Instructed by Dr-SUO, PKU1) I-narrators: The person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story，relating the story after the event. In this case the critics call the narrator a FIRST-PERSON NARRATOR or I-NARRATOR because when the narrator refers to himself or herself in the story the first person pronoun I is used. First-person narrators are often said to be "limited" because they don’t know all the facts or they are “unreliable" because they trick the reader by withholding information or telling untruths. This often happens in murder and mystery stories.2) Third-person narratorsIf the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a THIRD-PERSON NARRATOR，because reference to all the characters in the fictional world o# the story will involve the use of the third-person pronouns，he，she，it or they．This second main type of narrator is arguably the dominant narrator type.3) Schema-oriented language图式语言Viewpoint （point of view）is schema-oriented. It is worth noting that different participants in the same situation will have different schemas, related to their different viewpoints. Hence shopkeepers and their customers will have shop schemas which in many respects will be mirror images of one another，and the success of shop-keepers will depend in part on their being able to take into account the schemas and points of view of their customers.Besides indicating viewpoint by choosing what to describe, novelists can also indicate it by how it is described, particularly through expressions which are evaluative in nature:She opened the door of her grimy，branch-line carriage, and began to get down her bags. The porter was nowhere, of course, butthere was Harry... There, on the sordid little station under thefurnaces...In this passage from D. H. Lawrence’s Fanny and Annie，the value-laden adjectives grimy and sordid in grimy，branch-line carriage and sordid little station help mark the description of Morley railway station as being from the viewpoint of Fanny，who clearly disapproves.4) Given vs New informationAt the beginning of a story，we should thus be able to predict that narrative reference to everything in the fiction except items generally assumed by everyone in our culture（e.g. the sun) must be new，and hence should display indefinite reference. This is what happens，for example, at the beginning of Thomas Hardy's The Mayor of Casterbridge：One evening of late summer, before the nineteenth century had reached one third of its span，a young man and woman，the lattercarrying a child, were approaching the large village of Weydon-Priors, inUpper Wessex, on foot.The first mention of the man(and by implication the woman)and that of the child have indefinite reference（a young man and woman, a child) because we have not met them before. As a consequence, we tend to get a distanced "bird's-eye view”of the characters. The nineteenth century has definite reference because Hardy can assume that his readers will already know what the phrase refers to. But note that even in this straightforward description，the village of Weydon-Piors gets definite reference for its first mention，encouraging us to pretend to ourselves that we are already familiar with it. Hardy is thus "positioning" his readers as people who are familiar to some extent with the village (and hence the area) but not the characters.5) DeixisBecause DEIXIS is speaker-related it can easily be used to indicate particular, and changing, viewpoint. In the following example，we see Mrs. Verloc's actions from Mr. Verloc's viewpoint:Mr. Verloc heard the creaky plank in the floor and was content. He waited.Mrs. Verloc was coming.In addition to the perception and cognition verbs heard and waited and the indication of his inner mental state （was content）we can see that Mrs. Verloc’s movement towards her husband is viewed from Mr. Verloc’s position（coming）．The fact that the events are only seen from Mr. Verloc’s viewpoint is strategically important at this point in the novel. He does not realize that his wife is about to kill him.1) Speech presentationAccording to British Linguist M. Short（1996)，the speech presentation continuum may have the following possibilities:1) Direct Speech (DS)2) Indirect Speech (IS)The following example from Charles Dickens's The Old Curiosity Shop can be used to illustrate most types of speech representations.(1) He thanked her many times, and said that the old dame who usually didsuch offices for him had gone to nurse the little scholar whom he had told her of. (2) The child asked how he was, and hoped he was better.(3) "No," rejoined the schoolmaster, shaking his head sorrowfully，"No better.(4) They even say he is worse.”The schoolmaster's words in quotation marks serve as an example of DS．Typical IS can be seen in sentence (2)：The child asked how he was．…It gives us the propositional content of what the child said, but not the words she used to utter the content. But in He thanked her many times…at the beginning of（1）we do not even know what statements the schoolmaster made, let alone what words he uttered to make those statements.2) Thought presentationThe categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech.a. She thought that he would be late. (Indirect Thought：IT)b. He was bound to be late! (Free Indirect Thought：FIT)c. "He will be late"，she thought. (Direct Thought: DT)As the effects associated with IT are roughly the same as those associated with speech presentation, we only talk about two types of thought representation here, i.e. DT and FIT.3) Direct thoughtDT tends to be used for presenting conscious, deliberative thought. In the following example from Dickens' The Old Curiosity Shop，Dick Swiveller，who has been dangerously ill for some weeks, has just regained consciousness："I’m dreaming,” thought Richard, “that’s clear. When I went to bed，my hands were not made of egg shells；and now I can almost see through' em. If this is not a dream, I have woke up by mistake in an Arabian Night，instead of a London one. But I have no doubt I’m asleep. Not the least.’，Here the small servant had another cough."Very remarkable！”thought Mr. Swiveller. “I never dreamt such a real cough as that before. I don't know，indeed，that I ever dreamt either a cough or a sneeze. Perhaps it's part of the philosophy of dreams that one never does. There's anothe r—and another—I say，—I'm dreaming rather fast！”The humour of the account comes from the fact that Mr. Swiveller thinks that he is dreaming but we know that he is thinking rather deliberately as he comes out of his coma. His rather fast dreaming is merely everyday reality impinging on his consciousness, as the intervening sentence of narration makes clear.DT has the same linguistic form as the soliloquy in drama，which is notoriously ambiguous as to whether the character involved is thinking aloud or talking to the audience. In the novel there is no audience to talk to，and so thought presentation must be the sole purpose of DT. However，DT is quite often used to represent imaginary conversations which characters have with themselves or others，which is presumably why it so often has the flavour of conscious thinking.4) Free indirect thoughtIn the following brief example of FIT from Julian Barnes' A History of the World，Colonel Fergusson is lying on his deathbed, annoyed with his daughter, who is reading a religious pamphlet while waiting for him to die. The Colonel，an atheist, is annoyed because he cannot comprehend his daughter's belief in God:It was a provocation，that's what it was, thought the Colonel. Here hewas on his deathbed, preparing for oblivion，and she sits over therereading Parson Noah's latest pamphlet.The reported clauses (引述从句/宾语从句) in the first sentence and the first half of the second sentence are in FIT. They contain a mixture of Direct and Indirect features, as we can show by "translating" them first into IT and then into DT：a）The Colonel thought that it was a provocation that while he was on his deathbed，preparing for oblivion，she was reading Parson Noah's latest pamphlet. (IT)b) “It is a provocation，that's what it is,”thought the Colonel. "I’m on my deathbed,preparing for oblivion and she sits over there reading Parson Noah's latest pamphlet.” (DT)In this example we can see the typical effect of FIT. We feel close to the character，almost inside his head as he thinks, and sympathise with his viewpoint. This "close" effect is more or less the opposite of the effect of FIS，which makes us feel distanced from the character and is often a vehicle for irony.How is it that FIS and FIT have such markedly different effects? One reason is that although DS can reasonably be assumed to be the norm for speech presentation，it is much more difficult to hold the same view for DT. The thoughts of others, unlike their speech, are never directly accessible to us. We can only infer what people might be thinking from their speech, action, facial expression and so on. It is thus much more plausible to think of IT as our norm for thought presentation. In this case, the use of FIT constitutes a move away from the norm towards the character end of the scale, whereas FIS constitutes a move in the opposite direction.1) Authorial style作家风格[或称个人风格‘individual style’]When people talk of style, they usually mean AUTHORIAL STYLE. This refers to the "world view" kind of authorial style. In other words, it is a way of writing which recognisably belongs to a particular writer, say，Jane Austen or Ernest Hemingway.This way of writing distinguishes one author's writing from that of others, and is felt to be recognisable across a range of texts written by the same writer，even though those writings are bound to vary as a consequence of being about different topics, describing different things, having different purposes and so on. It is this ability to perceive authorial style in the writings of a particular author that enables us to write pastiches and parodies.2) Text style文本风格TEXT STYLE looks closely at how linguistic choices help to construct textual meaning. Just as authors can be said to have style, so can text. Critics can talk of the style of Middlemarch，or even parts of it, as well as the style of George Eliot. When the style of texts or extract from texts is examined, we are even more centrally concerned with meaning than with the world view version of authorial style discussed above, and so when we examine text style we will need to examine linguistic choices which are intrinsically connected with meaning and effect on the reader. All of the areas we have looked at so far in this book could be relevant to the meaning of a particular text and its style; as can areas like lexical and grammatical patterning. Even the positioning ofsomething as apparently insignificant as a comma，for example, can sometimes be very important in interpretative terms.The language features we should examine to elucidate the style of a text or a corpus of an author's writing may include the following aspects：◊ patterns of lexis (vocabulary)；◊ patterns of grammatical organization;◊ patterns of textual organization（how the units of textual organization，fromsentences to paragraphs and beyond，are arranged)；◊ foregrounded features, including figures of speech;◊ whether any patterns of style variation can be discerned;◊discoursal patterning of various kinds，like turn-taking or patterns of inferencing;◊patterns of viewpoint manipulation, including speech and thought presentation.附录：一、作者生平和创作米哈伊尔·亚历山大罗维奇·肖洛霍夫（1905-1984)是苏联时代最杰出的作家之一，他以描写顿河哥萨克的生活和命运而闻名于世。
