﹑四川两省人。高丽人也属于这一等。第四等南人﹐指最后为元朝征服的原南宋境内各族。汉人﹑南人绝大部分都就是汉族。元廷规定四等人的地位﹑待遇就是不平等的。元朝统治者实行四等人制﹐旨在利用民族分化手段以维护其本身的特权统治。广大蒙古﹑色目下层人民与汉族人民一样处于被统治的无权地位﹐同样要负担沉重的赋税与兵﹑站诸役﹔汉人﹑南人中的官僚﹑地主阶级则与蒙古贵族结合在一起﹐保持其剥削与压迫汉族人民的阶级利益。四等人制的实行﹐使元朝的社会矛盾更加复杂﹑尖锐﹐从而加速了元朝的灭亡 八旗制度中国清代满族的社会组织形式。满族的先世女真人以射猎为业,每年到采捕季节,以氏族村寨为单位,由有名望的人当首领,这种以血缘与地缘为单位进行集体狩猎的组织形式,称为牛录制。总领称为牛录额真,努尔哈赤于明历二十九年建立黄、白、红、蓝四旗,称为正黄、正白、正红、正蓝,旗皆纯色。四十三年,努尔哈赤为适应满族社会发展的需要,在原有牛录制的基础上,创建了八旗制度,即在原有的四旗之外,增编镶黄、镶白、镶红、镶蓝四旗。把后金管辖下的所有人都编在旗内。八旗制度的特点就是以旗统人,即以旗统兵。凡隶于八旗者皆可以为兵。八旗制度从正式建立到1911年辛亥革命后清朝覆灭,共存在296年。它就是清王朝统治全国的重要军事支柱,
1. Transcendentalism—it is a philosophic and literary movement that flourish in New England, as a reaction against rationalism and Calvinism. It stressed intuitive understanding of god without the help of the church, and advocated independence of the mind. 超验主义，它是一个蓬勃发展的新英格兰的哲学和文学运动，反对理性主义和加尔文主义的反应。它强调直观地了解上帝没有教会的帮助下，主张心灵的独立性。 2. Romanticism had appeared in England in the last years of the eighteenth century. It spread to conti nental Europe and then came to America early in the nineteenth century. It came into being as a re action against the prevailing neoclassical spirit and rationalism during the Age of Reason. 浪漫主义曾经出现在英国，在过去几年的十八世纪。它蔓延到欧洲大陆，然后来到美国在十九世纪初。它应运而生作为理性的时代中针对当时新古典主义精神和理性的反应。 3. Puritanism—it is the religious belief of the Puritans, who had intended to purify and simplify the religious ritual of the Church of England. 清教主义，它是清教徒，谁曾打算净化和简化英国教会的宗教礼仪的宗教信仰。 4. Imagism is to present an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time. An imagistic poem must present the object exactly the way the thing is seen. And the reader can form the image of the object through the process of reading the abstract and concrete words. Imagism 意象派：is a poetic movement of England and the United States, flourished from 1909-1917. Its credo, expressed in Some Imagist Poets, included the use of the language of common speech, project matter, the evocation of images in hard, clear poetry, and concentration. 英国是与美国的诗意动作，从1909-1917蓬勃发展。它的信条，在表达意象的一些诗人，包括使用共同的讲话，不管项目，图像的硬盘，明确诗歌和浓度唤起的语言。 5、Realism：（现实主义）appeared in the United States in the literature of local color, an amalgam of romantic plots and realistic descriptions of things was immediately observable. the dialects, customs, sights.现实主义有浓厚的美国本土特色，是浪漫主义故事情节和现实主义描写相结合的产物：美国风味的方言、风俗、各种观点 6.Naturalism：自然主义 a new and harsher realism, 新型的更为冷峻的现实主义，产生悲观的流派，产生于the end of the century 十九世纪末，因为Perception of society’s disorders 对社会无序的感知。Presenting characters of low social and economic classes who were dominated by their environment and heredity. 设法尽力客观真实地展现出受环境与出身局限的下层人民和各种经济阶层人物的真正生活。The naturalists emphasized that the world was amoral, that men and women had no free will, that their lives were controlled by heredity and the environment, the religious “truths” were illusory, that the destiny of humanity was misery in life and oblivion in death. 强调世界的非道德性，人们没有意志的自由，宗教上的真理是虚幻的，现实生活是痛苦的。Deterministic 决定论，宿命的， 代表作家：Stephen Crane 史蒂芬.克莱恩, Frank Norris 弗朗克.诺里斯, Jack London 杰克.伦敦, Theodore Dreiser 西奥多.德莱塞. 6. The naturalists tend to depict the dark side of the socity, and always take the low classes as their heros or heroes. Compare to the realism and romanticism, they have a more pessimistic view toward the society, the life. Take Theodore Dreiser for example, his Sister Carrie or American Tragedy reveal that man can not control themselves, and is at the mercy of the nature, the heredity, the society and instinct.博物学家倾向于描绘社会的阴暗面,总是以低类为他们的英雄和英雄。比较现实主义和浪漫主义,他们对社会有更悲观的观点,生活。以西奥多·德莱塞为例,他的嘉莉妹妹还是美国的悲剧表明,男人不能控制自己,自然的摆布,遗传,社会和本能。
Allegory is a narrative that serves as an extended metaphor. Allegories are written in the form of fables, parables, poems, stories, and almost any other style or genre. The main purpose of an allegory is to tell a story that has characters, a setting, as well as other types of symbols, that have both literal and figurative meanings. One well-known example of an allegory is Dante’s The Divine Comedy.In Inferno, Dante is on a pilgrimage to try to understand his own life, but his character also represents every man who is in search of his purpose in the world. Alliteration is a pattern of sound that includes the repetition of consonant sounds. The repetition can be located at the beginning of successive words or inside the words. Poets often use alliteration to audibly represent the action that is taking place. Aside is an actor’s speech, directed to the audience, that is not supposed to be heard by other actors on stage. An aside is usually used to let the audience know what a character is about to do or what he or she is thinking. Asides are important because they increase an audience's involvement in a play by giving them vital information pertaining what is happening, both inside of a character's mind and in the plot of the play. Gothic is a literary style popular during the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th. This style usually portrayed fantastic tales dealing with horror, despair, the grotesque and other “dark” subjects. Gothic literature was named for the apparent influence of the dark gothic architecture of the period on the genre. Also, many of these Gothic tales took places in such “gothic” surroundings. Other times, this story of darkness may occur in a more everyday setting, such as the quaint house where the man goes mad fro m the "beating" of his guilt in Edgar Allan Poe's “The Tell-Tale Heart.”In essence, these stories were romances, largely due to their love of the imaginary over the logical, and were told from many different points of view. CATHARSIS is an emotional discharge that brings about a moral or spiritual renewal or welcome relief from tension and anxiety. According to Aristotle, catharsis is the marking feature and ultimate end of any tragic artistic work. IMAGERY: A common term of variable meaning, imagery includes the "mental pictures" that readers experience with a passage of literature. It signifies all the sensory perceptions referred to in a poem, whether by literal description, allusion, simile, or metaphor. Surrealism is an artistic movement doing away with the restrictions of realism and verisimilitude that might be imposed on an artist. In this movement, the artist sought to do away with conscious control and instead respond to the irrational urges of the subconscious mind. From this results the hallucinatory, bizarre, often nightmarish quality of surrealistic paintings and writings. Sample surrealist writers include Frank O'Hara, John Ashberry, and Franz Kafka.
名词解释： 中国同盟会：辛亥革命时期中国资产阶级的革命政党。由孙中山、黄兴发起，以兴中会、华兴会、光复会为基础，于1905年8月成立于日本东京。孙中山为总理，黄兴等分任执事、评议、司法三部工作。其革命纲领为“驱逐鞑虏，恢复中华、创立民国、平均地权”，即民族、民权、民生三大革命主义。发刊《民报》，批判康有为、梁启超的保皇派理论，宣传革命思想。自1906年起，先后发动萍浏醴起义、潮州黄冈起义、惠州七女湖起义、钦廉防城起义、镇南关起义、钦廉上思起义、云南河口起义、广州新军起义和黄花岗起义。1911年10月武昌起义，各省响应，推翻清王朝，建立中华民国后，于1912年8月改组为国民党。 《民报》：中国同盟会的机关报。1905年11月26日在日本东京创刊，1908年冬被日本政府封禁，1910年初在日本秘密印行两期后停刊。共出二十六期，另附《天讨》增刊。主编及主要撰稿人为胡汉民、汪兆铭、章太炎、朱执信、宋教仁等。宣传资产阶级民主革命思想，批驳保皇派梁启超《新民丛报》反对革命的谬论，秘密运往国内各地，对革命思想的传播和革命运动的发展，起了积极的推动作用。 三民主义：即民族主义、民权主义、民生主义，是孙中山旧民主主义革命思想的核心。1905年11月，孙中山在《民报》发刊词中第一次明确提出民族主义是要推翻封建专制制度，建立资产阶级共和国，民生主义是要用平均地权和节制资本的办法，反对少数富人专利，贫富不均，建立社会平等的国家。旧三民主义曾经是资产阶级宣传和动员群众的强大思想武器。1924年孙中山重新提出联俄、联共、扶助农工三大政策为核心的三民主义，是为新三民主义。 萍浏醴起义：1906年，湘、赣等省灾荒严重，人民处在水深火热之中。同年秋，同盟会会员刘道一、蔡绍南由日本回国，在湖南浏阳、醴陵一带宣传革命，联络会党首领龚春台、萧克昌等，准备于次年1月举行武装起义。后因事泄，仓促于12月4日起事。龚春台发布檄文，称“中华国民军南京革命先锋队都督”，率部连克浏阳、醴陵等地。江西萍乡安源煤矿工人闻风响应，纷纷投向革命，众至数万人，长江中下游同时震动。东京的同盟会总部获悉后，即派宁调元、胡瑛、杨卓林等回长江一带，请求响应。清廷急调湘、鄂、赣等省清军围剿革命军。革命军苦战月余，最后失败，刘道一、萧克昌、蔡绍南及群众数千人。 广州黄花岗起义：同盟会领导的一次大规模的起义。1911年1月，同盟会设起义领导机关统筹部于香港，以黄兴、赵声为正副部长，并在广州设秘密据点数十处。4月初，从海外和内地同盟会会员中挑选八百名敢死志士，组成先锋队，准备于13日分十路进攻总督署各要地。后因人员及军械未及时运到，决定延至27日发动，改十路为四路进攻。当日下午，黄兴率先锋队一百人，进攻两广总督署，总督张鸣岐逃遁。后与李准卫队相遇激战，黄兴中弹断右手两指，率十余人且战且走，最后仅剩黄兴，渡江到河南脱险，化装逃往香港。事后有人收得此役中的殉难者的遗骸七十二具，合葬于广州黄花岗，史称“黄花岗七十二烈士”。 华兴会：清末资产阶级革命团体。黄兴与陈天华、宋教仁等于1904年2月创立于长沙，并专设同仇会联络会党。以“驱逐鞑虏，复兴中华”、“同心扑满，当面清算”为号召。次年11月拟在长沙、常德、湘潭等五路同时起事。相约湖北革命党即时响应，占领两
中国古代史名词解释 明代： 1、内阁 明初加强中央集权的措施。明太祖废丞相与中书省后，直统六部，事务繁多，遂设立诸殿阁学士协助皇帝处理政务，为皇帝顾问。后成祖继位，命官品较低的翰林院编修、检讨等官入午门内的文渊阁当值，参预机务，分化出了皇帝的秘书机构称为内阁，内阁制度基本形成。仁宗以后，内阁权位渐高，入阁者多为尚书、侍郎，实际掌握宰相权力。 朝廷内制的敕、诏、册、表等专由内阁负责，成为一个位高权重的行政中心。清代相沿，因满洲贵族掌握实权，参预政务的人多由皇帝指定为人，故内阁的职权逐渐低落。到军机处成立后，成为传达谕旨、公布文告的机关。但名义上仍为清代最高级的官署。 2、督察院 明清两代最高的监察、弹劾及建议机关。明初监察机关称御史台，洪武十五年改称督察院，长官有左右都御史等，专职弹劾百官；督察院下设十三道监察御史，纠察内外官员，官阶虽低，威权却重。外出巡察号“代天子巡守”，大事奏裁，小事可立决。此外，按六部的建制，设“六科给事中”，负责稽查各不，驳正章疏违误。是强化监察制度的重要举措。 3、锦衣卫 即锦衣亲军都指挥使司。明洪武十五年设置。原为护卫皇宫的亲军，掌管皇帝出入依仗。 太祖加强专制统治，特令监管刑狱，赋予巡察缉捕权力。最高长官为指挥使，常由功臣、外戚充任，设同知、佥事、镇抚司镇抚等官，其下有官校，专司侦察。锦衣卫所属之镇抚司分南北两部，北镇抚司专理诏狱，直接取旨行事，用刑尤为惨酷。中叶后与东西厂并列，活动加强，成为厂卫并称的特务组织。 4、厂卫制度 明朝特务机构。明成祖于1420年设东辑事厂，宪宗时设西厂，武宗设内行厂。明中叶后锦衣卫与东西厂并列，活动加强，称为厂卫并称的特务组织，用刑非常残酷。厂与卫的职权基本无差别。但由于锦衣卫属于外官，奏事需用奏疏，还有勋戚及其子弟参加，不如东厂太监亲近，故厂的势力总要大于卫。这样，锦衣卫侦伺一切官民，厂则侦察官民和锦衣卫；西厂有时还监视东厂，内厂则监视官民和厂卫，而皇帝直接领导与监督所有侦察机关，构成一套侦察特务体系。 5、胡蓝之狱 是明太祖时实行的两次著名党狱。明初开国功臣多恃功骄恣，僭越封建礼法，加深社会矛盾，危及朱氏王朝的利益。明太祖多次颁布诏令，规定功臣权限。1380年（洪武十三年），左丞相胡惟庸“谋不轨”伏诛，明太祖借此大兴党狱。1390年，他颁布《昭示奸党录》，以伙同胡惟庸共谋不轨罪杀韩国公李善长、列侯陆仲亨等，诛连三万余人。 1393年，又以谋反罪杀凉国公蓝玉、列侯张翼等，牵连万余人。这两次党狱，不但元勋宿将被杀戮殆尽，而且覆灭了许多江南豪族。 6、卫所制度 卫所制度是明朝的一种军制。明代自京师达于郡县，皆设立卫、所。大抵每5600人设一卫，其下依次设立千户所、百户所、总旗、小旗，分别设置相应的指挥官。府县各卫外统于都指挥使司，内统于五军都督府。这样，“大小连比成军”，构成明朝的基本军事力量。京都的卫军分两种：一是京军三大营，为全国军队的精锐；二是皇帝的亲军，前者归五军都督府管，后者常由太监统领直接听令于皇帝。至明代中叶，屯田多被军官吞蚀，军士破产散亡，所存无几，又无战斗训练，仅供地主、官僚役使，不能担任防卫，遂改用募兵代替。
American Dream: American dream means the belief that everyone can succeed as long as he/she works hard enough. It usually implies a successful and satisfying life. It usually framed in terms of American capitalism（资本主义）, its associated purported meritocracy,（知识界精华）and the freedoms guaranteed by the U.S. Bill of Rights. American Puritanism清教主义: Puritanism is the practices and beliefs of the puritans. The Puritans were originally members of a division of the protestant church who wanted to purify their religious beliefs and practices. They accepted the doctrines of predestination, original sin and total depravity, and limited atonement through a special infusion of grace from God. American literature in the 17th century mostly consisted of Puritan literature. Puritanism had an enduring influence on American literature. It had become, to some extent, so much a state of mind, so much a part of national cultural atmosphere, rather than a set of tenets. Transcendentalism 超验主义: Transcendentalism was a group of new ideas in literature, religion, culture and philosophy that emerged in New England in the early to middle 19th century. Transcendentalists spoke for cultural rejuvenation and against the materialism of American society. It placed emphasis on spirit, or the Over soul, as the most important thing in the world. It stressed the importance of individual and offered a fresh perception nature ad symbolic of the spirit of God. Prominent transcendentalists included Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thorough. American Naturalism自然主义: American naturalism was a new and harsher realism. The naturalists attempt to achieve extreme objectivity and frankness, presenting characters of low social and economic classes who were determined by environment and heredity. It emphasized that the world was amoral, the men and women had no free will, that lives were controlled by heredity and environment, that the destiny of humanity was misery in life and oblivion in death. The pessimism and deterministic ideas naturalism pervaded the works of such American writers as Stephen Crane and Theodore Dreiser. American Naturalism(美国自然主义文学)：The American naturalists accepted the more negative interpretation of Darwin’s evolutionary theory and used it to account for t he behavior of those characters in literary works who were regarded as more or less complex combinations of inherited attributes, their habits conditioned by social and economic forces.2) naturalism is evolved from realism when the author’s tone in writing becomes less serious and less sympathetic but more ironic and more pessimistic. It is no more than a gloomy philosophical approach to reality, or to human existence.3>Dreiser is a leading figure of his school. The Gilded Age镀金时代:the Gilded Age refers to the era of rapid economic and population growth in the United States during the post-Civil War and post-Reconstruction eras of the late 19th century. The term "Gilded Age" was coined by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner in their 1873 book, The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today.The Gilded Age is most famous for the creation of a modern industrial economy. The end of the Gilded Age coincided with the Panic of 1893, a deep depression. The depression lasted until 1897 and marked a major political realignment in the election of 1896. After that came the Progressive Era. The Lost Generation: The Lost Generation is a group of expatriate American writers residing primarily in Paris during the 1920s and 1930s. The group was given its name by the American writer Gertrude Stein, who used “a lost generation” to refer to expatriate Americans bitter about their World War I experiences and disillusioned with American