（此文即是雪莱19岁时遭牛津开除之作）
对真理的爱是促使作者写这篇短论的唯一动机。因此，如果有的读者发现作者在推理上有任何缺陷，或者能够提出作者的心灵永远发现不了的证据，作者恳切地请求他们以同样扼要、同样严格和同样坦率的方式，发表他们的论据以及反对意见。
由于〔有神论的〕证据不足，本文作者是：一个无神论者。
严密地检验支持任何命题的证明是否有效，是获得真理的唯一可靠方法；关于这种方法的优点，是不需要多说的。我们关于上帝存在的知识；是一个极其重要的论题；无论怎样细致的研究，也决不会是过分的。就是根据这一认识，我们现在扼要地、无所偏袒地考察一下那些已经提出了的证明。我们首先必须考虑什么是信仰的本质。
当一个命题出现在心灵面前时，心灵就对构成这一命题的观念，产生同意或不同意的感觉。对于这些观念感到同意，就称为相信，有许多障碍往往阻止心灵产生这种直接的感觉；心灵就企图消除这类障碍，以便使这种感觉显得清晰。心灵为了对于构成命题的诸观念间的关系有完整的感觉，而对它们进行研究，这种研究是主动的；但是心灵对于这些观念间的关系的感觉，却是被动的。由于把心灵的这种研究和感觉混淆起来的缘故，就使许多人错误地以为心灵在信仰上是主动的，认为信仰是一种意志的活动，其结论就成为：信仰可以受心灵的制约。他们由于坚执着这种错误的观点，就进一步使不信仰带有一定程度的罪恶性质；但按不信仰的本质来说，是不可能带有罪恶性质的；它也同样不可能带有善的性质。因此，信仰是一种感情，这种感情的力量，就同其他各种感情一样，恰好同激动的程度成正比。
激动的程度有三种。
感觉是心灵获得一切知识的源泉；因而感觉的证据使人产生最强烈的同意。
心灵的判断是建立在我们亲身经验的基础之上的，这种经验来自感觉的源泉；因此，根据经验的判断，在激动的程度上属于第二等。他人的经验，传达到我们的经验中，那就属于程度最低的一种（可以制订一种在程度上逐步增加的标尺，其上可以标明各种命题经受感觉考查的不同能力，命题的这种能力，将能准确地表明它们应该得到的信仰的程度。）
因此，凡是有违理性的一切证明，都是不能接受的；因为理性就建立在感觉的证据上。
每一种证明都可以被归人上述这三类中的一类；我们要考虑这三类的论据中，有哪一个论据足以说服我们相信上帝的存在。
第一类，感觉上的证据。如果上帝能在我们面前现身，如果他能以他的存在来说服我们的感觉，这种启示就必然能造成信仰。如果神在哪些人面前出现过了，那么，这些人就可能具有对他的存在的最强烈的信念。但是神学家们的上帝是谁也看不见的。
第二类，理性。不能不认为，人们都知道：一切现存之物必然有其起源，或者亘古即有之；人们也知道，凡不是亘古即有的事物，都必然有其产生的原因。当这种论点用到宇宙上去，就必须证明宇宙是被创造出来的；除非清楚地阐明我们可以合理地假定宇宙是无始无终的。我们必须首先证明有一个设计，然后才能推论出有这么一个设计者。唯一使我们可以形成因果关系的思想，来自事物间的经常联系，从一事物推出另一事物的关系。在两个命题正好相反的情况下，心灵就相信比较好理解的一个；与其认为宇宙之外另有一个存在，这个存在能够创造宇宙，还不如假定宇宙是无始无终的存在为易解。如果心灵已被一种担负压得够沉重的时候，再去增加不能忍受的重量，这会是一种缓解吗？
另外一种论据是建立在人对其自身存在的知炽上的，大致如下：一个人不仅知道他现在存在，而且也知道他最初并不存在；因此，必然有其原因。但是，我们的因果观念只能来源于客观事物的恒常的联结，以及由此及彼的推理；而且，我们在实验地进行推理时，只能从结果推论出恰好适合于此种结果的那些原因。但是确有某种工具产生原动力，可是我们不能证明这种原动力是这些工具所固有的；相反的假设也同样没法阐明；我们承认这种原动力是不可理解的；但是如果假设这种结果是由一个永恒的、无处不在的、全能的存在所产生，也使原因变得同样模糊，而且使它更不好理解。
第三类，见证。见证决不能违反理性。上帝使人的感觉相信他是存在的，关于这一点的见证，如果要人承认的话，除非我们的心灵认为这些见证人见到上帝的可能大于他们受骗的可能。我们的理性永不可能承认这样一些人的见证，他们不仅宣布他们是奇迹的目击者，并且也宣布上帝是非理性的；怎么说他们宣布上帝为非理性的？因为上帝指挥着，要人们相信他，谁相信他，他就给谁以最高的奖赏，谁不信他，就永世受罚。我们只能指挥有意识的行动；但信仰并非有意识的行动；心灵是被动的，或者说无意识地主动的：由此可见，我们没有足够的证据，或者不如说，要证明上帝的存在，证据不足。我们在上文已表明，从理性不能演绎出这种结论。只有那些被感觉的证据所说服的人们，才能相信其存在。
因此，很显然，从这三类信仰的源泉都得到证明，心灵不能相信有一个创造一切的上帝的存在。同样明显的是，信仰既然是一种心灵的感情，对于不信者，即无罪恶可言；只有那些不愿消除错误观点，始终从这种观点来看待任何论题的人，才是不可恕的。每一颗能思考的心灵，必然承认关于上帝的存在世上没有任何证明。
上帝只是一个假设，作为一个假设，因此需要证明。“有责证明”（musprobandi），对有神论者们来说。艾萨克·牛顿爵士说：“我从来也不作假设，因为任何不是从现象中演绎出来的东西，都必须被称为…假设?；凡是假设，不论是形而上学的假设，物理学的假设，或带有神秘性质的假设，甚而至于力学上的假设——从哲学上说来；统统都是不值一钱的。” 牛顿的这一条有价值的法则，也适合于一切关于创造主的存在的证明。我们看到具有各种力量的各种物体，我们仅仅知道它们的效果；关于它们的本质和原因，我们处于一种无知的状态。牛顿称这些为事物的现象；但是哲学的骄做不愿意承认哲学自己对于这些事物的原因无知。从我们的感觉对象——这些现象，我们企图推出原因，这个原因我们称之为上帝，又无谓地赠给他各种否定的和矛盾的性质。从这个假设出发，我们发明了这个总的名称〔上帝〕，来掩饰我们对原因和本质的无知。被称为上帝的这个存在，根本不符合牛顿所开列的条件；上帝却带有哲学自大狂所织成的帷幕的一切特征，这片帷幕被哲学家们用来甚至让他们自己看不到自己的无知。他们从庸人们的“神人同形同性论”中借取了纺织这片帷幕所需的纱线。诡辩家们为了同样目的，使用了种种的字眼：从逍遥学派的神秘性概念，以至于波义尔的“媒素”（effluvium）和赫歇耳（Herschel）的“克里尼底”
（Crinities）或“星云”。上帝被说成是无限的、永恒的、不可理解的；他被放在无知的逻辑所能编造的每一个“predicateinnon”
（虚无的谓词）之中。甚至连他的崇拜者们也都承认，要形成任何关于他的观念是不可能的。他们学着一位法国诗人那样喊道：
“要说出他是什么，只有他自己才能够。”
培根爵士说，无神论给人们带来理性、哲学、自然崇拜、法律、荣誉，以及能够引导人们走向道德的一切事物；但是迷信破坏这一切，并且把自身建立为一种暴君统治，压在人类的悟性之上。因此，无神论决不会破坏政治，而只会使人们的眼睛更亮，因为他们能看到在现世的界线之外是什么东西也没有的。（见培根道德论文。）
Q.E.D.（证毕）
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The Necessity Of Atheism
[NOTE -- The Necessity of Atheism was published by Shelley in 1811. In 1813 he printed a revised and expanded version of it as one of the notes to his poem Queen Mab. The revised and expanded version is the one here reprinted.]
There Is No God
This negation must be understood solely to affect a creative Deity. The hypothesis of a pervading Spirit co-eternal with the universe remains unshaken.
A close examination of the validity of the proofs adduced to support any proposition is the only secure way of attaining truth, on the advantages of which it is unnecessary to descant: our knowledge of the existence, of a Deity is a subject of such importance that it cannot be too minutely investigated; in consequence of this conviction we proceed briefly and impartially to examine the proofs which have been adduced. It is necessary first to consider the nature of belief.
When a proposition is offered to the mind, It perceives the agreement or disagreement of the ideas of which it is composed. A perception of their agreement is termed belief. Many obstacles frequently prevent this perception from being immediate; these the mind attempts to remove in order that the perception may be distinct. The mind is active in the investigation in order to perfect the state of perception of the relation which the component ideas of the proposition bear to each, which is passive; the investigation being confused with the
perception has induced many falsely to imagine that the mind is active in belief. -- that belief is an act of volition, -- in consequence of which it may be regulated by the mind. Pursuing, continuing this mistake, they have attached a degree of criminality to disbelief; of which, in its nature, it is incapable: it is equally incapable of merit.
Belief, then, is a passion, the strength of which, like every other passion, is in precise proportion to the degrees of excitement.
The degrees of excitement are three.
The senses are the sources of all knowledge to the mind; consequently their evidence claims the strongest assent.
The decision of the mind, founded upon our own experience, derived from these sources, claims the next degree.
The experience of others, which addresses itself to the former one, occupies the lowest degree.
(A graduated scale, on which should be marked the capabilities of propositions to approach to the test of the senses, would be a just barometer of the belief which ought to be attached to them.)
Consequently no testimony can be admitted which is contrary to reason; reason is founded on the evidence of our senses.
Every proof may be referred to one of these three divisions: it is to be considered what arguments we receive from each of them, which should convince us of the existence of a Deity.
1st, The evidence of the senses. If the Deity should appear to us, if he should convince our senses of his existence, this revelation would necessarily command belief. Those to whom the Deity has thus appeared have the strongest possible conviction of his existence. But the God of Theologians is incapable of local visibility.
2d, Reason. It is urged that man knows that whatever is must either have had a beginning, or have existed from all eternity, he also knows that whatever is not eternal must have had a cause. When this reasoning is applied to the universe, it is necessary to prove that it was created: until that is clearly demonstrated we may reasonably suppose that it has endured from all eternity. We must prove design before we can infer a designer. The only idea which we can form of causation is derivable from the constant conjunction of objects, and the consequent inference of one from the other. In a base where two propositions are diametrically opposite, the mind believes that which is least incomprehensible; -- it is easier to suppose that the universe has existed from all eternity than to conceive a being beyond its limits capable of creating it: if the mind sinks beneath the weight of one, is it an alleviation to increase the
intolerability of the burthen?
The other argument, which is founded on a Man's knowledge of his own existence, stands thus.
A man knows not only that he now is, but that once he was not; consequently there must have been a cause. But our idea of causation is alone derivable from the constant conjunction of objects and the consequent Inference of one from the other; and, reasoning experimentally, we can only infer from effects caused adequate to those effects. But there certainly is a generative power which is effected by certain instruments: we cannot prove that it is inherent in these instruments" nor is the contrary hypothesis capable of demonstration: we admit that the generative power is incomprehensible; but to suppose that the same effect is produced by an eternal, omniscient, omnipotent being leaves the cause in the same obscurity, but renders it more incomprehensible.
3d, Testimony. It is required that testimony should not be contrary to reason. The testimony that the Deity convinces the senses of men of his existence can only be admitted by us, if our mind considers it less probable, that these men should have been deceived than that the Deity should have appeared to them. Our reason can never admit the testimony of men, who not only declare that they were eye-witnesses of miracles, but that the Deity was irrational; for he commanded that he should be believed, he proposed the highest rewards for, faith, eternal punishments for disbelief. We can only command voluntary actions; belief is not an act of volition; the mind is ever passive, or involuntarily active; from this it is evident that we have no sufficient testimony, or rather that testimony is insufficient to prove the being of a God. It has been before shown that it cannot be deduced from reason. They alone, then, who have been convinced by the evidence of the senses can believe it.
Hence it is evident that, having no proofs from either of the three sources of conviction, the mind cannot believe the existence of a creative God: it is also evident that, as belief is a passion of the mind, no degree of criminality is attachable to disbelief; and that they only are reprehensible who neglect to remove the false medium through which their mind views any subject of discussion. Every reflecting mind must acknowledge that there is no proof of the existence of a Deity.
God is an hypothesis, and, as such, stands in need of proof: the onus probandi rests on the theist. Sir Isaac Newton says: Hypotheses non fingo, quicquid enim ex phaenomenis non deducitur hypothesis, vocanda est, et hypothesis vel metaphysicae, vel physicae, vel qualitatum occultarum, seu mechanicae, in philosophia locum non habent. To all proofs of the existence of a creative God apply this valuable rule. We see a variety of bodies possessing a variety of powers: we merely know their effects; we are in a estate of ignorance with respect to their essences and causes. These Newton calls the phenomena of things; but the pride of philosophy is unwilling to admit its ignorance of their causes. From the phenomena, which are the objects of our attempt to infer a cause, which we call God, and gratuitously endow it with all negative and contradictory qualities. From this hypothesis we invent this general name, to conceal our ignorance of causes and essences. The being called God by no means answers with the conditions prescribed by Newton; it bears every mark of a veil woven by philosophical
conceit, to hide the ignorance of philosophers even from themselves. They borrow the threads of its texture from the anthropomorphism of the vulgar. Words have been used by sophists for the same purposes, from the occult qualities of the peripatetics to the effuvium of Boyle and the crinities or nebulae of Herschel. God is represented as infinite, eternal, incomprehensible; he is contained under every predicate in non that the logic of ignorance could fabricate. Even his worshippers allow that it is impossible to form any idea of him: they exclaim with the French poet,
Pour dire ce qu'il est, il faut etre lui-meme.
Lord Bacon says that atheism leaves to man reason, philosophy, natural piety, laws, reputation, and everything that can serve to conduct him to virtue; but superstition destroys all these, and erects itself into a tyranny over the understandings of men: hence atheism never disturbs the government, but renders man more clear- sighted, since he sees nothing beyond the boundaries of the present life. -- Bacon's Moral Essays.
The [Beginning here, and to the paragraph ending with Systeme de la Nature," Shelley wrote in French. A free translation has been substituted.] first theology of man made him first fear and adore the elements themselves, the gross and material objects of nature; he next paid homage to the agents controlling the elements, lower genies, heroes or men gifted with great qualities. By force of reflection he sought to simplify things by submitting all nature to a single agent, spirit, or universal soul, which, gave movement to nature and all its branches. Mounting from cause to cause, mortal man has ended by seeing nothing; and it is in this obscurity that he has placed his God; it is in this darksome abyss that his uneasy imagination has always labored to fabricate chimeras, which will continue to afflict him until his knowledge of nature chases these phantoms which he has always so adored.
If we wish to explain our ideas of the Divinity we shall be obliged to admit that, by the word God, man has never been able to designate but the most hidden, the most distant and the most unknown cause of the effects which he saw; he has made use of his word only when the play of natural and known causes ceased to be visible to him; as soon as he lost the thread of these causes, or when his mind could no longer follow the chain, he cut the difficulty and ended his researches by calling God the last of the causes, that is to say, that which is beyond all causes that he knew; thus he but assigned a vague denomination to an unknown cause, at which his laziness or the limits of his knowledge forced him to stop. Every time we say that God is the author of some phenomenon, that signifies that we are ignorant of how such a phenomenon was able to operate by the aid of forces or causes that we know in nature. It is thus that the generality of mankind, whose lot is ignorance, attributes to the Divinity, not only the unusual effects which strike them, but moreover the most simple events, of which the causes are the most simple to understand by whomever is able to study them. In a word, man has always respected unknown causes, surprising effects that his ignorance kept him from unraveling. It was on this debris of nature that man raised the imaginary colossus of the Divinity.
If ignorance of nature gave birth to gods, knowledge of nature is made for their destruction. In
proportion as man taught himself, his strength and his resources augmented with his knowledge; science, the arts, industry, furnished him assistance; experience reassured him or procured for him means of resistance to the efforts of many causes which ceased to alarm as soon as they became understood. In a word, his terrors dissipated in the same proportion as his mind became enlightened. The educated man ceases to be superstitious.
It is only by hearsay (by word of mouth passed down from generation to generation) that whole peoples adore the God of their fathers and of their priests: authority, confidence, submission and custom with them take the place of conviction or of proofs: they prostrate themselves and pray, because their fathers taught them to prostrate themselves and pray: but why did their fathers fall on their knees? That is because, in primitive times, their legislators and their guides made it their duty. "Adore and believe," they said, "the gods whom you cannot understand; have confidence in our profound wisdom; we know more than you about Divinity." But why should I come to you? It is because God willed it thus; it is because God will punish you if you dare resist. But this God, is not he, then, the thing in question? However, man has always traveled in this vicious circle; his slothful mind has always made him find it easier to accept the judgment of others. All religious nations are founded solely on authority; all the religions of the world forbid examination and do not want one to reason; authority wants one to believe in God; this God is himself founded only on the authority of a few men who pretend to know him, and to come in his name and announce him on earth. A God made by man undoubtedly has need of man to make himself known to man.
Should it not, then, be for the priests, the inspired, the metaphysicians that should be reserved the conviction of the existence of a God, which they, nevertheless, say is so necessary for all mankind? But Can you find any harmony in the theological opinions of the different inspired ones or thinkers scattered over the earth? They themselves, who make a profession of adoring the same God, are they in Agreement? Are they content with the proofs that their colleagues bring of his existence? Do they subscribe unanimously to the ideas they present on nature, on his conduct, on the manner of understanding his pretended oracles? Is there a country on earth where the science of God is really perfect? Has this science anywhere taken the consistency and uniformity that we the see the science of man assume, even in the most futile crafts, the most despised trades. These words mind immateriality, creation, predestination and grace; this mass of subtle distinctions with which theology to everywhere filled; these so ingenious inventions, imagined by thinkers who have succeeded one another for so many centuries, have only, alas! confused things all the more, and never has man's most necessary science, up to this time acquired the slightest fixity. For thousands of years the lazy dreamers have perpetually relieved one another to meditate on the Divinity, to divine his secret will, to invent the proper hypothesis to develop this important enigma. Their slight success has not discouraged the theological vanity: one always speaks of God: one has his throat cut for God: and this sublime being still remains the most unknown and the most discussed.
Man would have been too happy, if, limiting himself to the visible objects which interested him, he had employed, to perfect his real sciences, his laws, his morals, his education, one-half the efforts he has put into his researches on the Divinity. He would have been still wiser and still
more fortunate if he had been satisfied to let his jobless guides quarrel among themselves, sounding depths capable of rendering them dizzy, without himself mixing in their senseless disputes. But it is the essence of ignorance to attach importance to that which it does not understand. Human vanity is so constituted that it stiffens before difficulties. The more an object conceals itself from our eyes, the greater the effort we make to seize it, because it pricks our pride, it excites our curiosity and it appears interesting. In fighting for his God everyone, in fact, fights only for the interests of his own vanity, which, of all the passions produced by the mal-organization of society, is the quickest to take offense, and the most capable of committing the greatest follies.
If, leaving for a moment the annoying idea that theology gives of a capricious God, whose partial and despotic decrees decide the fate of mankind, we wish to fix our eyes only on the pretended goodness, which all men, even trembling before this God, agree is ascribing to him, if we allow him the purpose that is lent him of having worked only for his own glory, of exacting the homage of intelligent beings; of seeking only in his works the well-being of mankind; how reconcile these views and these dispositions with the ignorance truly invincible in which this God, so glorious and so good, leaves the majority of mankind in regard to God himself? If God wishes to be known, cherished, thanked, why does he not show himself under his favorable features to all these intelligent beings by whom he wishes to be loved and adored? Why not manifest himself to the whole earth in an unequivocal manner, much more capable of convincing us than these private revelations which seem to accuse the Divinity of an annoying partiality for some of his creatures? The all-powerful, should he not heave more convincing means by which to show man than these ridiculous metamorphoses, these pretended incarnations, which are attested by writers so little in agreement among themselves? In place of so many miracles, invented to prove the divine mission of so many legislators revered by the different people of the world, the Sovereign of these spirits, could he not convince the human mind in an instant of the things he wished to make known to it? Instead of hanging the sun in the vault of the firmament, instead of scattering stars without order, and the constellations which fill space, would it not have been more in conformity with the views of a God so jealous of his glory and so well-intentioned for mankind, to write, in a manner not subject to dispute, his name, his attributes, his permanent wishes in ineffaceable characters, equally understandable to all the inhabitants of the earth? No one would then be able to doubt the existence of God, of his clear will, of his visible intentions. Under the eyes of this so terrible God no one would have the audacity to violate his commands, no mortal would dare risk attracting his anger: finally, no man would have the effrontery to impose on his name or to interpret his will according to his own fancy.
In fact, even while admitting the existence of the theological God, and the reality of his so discordant attributes which they impute to him, one can conclude nothing to authorize the conduct or the cult which one is prescribed to render him. Theology is truly the sieve of the Danaides. By dint of contradictory qualities and hazarded assertions it has, that is to say, so handicapped its God that it has made it impossible for him to act. If he is infinitely good, what reason should we have to fear him? If he is infinitely wise, why should we have doubts concerning our future? If he knows all, why warn him of our needs and fatigue him with our
prayers? If he is everywhere, why erect temples to him? If he is just, why fear that he will punish the creatures that he has, filled with weaknesses? If grace does everything for them, what reason would he have for recompensing them? If he is all-powerful, how offend him, how resist him? If he is reasonable, how can he be angry at the blind, to whom he has given the liberty of being unreasonable? If he is immovable, by what right do we pretend to make him change his decrees? If he is inconceivable, why occupy ourselves with him? IF HE HAS SPOKEN, WHY IS THE UNIVERSE NOT CONVINCED? If the knowledge of a God is the most necessary, why is it not the most evident and the clearest. -- Systame de la Nature. London, 1781.
The enlightened and benevolent Pliny thus Publicly professes himself an atheist, -- Quapropter effigiem Del formamque quaerere imbecillitatis humanae reor. Quisquis est Deus (si modo est alius) et quacunque in parte, totus est gensus, totus est visus, totus auditus, totus animae, totus animi, totus sul. ... Imperfectae vero in homine naturae praecipua solatia, ne deum quidem omnia. Namque nec sibi protest mortem consciscere, si velit, quod homini dedit optimum in tantis vitae poenis; nee mortales aeternitate donare, aut revocare defunctos; nec facere ut qui vixit non vixerit, qui honores gessit non gesserit, nullumque habere In praeteritum ius praeterquam oblivionts, atque (ut. facetis quoque argumentis societas haec cum, deo compuletur) ut bis dena viginti non sint, et multa similiter efficere non posse. -- Per quaedeclaratur haud dubie naturae potentiam id quoque ease quod Deum vocamus. -- Plin. Nat. Hist. cap. de Deo.
The consistent Newtonian is necessarily an atheist. See Sir W. Drummond's Academical Questions, chap. iii. -- Sir W. seems to consider the atheism to which it leads as a sufficient presumption of the falsehood of the system of gravitation; but surely it is more consistent with the good faith of philosophy to admit a deduction from facts than an hypothesis incapable of proof, although it might militate, with the obstinate preconceptions of the mob. Had this author, instead of inveighing against the guilt and absurdity of atheism, demonstrated its falsehood, his conduct would have, been more suited to the modesty of the skeptic and the toleration of the philosopher.
Omnia enim per Dei potentiam facta aunt: imo quia naturae potentia nulla est nisi ipsa Dei potentia. Certum est nos eatenus Dei potentiam non intelligere, quatenus causas naturales ignoramus; adeoque stulte ad eandem Dei potentism recurritur, quando rei alicuius causam naturalem, sive est, ipsam Dei potentiam ignoramusd -- Spinoza, Tract. Theologico-Pol. chap 1. P. 14.
浅谈小学藏汉双语教学策略 发表时间：2018-12-19T16:19:22.870Z 来源：《科学教育前沿》2018年10期作者：李林[导读] 【摘要】藏汉双语教学是以藏语为基础，通过学习汉语提高教学质量、增进民族交流、繁荣民族文化的双语教学模式。本文主要探讨小学藏汉双语教学策略。【关键词】小学藏汉双语教学教学策略【摘要】藏汉双语教学是以藏语为基础，通过学习汉语提高教学质量、增进民族交流、繁荣民族文化的双语教学模式。本文主要探讨小学藏汉双语教学策略。 【关键词】小学藏汉双语教学教学策略 中图分类号：Ｇ62 文献标识码：Ａ文章编号：ISSN1004-1621（2018）10-086-01 一、藏汉双语教学模式 国家为保证各少数民族使用和发展本民族语言文字的权利，民族自治地方因地制宜，在中小学采用民族语和汉语双语教学，逐步形成了"民族语授课为主，加授汉语"、"汉语授课为主，加授民族语"的两种基本教学模式，并积极开展"三语"（民族语、汉语和外语）教学实验。[2]据了解，西北民族地区中小学同样采用这两种教学模式。简称为"藏+汉"和"汉+藏"的教学模式，"藏+汉"类学校教师以藏语进行授课，并另加授一门汉语文，藏汉语文教材均使用西北五省协编的民用教材，内容与普通中小学的统编教材出入较大，其余课程属于统编教材的藏语翻译版本。"汉+藏"类学校教师以汉语授课，教学内容均与汉语类普通学校无异，除此加授一门藏语文。 二、藏汉双语教学的重要性和必要性 民族教育作为传统教育的一个组成部分，必要受到教育环境变化的影响。否则将更加落后，不能反映时代要求。这是历史发展的基本规律所决定的，民族教育从无到有。已经完成它的初级使命，如何提高教育效果。促进民族教育事业健康持续发展，使民族教育摆脱长期以来国家投入，教师费力。作为教育工作者，唯有知难而进，才有可能实现一定的突破。最终获得民族教育事业的大发展。 三、藏汉双语教学的对策与建议 1.注重藏汉双语教学，正确处理其他教法。 藏汉双语教学法是教师根据班上学生了解或熟悉语言的种类不同情况，为面向全体学生而采用的教学方法。在课堂教学中，教师的语言是一个不容忽视的重要方面，教师的语言贯穿于整个教学过程，它是教学活动中最起码的手段。可见语言在教学活动中是极其的重要的。我同时还认为，教师能根据班上学生了解和熟悉语言种类不同的实际情况，通过学生熟悉的语言进行教学尤其重要。如给聋哑学校的学生上课，教师必须根据学生的实际，用手语进行教学。如果对这样的学生，也用标准的普通话授课，不但达不到预期的教学目的，反而会使学生误解为教师在歧视他们。教师讲课时语言固然应通俗形象，明白透彻。但我们同时还认为，教师要面向全体学生，通过用学生熟悉的语言授课，使学生感到教师的语言并不陌生。这样师生的情感才能沟通，学生才能倾听教师的讲解，教师才能激发学生探求知识的欲望。在教学中教师如果不通过学生熟悉的语言进行教学，而是用某一种学生并不十分熟悉的外来语言进行教学，学生就不能很好地掌握诸如概念或运算法则等基础知识。 2.采用灵活的课堂组织方式增强互动，激发学生学习兴趣。在双语教学的活动中,教师要充分考虑到双语教学的两个方面特点?D?D语言性和科学性,而汉藏双语教学也不例外。所以,在汉藏双语教学中,教师应该对于课堂组织方式上有所创新。具体来讲,就是教师应该以增强师生互动环节为原则,广开思路,创造性地采用综合性课题讨论、即兴演讲、分角色游戏模拟等,而且,在网络多媒体技术快速发展普及的背景之下,教师更是可以借助多媒体技术的直观性和快捷性,通过课堂播放视频、影像、音乐等,丰富拓展教学形式和教学内容,营造一个良好的学习氛围,以便激发学生的学习兴趣和热情,提高学生接受程度的目的。 还有就是教师可以考虑多采用情景教学法,以便提升课堂内容的生动性和实用性。事实证明,情景教学法的课堂教学内容一般是以经典话题为主线展开,学生可以在老师的引导下,围绕教师所提供的案例进行阅读、分析和讨论,这样一来就可以增强语言运用的能力,也可以增强课堂的互动环节,使得教学的实际效果大大提高。 3.实施汉藏双语教学的分阶段课程设置方式。 这种汉藏双语教学课程的分阶段设置方,式是指对汉藏双语课程的具体开设从初级课程延续到中高级课程的系统性构想和实施过程,应该说,这也是一个教学模式上的一种创新。事实证明,这种高度重视衔接性和连贯性的教学方式,能够对于双语教学课程的有效开展和学生的接受程度确实有着积极的影响效果,因为这种分阶段的课程设置,可以方便教师客观上采用团队教学法,充分发挥每一个汉藏双语教学教师的个人专长,对汉藏双语教学的阶段教学有一个清晰的脉络把握,使得课堂教学起到事半功倍的效果。而对于学生的学习来讲,则是既可以有汉语的专业知识学习,又在此一项的基础上进行汉藏双语学习。所以说,用这种汉藏双语教学的分阶段课程设置方式的灵活多样的形式,能够将具体的教学内容贯穿于汉藏双语教学活动实践的各个环节,切实保障汉藏双语教学的实际教学质量。 总之，为了全面教育好全体学生，主要是针对民族地区的学生实际情况，采用藏汉双语教学法，否则，提高教学质量只能是一种空谈。为了让少数民族学生同汉族学生一样地在学习中不断进步，不断成长，共同获取新知，也只有运用藏汉双语教学法来促进教师对学生进行有效教育。 参考文献 [1]克毛才让. 藏汉双语教学问题及解决策略.《新课程.上》.2015.12 [2]泽仁纳机. 浅谈藏汉双语教学.《中华少年》.2016.12
论研究生的双语教学和体会(一) 摘要：本文对高等学校研究生专业课中开展双语教学的必要性和意义进行了论述，并结合双语教学的体会、心得与效果，论述了研究生的双语教学方法和开展双语教学的措施，对我国研究生教学有一定的参考意义。 关键词：双语教学研究生教学心得和体会 一、引言 所谓“双语教学”，就是在学校里使用第二语言或外语进行的教学。还可以具体理解为在教学中使用母语的同时，视不同情况、不同程度地使用另一种通用外语作为教学媒介语进行的教学。以用英语为例,包括使用英语教材、英语电子PPT教案、用英语布置作业、用英语命题考试以及使用英语口授等形式。但作为真正意义上的双语教学，必须双语授课。 当前在高校研究生专业课教学中开展双语教学并不多，而且不少人对研究生双语教学存在误解，认为双语教学会大大降低专业课教学效果，或者是赶时髦。 二、研究生双语教学的目的和意义 1、促进人才培养，加强教育的国际化和规范化 我们的人才培养面临经济全球化，信息交流国际化的大背景，而英语是一种国际化的语言。我们的教育要与国际接轨，办许多事情要按照国际统一的规则进行。如果国际化水平低，在国际市场上就要受到影响。拿就业而言，在教育国际化的背景下，人才的就业市场已不仅仅限于国内，而是面向国际市场，由于我国教育国际化的水平还比较低，我们的学生在国际就业市场的竞争中并不占优势。马来西亚和新加坡，从小学到大学，不是双语教学，而是多语教学。受过正规教育的马来西亚人可以说六种语言，除了马来西亚语之外，英语、汉语也是熟练如母语，说普通话丝毫不亚于我们中国大学生，此外他们还能说粤语、闽南语、客家话，这使得培养出来的学生语言竞争力极强，在东南亚或者西方发达国家找工作，或者商业洽谈、营销等极具竞争力。在欧洲，马来西亚和新加坡的留学生比中国大陆的留学生好找工作得多，除了英语熟练之外，会多种语言也使得他们在华侨企业的任职中占优势。同是人力资源丰富的国家，印度的软件产业之所以非常发达，有位美国学者指出在于印度的软件人才几乎精通英语交流，能把软件推销到世界各国。所以，在研究生层次中开展双语教学，不是一种时髦，而是社会的需要，人才培养以及就业的需要，更是国际竞争和国际化的需要。 2、加强外语语言能力的运用与发展 外语是信息交流的基本工具，学习语言的目的是要能够运用，包括听、说、读、写，在今后的科学研究与各行各业的工作中进行运用。我国目前外语教学水平，教学方法普遍存在费时多，收效低的问题，从小学到大学毕业，十多年都在背英语、考英语，学习目的是对付通过升学或拿到毕业文凭的英语考试。研究生层次的有些还是聋哑英语，我们要明确英语考试仅是一个督促和检查的手段，语言能力的运用才是学习目的。避免聋哑英语的办法是学校要创造听说互动的语言交流环境，让学生在情景对话的环境中感知感悟，加强语感。 我国高等学校的教学普遍采用单语教学,英语教学仅局限于学时十分有限的英语基础课本身，大量的非英语课程几乎全部采用中文讲授。存在着一个多年的弊端，即学英语而很少用英语，英语应用能力差，这样造成研究生们的专业文献阅读能力不强，专业词汇少，有些学生在完成学位论文期间甚至很少跟踪和阅读外语文献，原因是看不懂或者太费劲，这样写出来的学位论文干巴巴没东西，缺少对国外研究现状的了解，更不能吸收国外的先进学术思想，解决需要研究的问题。这说明外语教学与专业教学相脱节,传统的单语教学，很难适应新形式国际化发展的需要，开展专业课双语教学有助于解决在高校中长期存在的学与用脱节的问题。 3、双语教学也是国内一流大学、甚至一流中小学教学水平的重要标志之一 目前有些大学、特别是中小学之间的竞争把双语教学的普及度和教学水平视为在生源上取得优势的潜在的筹码。众所周知，清华大学请杨振宁教授用英文为大学一年级本科生讲授普通
藏汉双语教学的必要性和可行性 益西邓珠 (四川师范大学教育科学研究所) [摘要]文章通过介绍马克思主义者关于各民族语言平等的论述。中国成立以来，特别是改革开放以来，藏汉双语教学相关政策、法规的制订，反映了党和国家对藏汉双语教学的高度重视。通过描述藏区藏汉双语教学发展情况，透视出相关政策的贯彻落实状况，从而总结出一些规律性认识，并提出藏汉双语教学的可行性办法。 [关键词]藏汉双语教学必要性可行性 语言文字是约定俗成的人类最重要的交际工具，是教育和科学技术的载体。因此，语言文字的教育是基础中的基础，任何一种语言都具有交际的社会功能。在少数民族地区，发展民族教育，必须以民族语言文字的使用实际为前提。 长期以来，藏族地区的双语教学处境一直令人担忧，老师教得辛苦，学生学得吃力，教学质量始终没有根本改观。究其原因，藏汉双语教学还没有从根本上遵循因材施教这个教学基本原则，人们还未清醒地认识到对藏族学生进行双语教学的必要性。也没有找到按学生的语言实际出发进行双语教学的可行性办法。 一、藏汉双语教学的必要性 1、是严格遵循马克思主义关于各民族语言平等的论述之需要 语言平等是民族平等的重要内容，各民族都应该享有使用本民族语言文字的权利和自由。只有这样，才有利于少数民族政治、经济、文化上的解放和发展。列宁指出：“谁不承认和不坚持民族平等，不同各民族压迫或不平等作斗争，谁就不是马克思主义者，甚至也不是民族主义者”。1“居民有权受到用本民族语言进行的教育，国家和各级自治机关应拨款创办这种学校，以保证这种权利的实现；每个公民都有用本民族语言的学校，以保证这种权利的实现；每个公民都有用本民族语言在各种会议上发言的权利；在一切地方的国家机关和社团中，本民族语言同国语平等使用”2。斯大林指出：“首先使初等教育成为不分民族的全国公民的义务教育，然后中等教育也如此……为此必须在全国建立稠密的使用本民族语言的学校网，供给精通本民族语言的教师干部……有人会问：为什么要使用本民族语言呢?这是因为千百万人民群众只有使用本民族语言才能在文化、政治和经济发展方面获得巨大的进步。”3毛泽东在《论联合政府》中指出：“必须帮助少数民族的广大民族群众包括一切联系群众的领袖人物在内，争取他们在政治上、经济上、文化上的解放和发展……他们的语言、文字、风俗习惯和宗教信仰，应被尊重”。4 江泽民总书记在一九九二年中央民族工作会议上的讲话中明确指出：“要积极发展民族教育，民族教育是整个教育事业的组成部分，是民族工作的重要方面，应在教育结构、专业设置、教学内容、学制、办学形式等方面，逐步走出一条适应少数民族地区实际的路子。要努力改善办学条件，办好各级各类民族学校，提
The Tiger P50 1.Why does the poet mention the Lamb? Do you think both the Lamb and the Ti ger can illuminate each other? The Tyger is corresponding to The Lamb. Both the poems show the poet ’s exploration, understanding and plaint of the mysterious creation. In this poem, the author implies that the Tiger is created by God as well as the Lamb. S o either the Tiger or the Lamb is essential to God. I think both the Lamb and the Tiger can illuminate each other. Although the Lamb can represent the kind “innocent society”, it will be lack of enough motivation to make progress. While the Tiger will caus e social misery, unrest or even disruption, but it can make people release their creativity. So the poet believes that the Tiger is the symbol of strength and courage. And he also praises its passion, desire and all the lofty beauty. 2.What is the symbolic meaning of the tiger? What idea does the poet want to express? The symbol of the Tyger is one of the two central mysteries of the poem (the other being the Tyger ’s creator). It is unclear what it exactly symbolizes, but scholars have hypothesized that the Tyger could be inspiration, the divine, artistic creation, history, the sublime (the big, mysterious, powerful and sometimes scary. Read more on this in the "Themes and Quotes" section), or vision itself. Really, the list is almost infinite. The point is, the Tyger is important, and Blake’s poem barely limits the possibilities The tiger is the embodiment of God's power in creation: the animal is terrifying in its beauty, strength, complexity and vitality. The poem is divided into six parts. In the first part, the author imagined that he met a terrible tiger on a dark night and was frightened by its awful eyesight. There are creations and creators. How great the creator is that he could create such an awful creation like tiger! In the second part, the author continues to ask, where comes the eyesight like fire, sea or sky? The following two parts, the author describes the creator as a smith. He creates the tiger. What behind the questions is the frightening and respect of the author to the creator. In the fif th part, the author changes his tone and asks when the stars throw down their spears, why they are not happy? The last part is as same as the first part, the creator is too mysterious to understand. The tiger shows its outstanding energy. It’s the vitality which the author thinks highly of. The key sentence of the poem is "Did he who made the Lamb make thee?" It challenges the one-track religious views of the 18 ’s century. The view only concluded that god create the lame, he is so kind a father. But it didn ’t know god also create the tough tiger. He can also be very serious. The god is someone who can’t be truly understood by human beings. Ode to the West Wind P83西风颂 第一节 哦，狂暴的西风，秋之生命的呼吸！你无形，但枯死的落叶被你横扫， 有如鬼魅碰到了巫师，纷纷逃避：黄的，黑的，灰的，红得像患肺痨， 呵，重染疫疠的一群：西风呵，是你以车驾把有翼的种子催送到 黑暗的冬床上，它们就躺在那里，像是墓中的死穴，冰冷，深藏，低贱， 直等到春天，你碧空的姊妹吹起她的喇叭，在沉睡的大地上响遍，
大学双语教学的利弊 在本文中，概要介绍了双语教学在我国的现状，讨论了双语教学的利弊得失，并阐明了我们的观点。双语教学只是一种辅助手段，大面积实施弊大于利，不宜过于夸大和推广。 关键词双语教学母语目的语言 一、双语教学现状 双语教学从很早就引入我国，但真正兴起始于上个世纪90年代末。所谓双语教学，实际上就是用不同于母语的语言进行的教育。我国目前实行双语教学的教学单位很多，几乎各省市都有。其覆盖的范围和跨度也很大，下至幼儿园，上至大学。在本文中，主要考虑大学双语教学，探讨了其利弊得失，以及我们的观点和研究结果。 广义上讲，凡是采用两种以上语言进行的教育活动均可称为双语教学。但人们普遍接受的双语教学指得是用母语之外的目的语言传授专业知识的教育活动。双语教学可分为下述几种： (一)简单的语言教学，以传授目的语言为目的，并不涉及系统的专业知识 (二)词汇式双语教学，以母语为本体传授专业知识，同时用两种语言阐明专业词汇 (三)混合式双语教学，部分内容用目的语言传授，部分内容用母语传授。比例介于10～80％之间 (四)纯粹意义上的双语教学，所有内容，从教材到课堂讲授到讨论均采用目的语言 第1种情况不在本文讨论之列，在此仅对后三种情况加以阐述。目前高校中实行的双语教学以第2种和3种为主，而且通常是尝试性质的。第4种仅有部分实力较强的大学提供，而且主要集中在MBA方面。 二、双语教学概述 正如前文指出的那样，双语教学在我国的普及程度并不高，究其原因，主要在于四个方面：需求、成本、教员和生源。 在高校教育中，除了MBA等少数领域外，在其他专业领域，对双语教学的需求并不旺盛，并不像新闻媒体报道的那样。首先是受教一方的兴趣并不高，学生关注的是采用最有效的方法掌握知识，而并不是很在意是否要用目的语言(英语)掌握这些专业知识，学生们更在意的反倒是如何学好英语。这与双语教学的目的相去甚远。其次，教师们对双语教学的积极性也不高，除去观念上的原因和实际能力方面的原因，付出与得到的不成比例也是一个重要原因。 其次是成本，双语教学所需的成本远高于普通教学，学校方需付出更多的成本，学生方也同样。如果这些增加的成本全部由校方承担，没有几个学校能大面积承受得起，学生更是如此。不像MBA，对于大多数专业，双语教学的好处短期内不明显，长期更是渺茫，有的只是理论上的潜在好处，实际情况却并非如此。大多数学校认为，在普通大学生中推广双语教学，是件只见投入，难见产出的措施。在普通大学生眼中，如果不增加费用，倒是可有可无，如果这类费用由学生承担，有多少学生能承担的起？据统计，在中国的大学生中，只有50％左右的能承担
浅谈双语教学的必要性和存在的困难及对策 摘要：双语教学在许多甘南的学校纷纷开展，但由此也引发了许多问题值得我们去思考。本文分析了双语教学的重要性和存在的困难及对策。 关键词：藏汉双语困难对策教学资源 现在甘南州，确切地说在教育教学领域，不论是专家学者，还是广大教育工作者，对什么是藏汉双语教学还没有一个相对统一的认识。就甘南藏区而言，在藏汉双语教学领域，目前使用范围相对较广的主要有以下两种模式。第一种模式，即在各级各类民族中小学，以藏语文授课方式为主，除汉语文外，其他学科全部用藏语言文字进行教学；第二种模式，即以汉语文授课方式为主，除藏语文外，其余学科均用汉语言文字进行教学。至于在以上两种教学模式中，到底哪一种模式更符合藏汉双语教学的发展规律，更有利于藏汉双语教学的长期发展，是非常值得每一位真正关心藏汉双语教学工作的人去思考的问题。本人才疏学浅，更谈不上有什么独到的见解，但作为一名藏汉教学的实践者，不仅有义务，而且更有责任去关心这个问题。因此，谈一谈自己对藏汉双语教学的几点不成熟的看法。 一、藏汉双语教学中应以母语教学为主 要开展好藏汉双语教学，我认为，在以上两种模式中，必须而且只能采用第一种模式。之所以这样说，主要有以下几个方面的原因。 1.开展双语教学的必要性 我国当代著名诗人和评论家余光中先生说过：“外语只是我们了解世界的一种工具，母语才是我们的根本。”日本著名文化教育学家岸根卓郎也说过：“丢弃母语，就是通往毁灭文明的捷径。”他们强调的无非就是母语教育的重要性。当然，在改革开放的中国，各少数民族的文化需要在借鉴和交融中与时俱进，但作为少数民族更应该树立语言文字的主权意识，认识到母语教育的重要性，防止在强势语言的侵蚀中丢失自我，失去母体文化的生存根基。 2、开展双语教学，应从教育的发展规律出发 通常情况下，教育（狭义的教育）是指在一定社会条件下，依据社会的需要，有组织、有目的、有计划地对受教育者进行系统的教育和训练，开发其体力和智力的活动。开发人的智力离不开语言，而思维作为一个系统而言，语言起着十分重要的作用，可以说在很大程度上语言就是思维的工具。进而言之，对任何一个人来说，母语和思维的联系是一种自然的联系。因为，一个人从他来到这个世界上的第一天起，就开始接触他的母语，可以说母语为他认识世界打开了大门。3、开展双语教学，应从学生的思维环境出发 双语教学模式的产生，有其特定的社会环境和语言环境，所以，作为双语教学的实践者，在实施双语教学的过程中绝不能脱离其赖以生存的语言条件。我国现行的双语教学，因地域的差异其代表的意义也不尽相同。而少数民族地区的所谓双语教学，主要是针对汉语和各少数民族语言而言的。在这些地区汉语的普及程度虽然存在一定的差异，我们就很有必要从学生的实际语言环境和藏族学生学
She walks in beauty 第一诗节：首先描写夫人的步态。“She walks in beauty, like the night of cloudless climes and starry skies”用头韵、明喻等手法，塑造了一个鲜明的艺术形象。诗人把夫人的从容缓步与皎洁无云、满天繁星的夜晚相映衬，以浪漫主义笔触将这种美与大自然融为一体。“Thus mellow’d to that tender light / Which heaven to gaudy day denies”描写夫人的仪容与秋波，她的美色泽柔和。 第二诗节：诗人继续围绕美的内涵，延伸美的意境。“One shade the more, one ray the less/ Has half impair’d the nameless grace”对夫人的美做了高度赞美。诗句中的“waves”和“lightens”,将抽象的美具体化。美能飞舞在发上，在夫人的脸上放出光彩。美便有了生命。 第三诗节：从夫人面颊的美深入到她内心的美。“So soft, so calm, yet eloquent”生动地表现出夫人性情温柔沉静。前四行赞美夫人的容颜、微笑等外在美；后两行表现的是夫人的本质美。“A mind at peace with all below,/ A heart whose love is innocent”外在美与内在美完美结合。She walks in beauty,like the night美人缓行如夜移, Of cloudless climes and starry skies; 清空无云动繁星; And all that'best of dark and bright明丽晦深潜交影,Meet in her aspect and her eyes;凝妆娇容汇眸情;Thus mellow'd to that tender light融融月色柔极致,Which heaven to gaudy day denies耀目昼曦难相映.One shade the more,one ray the less,明暗一丝难增减, Had half impair'd the nameless grace莫明优雅易折失.Which waves in every raven tress, 万缕金泽溢雅致,Or softly lightens o'er her face;芙蓉颜面泛灵滋; Where thoughts serenely sweet express适逸安恬若有思,How pure,how dear their dwelling-place.清纯高洁显心志. And on that cheek, and o'er that brow,秀颊柔美多沉静,So soft, so clam, yet eloquent柳眉动人语无声; The smiles that win, the tins that glow,迷人笑嫣光彩焕, But tell of days in goodness spent, 似隐似现年华生.A mind at peace with all below,人间万事平心待,A heart whose love is innocent!痴心一片仍天真. 西风颂珀西·比西·雪莱哦，狂暴的西风，秋之生命的呼吸！你无形，但枯死的落叶被你横扫，有如鬼魅碰到了巫师，纷纷逃避：黄的，黑的，灰的，红得像患肺痨，呵，重染疫疠的一群：西风呵，是你以车驾把有翼的种子催送到黑暗的冬床上，它们就躺在那里，像是墓中的死穴，冰冷，深藏，低贱，直等到春天，你碧空的姊妹吹起她的喇叭，在沉睡的大地上响遍，（唤出嫩芽，像羊群一样，觅食空中）将色和香充满了山峰和平原。不羁的精灵呵，你无处不远行；破坏者兼保护者：听吧，你且聆听！没入你的急流，当高空一片混乱，流云象大地的枯叶一样被撕扯脱离天空和海洋的纠缠的枝干。成为雨和电的使者：它们飘落在你的磅礴之气的蔚蓝的波面，有如狂女的飘扬的头发在闪烁，从天穹的最遥远而模糊的边沿直抵九霄的中天，到处都在摇曳欲来雷雨的卷发，对濒死的一年你唱出了葬歌，而这密集的黑夜将成为它广大墓陵的一座圆顶，里面正有你的万钧之力的凝结；那是你的浑然之气，从它会迸涌黑色的雨，冰雹和火焰：哦，你听！是你，你将蓝色的地中海唤醒，而它曾经昏睡了一整个夏天，被澄澈水流的回旋催眠入梦，就在巴亚海湾的一个浮石岛边，它梦见了古老的宫殿和楼阁在水天辉映的波影里抖颤，而且都生满青苔、开满花朵，那芬芳真迷人欲醉！呵，为了给你让一条路，大西洋的汹涌的浪波把自己向两边劈开，而深在渊底那海洋中的花草和泥污的森林虽然枝叶扶疏，却没有精力；听到你的声音，它们已吓得发青：一边颤栗，一边自动萎缩：哦，你听！哎，假如我是一片枯叶被你浮起，假如我是能和你飞跑的云雾，是一个波浪，和你的威力同喘息，假如我分有你的脉搏，仅仅不如你那么自由，哦，无法约束的生命！假如我能像在少年时，凌风而舞便成了你的伴侣，悠游天空（因为呵，那时候，要想追你上云霄，似乎并非梦幻），我就不致像如今这样焦躁地要和你争相祈祷。哦，举起我吧，当我是水波、树叶、浮云！我跌在生活底荆
提高双语教育教学质量的实施方案为贯彻落实《国务院关于深化改革加快发展民族教育的； 一、重要意义；加快少数民族教育发展，推进“双语”教学， 二、工作思路；以提高课堂教学效率提高教育质量为中心； 为贯彻落实《国务院关于深化改革加快发展民族教育的决定》、自治区党委、人民政府《关于大力推进“双语”教学的决定》和自治区教育厅《关于加快推进学前和中小学“双语”教学工作的通知》以及英吉沙县教育局《关于印发加强双语教育工作实施方案〉的通知》的文件精神，结合我乡双语教育教学实际，特制定提高教育教学质量的实施方案。 一、重要意义 加快少数民族教育发展，推进“双语”教学，培养“民汉兼通”的学生，是巩固发展平等、团结、互助的社会主义民族关系、促进各民族之间经济文化交流，共同发展、繁荣、进步，实现全面建设小康社会目标具有重大的意义。 二、工作思路 以提高课堂教学效率提高教育质量为中心。加强落实学生良好学习习惯的培养；努力提高课堂教学效率与质量。提
高教师的教研能力、课堂教学能力、学生自主学习和创新能力；努力使我乡的教育教学质量大幅度提高。 三、组织领导 三、组织领导；组长：吾热依木江·库尔班（校长）；负 责监督检查 萨乌尔·胡达拜尔地（书记）；负责监督检查指导副组长：妮萨古丽·夏斯依提（副校长）负责宣传检查 工作 热比古丽·孜比布拉 (副书记) 负责督导检查 阿尔子古丽·艾热提负责宣传上报信息 米娜瓦尔·麦麦提敏负责双语档案 阿米娜·艾买提负责教师信息 1、小组成员要做好组长和副组长安排的任务，要帮助分析原因，落实整改，力求提高双语教学质量。同时要做好学校的参谋，发现问题要及时探讨、交流，共同提高。 2、建立督查制度。以“校长督查教务室；教务室督查教研组；教研组督查教师”为主线，层层要做好督促指导工作。
文献检索作业 1）选取作家：Persy Bysshe Shelley(波西?比希?雪莱) 检索题目：雪莱及其主要作品研究 2）雪莱生平资料简介 Percy Bysshe Shelley(4 August 1792 –8 July 1822; pronounced was one of the major English Romantic poets and is critically regarded among the finest lyric poets in the English language. Shelley was famous for his association with John Keats and Lord Byron. The novelist Mary Shelley was his second wife. He is most famous for such classic anthology verse works as Ozymandias, Ode to the West Wind, To a Skylark, and The Masque of Anarchy, which are among the most popular and critically acclaimed poems in the English language. His major works, however, are long visionary poems which included Queen Mab, Alastor, The Revolt of Islam, Adona?s, and the unfinished work The Triumph of Life. The Cenci (1819) and Prometheus Unbound (1820) were dramatic plays in five and four acts respectively. Although he has typically been figured as a "reluctant dramatist" he was passionate about the theatre, and his plays continue to be performed today。. In 2008, he was credited as the co-author of the novel Frankenstein(1818) in a new edition
关于藏汉双语教学的若干设想与探究 发表时间：2020-04-02T16:55:37.467Z 来源：《教育学文摘》2019年第18期作者：罗让旦真[导读] 对于藏语文教学来说，只有做到藏汉双语同步教学，才能够有效提高藏语文教学的实际效果，促进民族教育事业健康持续发展摘要：对于藏语文教学来说，只有做到藏汉双语同步教学，才能够有效提高藏语文教学的实际效果，促进民族教育事业健康持续发展。众所周知，藏区教育的难点在于藏族教育，藏族教育的难点在于藏汉双语教育。所以发展藏汉双语教育不仅要客观、认真、科学地分析和总结经验，还要改进不足，更要从藏族教育的实际出发，使之不断完善。本文结合藏语文教学实践，探究当前藏汉双语教学存在的问 题，并提出相关设想与措施，以供参考。 关键词：藏语文；双语教学；问题；对策；教学效率引言： 随着我国新课程改革和核心素养的提出，藏汉双语教育得到了发展壮大。就目前来说，藏区双语教学步入合理、规范、科学化轨道，教学质量逐步上升，基本形成了具有藏区特色的教育格局。同时，双语教学的发展也为藏区的社会稳定、经济发展、民族团结、文化繁荣发挥了巨大作用。然而，藏区双语教育在实际的教学过程中也遇到了一些挑战，出现了一些不可忽视的难题。比如：教材的编排、师资力量、教育观念与认识等的制约，使得藏汉双语教育一度发展艰难。笔者作为一名初中藏语文教师，在本文中结合教学实践，简要叙述了藏汉双语教学存在的问题，并提出了一些解决措施。 1.当前藏语文教育教学存在问题 1.1藏语文教材存在的不足 藏语文教材的优点集中体现在严谨的知识体系架构、注重基础知识培养、注重基本技能培养并且高度重视语言能力的培养这几点上。现行藏语文教材对学生综合能力的培养确实起到了一定的作用。但不可否认的是，现行藏语文教材已经颇为不适应现阶段藏区语文教学，主要原因在于：首先，教材内容归于老旧，知识体系更新不足，同时与现阶段的藏区学生生活也很难产生关联性；其次，现行藏语文教材多以汉族文化为主，其设计理念偏重于“理论化”，许多藏区学生难以适应这种改变；最后，是释义质量不统一，由于汉语言与臧语言之间的差异，造成了许多理论、术语上难以得到统一。 1.2双语教师师资力量薄弱 众所周知，提高双语师资整体素质，完善和健全双语师资培养和培训体制，是提高教学质量和办学效益的根本保证。然而在现实教育教学中，双语教学的师资薄弱，在职教师培养和培训体制不健全。主要表现为：一是藏文师资的专业不齐全。最突出的问题是，基本没有史、地、政、生学科专业的藏文师资。二是双语教师虽经过专门的母语学校培养，但他们对其他学科课程的知识体系掌握不够，从而影响课程的实施。三是双语教师语言理论知识薄弱，进行双语教学时，藏汉双语翻译存在较多的语病，无法有效实现母语与汉语的相互转换。四是双语教师使用现代教育技术手段的能力不强。 1.3对教育规律的认识还很浅薄 就目前的藏汉双语教育来说，一些社会人士和部分家长对教育规律的认识还很浅薄，盲目地认为，要就业，就要学汉文。至于自己的孩子用汉文能否学到相应的学科知识、能否考上大学、将来发展前景如何等问题缺乏深刻地思考。这种社会现象对我们的双语教学造成了一定的影响。对此，一线教师认为：藏区教育受老百姓学习汉文好的片面思想影响，不从学生语言发展角度考虑，不懂得认知规律，更不懂学科知识的重要性和学生全面发展的必要性，学校也不向家长解释，而是跟着家长的要求左右摇摆，所以影响了双语教学的稳步发展。 2.藏汉双语教学对策与设想 2.1正确认识藏汉双语教育的作用 语言是社会的产物，语言随着社会的发展而发展，而双语现象又是社会发展的必然结果。藏族教育如果完全实行封闭的本民族母语的单语制教学，就很难适应当今世界和社会的大发展，很难适应西部大开发藏区大发展的需要。从长远来讲，也不利于藏族文化的繁荣和发展。因此，藏族教育不仅要继承和发扬本民族的传统文化，还要坚持并加强藏汉双语教学工作，而且在双语教学的实践中，所表现出来的各种问题就必须引起认真地思考和研究。其目的在于藏族教育努力做到“鱼和熊掌”兼得，培养千千万万个藏汉兼通乃至精通，还懂外语的“三语兼通”的适应现代社会发展的双语人才，从而提高藏族的整体素质。 2.2注重教材内容的现代化和开放性 臧语言作为一种生活语言，它同时存在着自身的语言特点、语言涵养，并且形成了一种区分于其他文化的藏区文化。对藏区人们来说，其生活意义是汉语文化无法取代的。因此，作为新课改背景下的藏汉双语教育工作者，我们必须更新教育观念，在教材的处理上要重视不是教教材，而是用教材。应该将藏语文教材紧密的与藏区现代化生活联系到一起，突出语言实践应用能力培养，挖掘藏族文化的特色，根据藏区学生的学习需要来选择适合他们的基础知识。另外，我们应该在教学中，要根据教学目标和学生学习情况科学备课、授课和和评价。 2.3教育部门要加强师资力量的优化 经济为教育事业提供支持，教育事业稳步前进，为国家培养更多的人才，而人才是经济进一步发展的动力和支持，这是一个良性的循环。因此，藏汉双语教学必须要得到政府及教育部门的支持。首先必须改进教学的硬件设备，发达地区的教学中需要的，民族地区同样也要具备。其次是要在教师队伍上给予支持，藏文教师应受到足够的支持和重视，可以给予民族地区的藏文教师足够的经济支持，让他们无后顾之忧，安心于教育事业。而且要定期给予教师培训学习的机会，多让他们与东部发达地区的教师多多交流，可以设置一些教学上的比赛，提高教师的教学积极性和主动性，找到自身的不足并努力学习改进。 2.4教师教育教学观念的转变 在素质教育背景下，培养学生真正的学习能力、创新思维能力是学校教育必须完成的任务。因此，藏语文教师首先要从观念上接受新课程改革的目标，在各自实际的教学过程中，发挥教师的主导作用，从单一的知识传授者角色逐渐转变为学生学习的促进者、教育教学的研究者、课程资源的建设者和开发者、学生潜能的挖掘者和培养者，给学生更多的自由学习空间和时间，教给学生学习的方法而不是知识本身。另外，教师要学习和宣传贯彻教育部国家民委的有关民族教育的文件。通过深入的学习，要真正从思想上、理论上、行动上解决和处理好藏民族教育和双语教学的重要性、必要性的认识。
青海藏汉双语教学调研报告 青海藏汉双语教学调研报告 青海教育科学研究所 一青海藏汉双语教学的基本情况 青海是一个多民族聚居的西部省份,全省总人口518万,其中藏族人口113万,占全省总人口的21.89%。我省藏族人口主要分布在6个藏族自治州,29个牧区县,18个纯牧业县，藏族人口的分布特征是“大分散、小聚居、交错杂居”，虽然具有共同地缘和民族语言──文化的整体性特征，但随着各民族日愈频繁的交流和融会，民族语言的单一特性正在逐步发生变化。其中：农区、半农半牧区由于农耕文化的普同性，接受汉文化影响较早，具有一定的汉语言环境；纯牧区牧民群众随季节流动、逐水草而居的传统生存方式仍未彻底改变，母语交际的特征十分突出，这些区域汉语言文字使用率低，藏汉双语教学遇到的困难最多；城镇及城乡结合部由于社会发育程度较高，受外界传媒的影响较大，社会主流文化对其个体浸入程度较深，因而对双语价值的认可程度较高。 双语教学作为发展民族教育的支撑体系，其发展的不平衡，实质上反映的是我省藏族基础教育发展的不平衡。这种不平衡造成的差异，是形成多种双语教学类型产生的重要原因。 (一)双语学校的分布及类型 据统计，截止2001年，全省开展藏汉双语教学的民族中小学共有1040 所，在校学生108441人，其中藏族小学1000所,在校学生93747人;藏族中学40所，在校学生14694人。由于双语教学地区间的差异性，各地根据不同的语言实际，采用了多种类型的双语教学模式。目前，全省大致形成了以下几种类型的藏汉双语教学模式：第一类，除开设汉语文课程外，其它课程均用民族语文授课；第二类，部分课程用汉语文授课，部分课程用民族语文授课；第三类，除开设民族语文课程外，其它课程均用汉语文授课。海南、海北州和海西州天峻县各民族小学、基层寄宿制学校两种教学模式并存（即以藏语文授课为主，单科加授汉语文和以汉语文授课为主，单科加授藏语文），小学主要采用以藏语文授课为主，单科加授汉语文的教学模式；民族初中和高中基本采用以汉语文授课为主，单科加授藏语文的教学模式。黄南、果洛州的各民族小学、基层寄宿制学校基本采用以藏语文授课为主，单科加授汉语文的教学模式。民族初中和高中两种教学模式并存。 为了协调小学和中学阶段双语教学计划,全省以藏语文授课为主,单课加授汉语文的中小学统一执行原国家教委转发的《五省区义务教育全日制藏族小学、初级中学及中学教学计划》；以汉语文授课为主，单科加授藏语文的民族中小学，均执行原国家教委颁布的《义务教育全日制中小学初级中学课程计划》和原国家教委印发的《现行普通高中教学计划的调整意见》。随着各地办学条件的改善，部分藏族中小学开始加授了《英语》和《计算机》课程。实现“三
Alexander Pope An Essay on Man （know then thyself） The poem is written in iambic tetrameter, every two line have the same thyme at the last word. The poem is important in the sense that it embodies the 18th century concepts of the universe and man’s place in it, that is man is made in the shape of God, and occupies a middle position in the Great Chain of Being. As the poet says sometimes we have too much knowledge and feel suspect about everything, but sometimes we have too much weakness and can not be as pride as Stotic, sometimes we seem to have the power to rule all things but sometimes we seem prey to all. We are in the middle place and sometimes we are confused about whether to act or rest. The poet perfectly describes man’s feeling about ourselves and about the world. Although Pope is never profound in thought but he is very adapt in voicing the idea of his contemporaries in a beautiful and clever way. Robert Burns A Red, Red, Rose The metrical pattern of the poem is basically in the ballad form, i.e. each stanza consisting of four lines, with four stressed syllables in the odd-numbered lines and three stressed syllables in the even-numbered lines, and with rhymes occurring on the even-numbered lines. The image of rose evokes traditional associations of beauty, love and romance. Its simple lyrics and straight form and expression of feeling make it a favorite choice for poetry anthologies and a most appreciated poem for readers. Incorporating various elements from folk songs, the poem is supposed to be a song sung by an Irish sailor to his sweet heart before his ship sailed off to sea, the exaggerated declaration of love “till the