生物化学胡萝卜素生物合成中英文对照外文翻译文献

第 6 卷 第 6 期2020 年 12 月生物化工Biological Chemical EngineeringVol.6 No.6Dec. 2020类胡萝卜素的研究进展姜立，朱长甫，于婷婷，盛彦敏*（长春师范大学，吉林长春 130031）摘 要：类胡萝卜素是一类重要的天然色素的总称，对于人类的健康起着非常重要的作用，并且人和动物自身不能合成，需要从外界摄取。

类胡萝卜素的种类繁多，不同的类胡萝卜素具有不同的生理功能，其应用领域也非常广泛。

本文综述了近年来国内外学者对类胡萝卜素的研究进展，阐述了类胡萝卜素的由来、理化性质和分类、常见类胡萝卜素的分布和作用功效，对人们合理的选择和利用类胡萝卜素有重要意义。

关键词：类胡萝卜素；天然色素；分类和分布；抗氧化性中图分类号：S852.2 文献标识码：AResearch Progress of CarotenoidsJIANG li, ZHU Changfu, YU Tingting, SHENG Yanmin*(Changchun normal university, Jilin Changchun 130031)Abstract: Carotenoids are a kind of important natural pigments, which play a very important role in human health. Moreover, human and animals can not synthesize carotenoids themselves and need to be absorbed from the outside world. There are many kinds of carotenoids. Different carotenoids have different physiological functions, and their application fields are also very extensive. This paper reviews the research progress of carotenoids in recent years. The origin, physicochemical properties and classification of carotenoids, the distribution and function of common carotenoids were described. It is important for people to choose and utilize carotenoids reasonably.Keywords: carotenoids; natural pigments; classification and distribution; antioxidant activity1831年，德国化学家Wachenreder从胡萝卜根中结晶分离得到一种碳水化合物类的色素并将其命名为“胡萝卜素（carotene）”[1]。

类胡萝卜素科技名词定义中文名称：类胡萝卜素英文名称：carotenoid 定义：链状或环状含有8个异戊间二烯单位、四萜烯类头尾连接而成的多异戊间二烯化合物。

是一类不溶于水的色素，存在于植物和有光合作用的细菌中，在光合作用过程中起辅助色素的作用。

应用学科：生物化学与分子生物学（一级学科）；激素与维生素（二级学科）以上内容由全国科学技术名词审定委员会审定公布类胡萝卜素类胡萝卜素（carotenoid）：不溶于水而溶于有机溶剂。

叶绿体中的类胡萝卜素含有两种色素，即胡萝卜素（carotene）和叶黄素（lutein），前者呈橙黄色，后者呈黄色。

功能为吸收和传递光能，保护叶绿素。

简介辅助色素（accessory pigment）：在植物和光合细菌，像类胡萝卜素叶黄素和藻胆素中，吸收可见光的色素，这类色素是对叶绿素捕获光能的补充。

非皂化脂质。

是广泛地分布于动植物中的黄、橙、红或紫色的一组色素。

类胡萝卜素分子式构成发色原因的共轭二重键具有长链聚烯烃结构。

通常是几种混在一起生成。

具有C40的萜结构的较多，不含氮。

已知天然类胡萝卜素约有300种，其中不含氧的碳化氢类有胡萝卜素、菌脂素等；含氧的非常多，有醇、酮、醚、醛、环氧化物、羰酸和酯等。

它们之中大量存在的有岩藻黄质（fucoxanthin）、叶黄素（lutein）、堇菜黄质（violaxanthin）、新黄质（neoxanthin）等，均属于胡萝卜醇。

类胡萝卜素多数不溶于水，溶于脂溶剂，不稳定，易氧化。

类胡萝卜素（carotenoid）：一类重要的天然色素的总称，属于化合物。

普遍存在于动物、高等植物、真菌、藻类和细菌中的黄色、橙红色或红色的色素，主要是β-胡萝卜素秋季黄叶中含类胡萝卜素和γ-胡萝卜素，因此而得名。

不溶于水，溶于脂肪和脂肪溶剂。

亦称脂色素。

自从19世纪初分离出胡萝卜素，至今已经发现近450种天然的类胡萝卜素；利用新的分离分析技术如薄层层析、高压液相层析以及质谱分析还不断发现新的类胡萝卜素。

The clinical and cost-effectiveness of Pharmalgen®for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy1 TITLE OF PROJECTThe clinical and cost effectiveness of Pharmalgen®for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy2 TAR TEAMLiverpool Reviews and Implementation Group (LR i G), University of Liverpool Correspondence to:Rumona Dickson, MsDirector, LR i GUniversity of LiverpoolRoom 2.12WhelanBuildingThe QuadrangleBrownlow HillLiverpoolL69 3GBTel: +44 (0) 151 794 5682Fax: +44 (0)151 794 5585Email: R.DicksonFor details of expertise within the TAR team, see section 7.3 PLAIN ENGLISH SUMMARYAllergic reactions to bee and wasp venom may occur in venom-sensitive patients immediately following a sting, and can vary in severity, with initially mild symptoms sometimes progressing to critical conditions within seconds. The most severe systemic allergic reactions (generalised reactions) are known as anaphylaxis, a reaction characterised by abnormally low blood pressure, fainting or collapse, and in extreme reactions these symptoms can cause death.Each year in the UK there are between two and nine deaths from anaphylaxis caused by bee and wasp venom. The immediate treatment for severe allergic reactions to bee and wasp venom consists of emergency treatment with drugs to decrease the patient’s response to the venom and support breathing, if required.To avoid further reactions, the use of sensitisation to bee and wasp venom, through a process known as venom immunotherapy (VIT), has been investigated. Venom immunotherapy consists of subcutaneous injections of increasing amounts of venom into patients with a history of anaphylaxis to bee and wasp venom. Pharmalgen®has had UK marketing authorisation for the diagnosis and treatment (using VIT) of allergy to bee venom (using Pharmalgen®Bee Venom) and wasp venom (using Pharmalgen®Wasp Venom) since March 1995, and it is used by more than 40 centres across the UK. This review aims to assess whether using Pharmalgen®in VIT is clinically useful when treating people with a history of severe reaction to bee and wasp stings. The review will compare preventative treatment withPharmalgen®to other treatment options, including high dose antihistamines, advice on the avoidance of bee and wasp stings and adrenaline auto-injector prescription and training. If suitable data are available, the review will also consider the cost effectiveness of using Pharmalgen®for VIT and other subgroups including children and people at high risk of future stings or severe allergic reactions to future stings.4 DECISION PROBLEM4.1 Clarification of research question and scopePharmalgen®is used for the diagnosis and treatment of immunoglobin E (IgE)-mediated allergy to bee and wasp venom. The aim of this report is to assess whether the use of Pharmalgen®is of clinical value when providing VIT to individuals with a history of severe reaction to bee and wasp venom and whether doing so would be considered cost effective compared with alternative treatment options available in the NHS.4.2 BackgroundBees and wasps form part of the order Hymenoptera (which also includes ants), and within this order the species that cause the most frequent allergic reactions are the Vespidae (wasps, yellow jackets and hornets), and the Apinae (honeybees).1Bee and wasp stings contain allergenic proteins. In wasps, these are predominantly phospholipase A1,2 hyaluronidase2 and antigen 5,3 and in bees are phospholipase A2 and hyaluronidase.4 Following an initial sting, a type 1 hypersensitivity reaction may occur in some individuals which produces the IgE antibody. This sensitises cells to the allergen, and any subsequent exposure to the allergen may cause the allergen to bind to the IgE molecules, which results in an allergic reaction.These allergens typically produce an intense, burning pain followed by erythema (redness) and a small area of oedema (swelling) at the site of the sting. The symptoms produced following a sting can be classified into non-allergic reactions, such as local reactions, and allergic reactions, such as extensive local reactions, anaphylactic systemic reactions and delayed systemic reactions.5-6 Systemic allergic reactions may occur in venom-sensitive patients immediately following a sting,7 and can vary in severity, with initially mild symptoms sometimes progressing to critical conditions within seconds.1The most severe systemic allergic reaction is known as anaphylaxis. Anaphylactic reactions are of rapid onset (typically up to 15 minutes post sting) and can manifest in different ways. Initial symptoms are usually cutaneous followed by hypotension, with light-headedness, fainting or collapse. Some people develop respiratory symptoms due to an asthma-like response or laryngeal oedema. In severe reactions, hypotension, circulatory disturbances, and breathing difficulty can progress to fatal cardio-respiratory arrest.Anaphylaxis occurs more commonly in males and in people under 20 years of ageand can be severe and potentially fatal.84.3 EpidemiologyIt is estimated that the prevalence of wasp and bee sting allergy is between 0.4% and 3.3%.9 The incidence of systemic reactions to wasp and bee venom is not reliably known, but estimates range from 0.15-3.3%,10-11 Systemic allergic reactions are reported by up to 3% of adults, and almost 1% of children have a medical history of severe sting reactions.9, 12 After a large local reaction, 5–15% of people will go on to develop a systemic reaction when next stung.13 In people with a mild systemic reaction, the risk of subsequent systemic reactions is thought to be about 18%.13 Hymenoptera venom are one of the three main causes of fatal anaphylaxis in the USA and UK.14-15 Insect stings are the second most frequent cause of anaphylaxis outside of medical settings.16 Between two and nine people in the UK die each year as a result of anaphylaxis due to reactions to wasp and bee stings.17 Once an individual has experienced an anaphylactic reaction, the risk of having a recurrent episode has been estimated to be between 60% and 79%.13In 2000, the register of fatal anaphylactic reactions in the UK from 1992 onwards was reported by Pumphrey to determine the frequency at which classic manifestations of fatal anaphylaxis are present.18 Of the 56 post-mortems carried out, 19 deaths were recorded as reactions to Hymenoptera venom (33.9%). A retrospective study in 2004 examined all deaths from anaphylaxis in the UK between 1992 and 2001, and estimated 22.19% to be reactions to Hymenoptera venom (47/212). This further breaks down into 29/212 (13.68%) as reactions to wasp stings, and 4/212 (1.89%) as reactions to bee stings. The remaining 14/212 were unidentified Hymenoptera stings (6.62%).194.4 Current diagnostic optionsCurrently, individuals can be tested to determine if they are at risk of systemic reactions to bee and wasp venom. The primary diagnostic method for systemic reactions to bee and/or wasp stings is venom skin testing.Skin testing involves intradermal injection with the five Hymenoptera venom protein extracts, with venom concentrati ons in the range of 0.001 to 1.0 μg/ml. This establishes the minimum concentration giving a positive result (a reaction occurring in the individual). As venom tests show unexplained variability over time,20 and as negative skin tests can occur following recent anaphylaxis, it is recommended that tests be repeated after 1 to 6 months.21Other methods of diagnosis in patients following an anaphylactic reaction include radioallergosorbent test (RAST), which detects allergen-specific IgE antibodies in serum. This test is less sensitive than skin testing but is useful when skin tests cannot be done, for example in patients with skin conditions.22-234.5 Current treatment optionsPreventative treatments include education on how to avoid bee and wasp venom,and prescription of high dose antihistamines. Patients with a history of moderate local reactions should be provided with an emergency kit,24 containing aH1-blocking antihistamine and a topical corticosteroid for immediate use following a sting. Patients with a history of anaphylaxis should be provided with an emergency kit containing a rapid-acting H1-blocking antihistamine, an oral corticosteroid and an auto-injector for self administration, containing epinephrine.Injected epinephrine (a sympathomimetic drug which acts on both alpha and beta receptors) is regarded as the emergency treatment of choice for cases of acute anaphylaxis as a result of Hymenoptera stings.25 For adults, the recommended dose is between 0.30 mg/ml and 0.50 mg/ml I.M, and 0.01 ml/kg I.M. for children. Individuals with a history of anaphylactic reactions are recommended to carry auto injectors containing epinephrine (commonly known as EpiPen®, Adrenaclick®, Anapen®or Twinject®). These are intended for immediate self-administration by individuals with a history of hypersensitivity to Hymenoptera stings and other allergens.Preventive measures following successful treatment of a systemic allergic reaction to Hymenoptera venom consists of either allergen avoidance or specific allergen immunotherapy, known as VIT. Venom immunotherapy is considered to be a safe and effective treatment.26 Currently, VIT can be used with several regimes, including Pharmalgen®(manufactured by ALK Abello, and licensed in the UK), Aquagen®and Alutard SQ®(both manufactured by ALK Abello and unlicensed in the UK but licensed in some parts of Europe), VENOMENHAL®(HAL Allergy, Leiden, Netherlands, unlicensed in the UK), Alyostal®(Stallergenes, Antony Cedex, France, unlicensed in the UK), and Venomil®(Hollister-Stier Laboratories LLC, unlicensed in the UK). Venom immunotherapy is recommended to prevent future systemic reactions. It is recommended that VIT is considered ‘when positive test results for specific IgE antibodies correlate with suspected triggers and pa tient exposure’.27 Venom immunotherapy consists of subcutaneous injections of increasing amounts of venom, and treatment is divided into two periods: the build up phase and maintenance phase. Venom immunotherapy is now the standard therapy for Hymenoptera sting allergy,28 and is a model for allergen-specific therapy,29-30 with success rates (patients who will remain anaphylaxis free) being reported as more than 98% in some studies.4, 31 There are now 44 centres across the UK which provide VIT to people for bee and wasp sting allergy. Venom immunotherapy is normally discontinued after 3 to 5 years, but modifications may be necessary when treating people with intense allergen exposure (such as beekeepers) or those with individual risk factors for severe reactions. There is no method of assessing which patients will be at risk of further anaphylactic reactions following administration of VIT and those who will remain anaphylaxis free in the long term following VIT.27Local or systemic adverse reactions may occur as a result of VIT. They normally develop within 30 minutes of the injection. Each patient is monitored closely following each injection to check for adverse reactions. Progression to anincreased dose only occurs if the previous dose is fully tolerated.4.6 The technologyPharmalgen®is produced by ALK Abello, and has had UK marketing authorisation for the diagnosis (using skin testing/intracutaneous testing) and treatment (using VIT) of IgE-mediated allergy to bee venom (Pharmalgen®Bee Venom) and wasp venom (Pharmalgen®Wasp Venom) since March 1995 (marketing authorisation number PL 10085/0004). The active ingredient is partially purified freeze dried Vespula spp. venom in Pharmalgen®Wasp Venom and freeze dried Apis mellifera venom in Pharmalgen®Bee Venom, each provided in powder form for solution for injection.Before treatment is considered, allergy to bee or wasp venom must be confirmed by case history and diagnosis. Treatment with Pharmalgen®Bee or Wasp Venom is performed by subcutaneous injections. The treatment is carried out in two phases: the initial phase and the maintenance phase.In the build up phase, the dose is increased stepwise until the maintenance dose (the maximum tolerable dose before an allergic reaction) is achieved. ALK Abello recommends the following dosage proposals: conventional, modified rush (clustered) and rush updosing. In conventional updosing, the patient receives one injection every 3-7 days. In modified rush (clustered) updosing, the patient receives 2-4 injections once a week. If necessary this interval may be extended up to two weeks. The 2-4 injections are given with an interval of 30 minutes. In rush updosing, while being hospitalised the patient receives injections with a 2-hour interval. A maximum of four injections per day may be given in the initial phase.The build up phase ends when the individual maintenance dose has been attained and the interval between the injections is increased to 2, 3 and 4 weeks. This is called the maintenance phase, and the maintenance dose is then given every 4 weeks for at least 3 years.Contra-indications to VIT treatment are immunological diseases (e. g. immune complex diseases and immune deficiencies); chronic heart/lung diseases; treatment with β-blockers; severe eczema. Side effects include superficial wheal and flare due to shallow injection; local swelling (which may be immediate or delayed up to 48 hours); mild general reactions such as urticaria, erythema, rhinitis or mild asthma; moderate or severe general reactions such as more severe asthma, angioedema or an anaphylactic reaction with hypotension and respiratory embarrassment; anaphylaxis (often starting with erythema and pruritus, followed by urticaria, angioedema, nasal or pharyngial congestion, wheezing, dyspnoea, nausea, hypotension, syncope, tachycardia or diarrhoea). 324.7 Objectives of the HTA projectThe aim of this review is to assess the clinical and cost effectiveness of Pharmalgen®in providing immunotherapy to individuals with a history of type 1 IgE-mediated systemic allergic reaction to bee and wasp venom. The review willconsider the effectiveness of Pharmalgen®when compared to alternative treatment options available in the NHS, including advice on the avoidance of bee and wasp stings, high dose antihistamines and adrenaline auto-injector prescription and training. The review will also examine the existing health economic evidence and identify the key economic issues related to the use of Pharmalgen®in UK clinical practice. If suitable data are available, an economic model will be developed and populated to evaluate if the use of Pharmalgen®for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy, within its licensed indication, would be a cost effective use of NHS resources.5 METHODS FOR SYNTHESISING CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS EVIDENCE5.1 Search strategyThe major electronic databases including Medline, Embase and The Cochrane Library will be searched for relevant published literature. Information on studies in progress, unpublished research or research reported in the grey literature will be sought by searching a range of relevant databases including National Research Register and Controlled Clinical Trials. A sample of the search strategy to be used for MEDLINE is presented inAppendix 1.Bibliographies of previous systematic reviews, retrieved articles and the submissions provided by manufacturers will be searched for further studies.A database of published and unpublished literature will be assembled from systematic searches of electronic sources, hand searching, contacting manufacturers and consultation with experts in the field. The database will be held in the Endnote X4 software package.Inclusion criteriaThe inclusion criteria specified in Table 1 will be applied to all studies after screening. The inclusion criteria were selected to reflect the criteria described in the final scope issued by NICE for the review. However, as there is likely to be a limited amount of RCT data, the inclusion criteria of study design may be expanded to include comparative studies and descriptive cohorts. The clinical and cost effectiveness of Pharmalgen®for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy Page 11 of 21Table 1: Inclusion criteria Intervention(s) Pharmalgen®for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy,Population(s) People with a history of type 1 IgE-mediatedsystemic allergic reactions to:wasp venom and/or bee venomComparators Alternative treatment options available inthe NHS, without venom immunotherapyincluding:advice on the avoidance of bee and wasp venom,high-dose antihistamines,adrenaline auto-injector prescription andtrainingStudy design Randomised controlled trialsSystematic reviewsOutcomes Outcome measures to be considered include:number and severity of type 1 IgE-mediatedsystemic allergic reactionsmortalityanxiety related to the possibility of futureallergic reactionsadverse effects of treatmenthealth-related quality of lifeOther considerations If the evidence allows, considerations willbe given to subgroups of people, according totheir:risk of future stings (as determined, forexample, by occupational exposure)risk of severe allergic reactions to futurestings (as determined by such factors asbaseline tryptase levels and co-morbidities)If the evidence allows, the appraisal willconsider separately people who have acontraindication to adrenaline.If the evidence allows, the appraisal willconsider children separately.Two reviewers will independently screen all titles and abstracts of papers identified in the initial search. Discrepancies will be resolved by consensus and where necessary a third reviewer will be consulted. Studies deemed to be relevant will be obtained and assessed for inclusion. Where studies do not meet the inclusion criteria they will be excluded.Data extraction strategyData relating to study design, findings and quality will be extracted by one reviewer and independently checked for accuracy by a second reviewer. Study details will be extracted using a standardised data extraction form. If time permits, attempts will be made to contact authors for missing data. Data from studies presented in multiple publications will be extracted and reported as a single study with all relevant other publications listed.Quality assessment strategyThe quality of the clinical-effectiveness studies will be assessed accordingto criteria based on the CRD’s guidance for undertaking reviews in healthcare.33-34 The quality of the individual clinical-effectiveness studies will be assessed by one reviewer, and independently checked for agreement by a second. Disagreements will be resolved through consensus and if necessary a third reviewer will be consulted.Methods of analysis/synthesisThe results of the data extraction and quality assessment for each study will be presented in structured tables and as a narrative summary. The possible effects of study quality on the effectiveness data and review findings will be discussed. All summary statistics will be extracted for each outcome and where possible, data will be pooled using a standard meta-analysis.35 Heterogeneity between the studies will be assessed using the I2 test.34 Both fixed and random effects results will be presented as forest plots.6 METHODS FOR SYNTHESISING COST EFFECTIVENESS EVIDENCEThe economic section of the report will be presented in two parts. The first will include a standard review of relevant published economic evaluations. If appropriate and data are available, the second will include the development of an economic model. The model will be designed to estimate the cost effectiveness of Pharmalgen®for VIT in individuals with a history of anaphylaxis to bee and wasp venom. This section of the report will also consider budget impact and will take account of available information on current and anticipated patient numbers and service configuration for the treatment of this condition in the NHS.6.1 Systematic review of published economic literatureThe literature review of economic evidence will identify any relevant published cost-minimisation, cost-effectiveness, cost-utility and/or cost-benefit analyses. Economic evaluations/models included in the manufacturer submission(s) will be included in the review and critiqued as appropriate.Search strategyThe search strategies detailed in section 5 will be adapted accordingly to identify studies examining the cost effectiveness of using Pharmalgen®for VIT in patients with a history of allergic reactions to bee or wasp venom. Other searching activities, including electronic searching of online health economic journals and contacting experts in the field will also be undertaken. Full details of the search process will be presented in the final report. The search strategy will be designed to meet the primary objective of identifying economic evaluations for inclusion in the cost-effectiveness literature review. At the same time, the search strategy will be used to identify economic evaluations and other information sources which may include data that can be used to populate a de novo economic model where appropriate. Searching will be undertaken in MEDLINE and EMBASE as well as in the Cochrane Library, which includes the NHS Economic Evaluation Database (NHS EED).Inclusion and exclusionIn addition to the inclusion criteria outlined in Table 1, specific criteria required for the cost-effectiveness review are described in Table 2. In particular, only full economic evaluations that compare two or more options and consider both costs and consequences will be included in the review of published literature. Any economic evaluations/models included in the manufacturer submission(s) will be included as appropriate. Studies that do not meet all of the criteria will be excluded and their bibliographic details listed with reasons for exclusion.Table 2: Additional inclusion criteria (cost effectiveness) Study design Full economic evaluations that consider both costs and consequences (cost-effectiveness analysis,cost-utility analysis,cost-minimisation analysis and cost benefit analysis)Outcomes Incremental cost per life year gainedIncremental cost per quality adjustedlife year gainedData extraction strategyData relating to both study design and quality will be extracted by one reviewer and independently checked for accuracy by a second reviewer. Disagreement will be resolved through consensus and, if necessary, a third reviewer will be consulted. If time constraints allow, attempts will be made to contact authors for missing data. Data from multiple publications will be extracted and reported as a single study.Quality assessment strategyThe quality of the cost-effectiveness studies/models will be assessed according to a checklist updated from that developed by Drummond et al.36 This checklist will reflect the criteria for economic evaluation detailed in the methodological guidance developed by NICE.37 The quality of the individual cost-effectiveness studies/models will be assessed by one reviewer, and independently checked for agreement by a second. Disagreements will be resolved through consensus and, if necessary, a third reviewer will be consulted. The information will be tabulated and summarised within the text of the report.6.2 Methods of analysis/synthesisCost effectiveness review of published literatureIndividual study data and quality assessment will be summarised in structured tables and as a narrative description. Potential effects of study quality willbe discussed.To supplement findings from the economic literature review, additional cost and benefit information from other sources, including the manufacturer submission(s) to NICE, will be collated and presented as appropriate.Development of a de novo economic model by the AGa. Cost dataThe primary perspective for the analysis of cost information will be the NHS. Cost data will therefore focus on the marginal direct health service costs associated with the intervention.Quantities of resources used will be identified from consultation with experts, primary data from relevant sources and the reviewed literature. Where possible, unit cost data will be extracted from the literature or obtained from other relevant sources (drug price lists, NHS reference costs and Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accounting cost databases).Where appropriate costs will be discounted at 3.5% per annum, the rate recommended in NICE guidance to manufacturers and sponsors of submissions. 37 b. Assessmentof benefitsA balance sheet will be constructed to list benefits and costs arising from alternative treatment options. LRiG anticipates that the main measures of benefit will be increased QALYs.Where appropriate, effectiveness and other measures of benefit will be discounted at 3.5%, the rate recommended in NICE guidance to manufacturers and sponsors of submissions. 37b. ModellingThe ability of LRiG to construct an economic model will depend on the data available. Where modelling is appropriate, a summary description of the model and a critical appraisal of key structures, assumptions, resources, data and sensitivity analysis (see Section d) will be presented. In addition, LRiG will provide an assessment of the model’s strengths and weaknesses and discuss the implications of using different assumptions in the model. Reasons for any major discrepancies between the results obtained from assessment group model and the manufacturer model(s) will be explored.The time horizon will be a patient’s lifetime in order to reflect the chronic nature of the disease.A formal combination of costs and benefits will also be performed, although the type of economic evaluation will only be chosen in light of the variations in outcome identified from the clinical- effectiveness review evidence.If data are available, the results will be presented as incremental cost per QALY ratios for each alternative considered. If sufficient data are not available to construct these measures with reasonable precision, incrementalcost-effectiveness analysis or cost-minimisation analysis will be undertaken. Any failure to meet the reference case will be clearly specified and justified, and the likely implications will, as far as possible, be quantified.d. Sensitivity analysisIf appropriate, sensitivity analysis will be applied to LRiG’s model in order to assess the robustness of the results to realistic variations in the levels of the underlying parameter values and key assumptions. Where the overall results are sensitive to a particular variable, the sensitivity analysis will explore the exact nature of the impact of variations.Imprecision inthe principal model cost-effectiveness results with respect to key parameter values will be assessed by use of techniques compatible with the modelling methodology deemed appropriate to the research question and to the potential impact on decision making for specific comparisons (e.g. multi-way sensitivity analysis, cost-effectiveness acceptability curves etc).7 HANDLING THE MANUFACTURER SUBMISSION(S)All data submitted by the drug manufacturers arriving before 22nd March 2011 and meeting the set inclusion criteria will be considered for inclusion in the review. Data arriving after this date will only be considered if time constraints allow. Any economic evaluations included in the manufacturer submission(s) will be assessed. This will include a detailed analysis of the appropriateness of the parametric and structural assumptions involved in any models in the submission and an assessment of how robust the models are to changes in key assumptions. Clarification on specific aspects of the model may be sought from the relevant manufacturer.Any 'commercial in confidence' data taken from a manufacturer submission will be clearly marked in the NICE report according to established NICE policy and removed from the subsequent submission to the HTA8 EXPERTISE IN THIS TAR TEAM AND COMPETING INTERESTS OF AUTHORSThis TAR team will be made up of the following individuals:Juliet HockenhullTeam lead /clinical systematicreviewerSenior economic modeller Professor Adrian BagustSystematic reviewer (clinical) Gemma CherrySystematic reviewer (economics) Dr Angela BolandEconomic modeller Dr Carlos Martin SaboridoInformation specialist Dr Yenal DundarMedical statistician James OyeeDirector Ms Rumona DicksonClinical advisor A team of clinical experts will beestablished to address clinicalquestions related to the technologyand to provide feedback on drafts ofthe final report9 REFERENCES1. Freeman T. Hypersensitivity to hymenoptera stings. NEJM. 2004;351:1978-84.。

生物学的基本概念和方法生物学是研究生命的科学，研究生物的结构、功能、繁殖、生物之间及其与周围非生命环境之间的相互影响。

我们能够确定生物学的几个基本概念。

1．生命是高度有序的。

在分子水平上，组成生命有机体的化学物质比构成大多数非生命系统的化学物质要复杂得多，而且更加高度有序。

反映在生物体有序的结构和功能的。

所有生物含有非常相似的化合物种类，而且构成生物机体的化合物与构成非生命环境的不同。

2．生物的基本单位是细胞。

大多数细胞如此的小，我们必须借助于显微镜才能看到。

诸如细菌、原生生物等许多小生物是由一个细胞组成的。

而禾本科植物和动物等较大的生物有多达数亿个细胞。

每个细胞里都有一些分离的、高度有序的生命物质组成的生化工厂。

细胞吸收养分和能量，并利用他们生存、生长、对环境的变化产生反应，最终繁殖，直至形成两个新的细胞。

因此，细胞是生物的结构、功能及繁殖单位。

3．生物利用从环境中获取能量来维持和提高有序性。

大多生物直接或间接地依赖于太阳的能量。

绿色植物利用太阳能制造养分，来满足植物自身的需要；植物随后被食用植物的动物所利用，最终又被吃这些动物的动物所利用。

所有的生物从他们的食物中获取能量，构建自身、生长、繁殖。

4．生物对环境作出积极反应。

大多动物通过采用某种行为，如探险、逃跑、甚至卷成球，对环境的变化作出迅速地反应。

植物的反应慢得多，但仍是主动（积极）的：茎和叶向光弯曲，根向下生长。

生物对环境刺激的反应是普遍的。

5．生物的发育。

万物都随着时间变化着，而生物的变化尤为复杂，称为发育。

非生命的晶体因添加了相同或相近的单位而增大，但植物或动物发育成新的结构，如叶片或牙齿，与长出他们的部位有着化学和结构的差异。

6．生物可自我繁殖。

新的生物——细菌、原生生物、动物、植物和真菌只能由其他相近生物繁殖而来的，新的细胞仅来源于其他细胞的分裂。

7．每个生物生存、发育和繁殖所需的信息在生物体内是分离的，并可传递给后代。

此信息包含在生物的遗传物质——染色体和基因中，从而限定了生物发育、结构、功能和对环境反应可能的范围。

REVISTA BOLIVIANA DE QUÍMICA VOLUMEN 25, No.1 - 2008DETERMINATION OF TOTAL PHENOLIC COMPOUNDSCONTENT AND THE ANTIOXIDANT CAPACITY OF ANDEAN TUBERS AND ROOTS (OCA, ULLUCO AND ARRACACHA)Trinidad G. Salluca abc, J. Mauricio Peñarrieta abc, J. Antonio Alvarado a* and Björn Bergenståhl ca Instituto de Investigaciones Químicas, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz-Bolivia,b Biomedical Nutrition, LundUniversity, Lund-Sweden, c Food Technology, Lund University, Lund-SwedenKey Words: Andean tubers, oca, ulluco, roots of arracacha, Total Antioxidant Capacity, ABTS, FRAP,Total Phenolic Compounds.ABSTRACTFour species of Andean tubers, isaño (Tropaeolum tuberosum), oca (Oxalis tuberosa), ulluco (Ullucus tuberosus) and roots of arracacha (Arracacia xanthorrhiza), were studied for the quantification of the Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC) and determination of Total Phenolic Compounds (TPH). The total antioxidant capacity was measured using ABTS and FRAP methods, and the total phenolics compounds were measured using the Folin & Ciocalteu reagent. The antioxidant capacity found in the tubers and root studied ranged from 0.35 to 11.8 μmol trolox equiv/g dry sample, and phenolics ranged from 0.002 to 0.02 μmol gallic acid equiv./g dry sample. In genera l black isaño tubers showed the highest values of antioxidant capacity and phenolic compounds compared with the other tubers.INTRODUCTIONThe interest in natural antioxidants has increased considerably in recent years because many antioxidants exhibit beneficial biological effects, including antibacterial, antiviral, antiallergic, antithrombotic and because they arelinked to lower incidence of cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancer disease [1]. The Andean habitantshave been using tubers and roots such as isaño, oca, ulluco and arracacha for their medicinal and nutritionalproperties since remote times. The diversity of tubers growing in the Andean region at altitudes between 2000 and4200 m above sea level shows a large variability in size, color, form, primary nutrient constituents and secondary metabolites [2, 3, 4]. Bolivia is well known for its ample diversity of genetic recourses of potential utility for the humanity. The traditions and the diversity of cultivation constitutes an important source of knowledge that must be systematized and utilized by means of different actions. Andean tubers have a big importance for the food supply and economy of the people living in the Andean region who eat isaño, oca, ulluco and arracacha both fresh and dry. The unfavorable climate at high altitudes only permits a limited number of cultivars. They are also used in folk medicine [5]. These mostly unproven medicinal properties could in part be attributed to the antioxidants present in these tubers. The objective of this study was to provide new data regarding Andean tubers and roots from Bolivia as asource of antioxidant compoundsRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONTotal Antioxidant Capacity of Andean tubersThe TAC values measured in the polar and non-polar extracts from seven samples by the ABTS and FRAP methodsare shown in Table 1and 2. The highest TAC value was observed in black isaño in the methanol extract.1esTScuthAPds meIntermediatte values were found in yellow isaño, yellow oca, arracach and dappled ulluco, and lowwer TAC value. were demonstrateed in pink oca and pink ulluuco. For black isaño higher TAC values were obtained in the polar fraactions (methanol and ethyl acetaate) than in the non-polar fractions (dichloroomethane and petroleum etheer) by the ABT and FRAP methhods. The TAC values of the calibration urves showed good reproducibbility (Figure 1,2) by both meethods. Data from FRAP displayyed a linear corrrelation with TPH data for the 28 extracts (r =0.96; Figuure 3). Similar linear correlations have also beeen observed in previous studie [6]. The TAC values obtainned for Andean tuber samples usingthe FRAP method were in most, but not in all cases, higgher than those obtained with the ABTS methhod. In black isaaño the highest valuues was found by the ABTS method in the methanol extract as well as in he total value of TAC.Figure 1: Calibration currve obtained by FRA method on diffeferent days for the measure of TAC xpressed as Trolox Equivalents/L (TE)Figure 2: Calibration currve obtained by ABBTS method on diffferent days for the measure of TAC xpressed as trolox equivalent s/L (TE)Figure 3:: Relation betweenn TAC-FRAP and TPH measuremennts in the 28 extraccts of 7 andean tubers.FRAP and ABTS method have been ussed for analysis of TAC in diffferent kinds of foods and som data on tubeers and roots are avvailable [7, 8]. Previous TAC values on tubeers were approxx. 0.27 – 3.03 µmol/g fresh ssample and 0.9 – 14.7 µmol/g dry sample using ABTS and 0.32 – 1.57 µmol/g fw and 1.0 - 7.6 µmol/g dw by FRAP.Total Phennolic Compounnds of Andeann tubers 2The content of Total Phenolic Compounds of the seven samples and twenty-eight extracts measured using the Folin& Ciocalteau method is shown in Table 3. The highest value was obtained in black isaño in both the methanol andethyl acetate extracts. In the present study the range of TPH determined in tuber pulp was 0.002-0.02 µmol GAE/gdm expressed as the sum of the polar and non polar fractions. The values of Total Phenolic Compounds of theextracts showed a good linear correlation (Figure 3) between TAC values obtained by FRAP (r =0.96) and by ABTS(r =0.78) methods.EXPERIMENTAL SECTIONChemicalsTrolox (6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethyl-chroman-2-carboxylic acid, 97%.), TPTZ (2,4,6-tripyridyl-s-triazine), ABTS (2,2’-azinobis-3-ethyl benzotiazoline-6-sulphonic acid, 98%), potassium persulfate, sodium acetate, Folin-Ciocalteau reagent, gallic acid (98%) and sodium carbonate were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, USA).The solvents used were: methanol, ethanol, dichloromethane, ethylacetate and petroleum ether.Plant materialSeven samples of andean tubers were purchased in the markets of La Paz, Bolivia in June 2006. The selected plants were ulluco (Ullucus tuberosus), arracacha (Arracacia xanthorrhiza), oca (Oxalis tuberosa) and isaño (Tropaeolum tuberosum). The seven varieties of samples were: two samples of oca (pink and yellow), two samples of Isaño (yellow with blach eyes and black), two samples of Ulluco (pink and dappled) and a sample of Arracha (yellow).Sample preparationThe collected tubers and root were washed and peeled and 800 g of fresh sample was dried at 30°C during 24 hours. The dry samples (only dry pulp) were ground and sequentially soaked with petroleum ether, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate and methanol during 24 hrs for each solvent. TAC and TPH were measured in the seventy-eight concentrated extracts.Measurement of TACTAC was assessed by using the ABTS [2,2’-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid)] method describedby Re et al. [9] and a modification of the FRAP (Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power) method described by Benzie & Strain [10]. Both are spectrophotometric methods and the absorbance readings were performed on a double beamUV-Visible spectrophotometer Perkin Elmer model lambda 25 at 25°C. As a standard compound Trolox (6-hydroxy- 2,5,7,8–tetramethyl-chroman-2-carboxylic acid) was used, The stock solution contained 5 mmol/L of Trolox in ethanol, and was stored at 4°C.ABTS method. The ABTS method is based on the oxidation of ABTS to the green ABTS·+ radical cation after the addition of potassium persulphate (2.42 mmol/L) [11] for 12-16 hours at room temperature in the dark. On the day of analysis the ABTS·+ solution was diluted with acetate buffer pH 5.0 to an absorbance of 0.70 (±0.02) at 734 nm.After the addition of 1.0 of ABTS·+ solution to 100 µl of sample the mixture was stirred for 30 s and the absorbanceat 734 nm and 25°C was recorded for 6 min. The decrease in absorbance caused by the addition of sample was compared with that of a standard curve by use of Trolox (20-200 µmol/L).FRAP (ferric reducing/antioxidant power) method. The FRAP method was used for the determination of total antioxidant capacity, based on the reduction of yellow Fe3+-TPTZ complex to the blue Fe2+ -TPTZ complex by electron donating substance under acidic co ndition. The FRAP reagent (900 μl) containing TPTZ, FeCl3, and acetate buffer, was mixed with 90 μl of distilled water and 30 μl of the test sample or the blank (solvents used for extraction). Maximum absorbance values at 593 nm were recorded for 10 min at 25°C. The final absorbance was compared with the standard curve (100 –1000 μmol/L). The data were expressed as μmol trolox equivalents pergram of dry matter.Measurement of total phenolic compoundsThe phenolic compounds were determined using the Folin-Ciocalteu method, based on the reduction ofphosphor-wolframate-phosphomolybdate complex by phenolics to a blue reaction product [12, 13, 14]. TheFolin-Ciocalteu reagent, diluted 10 times (2.5 ml) was mixed with 2 ml of saturated sodium carbonate (75 g/L) and350 μl of sample (supernatant) and homogenized for 10 s and heated for 30 min at 45°C. The absorbance was measured at 765 nm after cooling at room temperature. The data were calculated by comparison between a standard curve (212-1062 μmol gallic acid /L) and the absorbance of each sample. The data were expressed as μmol gallic acid equivalents per gram of dry matter.Statistical Analysis.Results were expressed as mean values (standard deviation) of six replicates measured over three days of one extract. Linear correlation coefficient was calculated.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe study was supported by the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA/SAREC) in a collaborative project between Universidad Mayor de San Andrés (Bolivia) and Lund University (Sweden).REFERENCES[1] Nilsson J, Pillai D, Önning G, Persson C, Nilsson Å, Åkesson B. “Co mparison of the ABTS and FRAP methods to assess the total antioxidant capacity in extracts of fruit and vegetables.” Molecular Nutrition and Food Research, 2005, 49: 239-246[2] León, J. Botánica de los cultivos tropicales. Herbario Nacional de Bolivia, Bolivia 1997.[3] De Lucca, M. D.; Zalles, A. J. Flora Medicinal Boliviana Diccionario Enciclopédico. Los Amigos del Libro, Cochabamba - Bolivia 1992.[4] Vimos, C. N.; Nieto C.; Rivera M. El Melloco Características, técnicas de cultivo y potencial en Ecuador”. Centro Internacional de Investigación para el Desarrollo, CIID de Canadá. 1997.http://archive.idrc.ca/library/document/096951/index_s.html[5] Cárdenas M. Manual de Plantas Económicas de Bolivia, Segunda Edición, Los amigos del libro.La Paz - Cochabamba - Bolivia 1989.[6] Peñarrieta, M.; Alvarado, J. A.; Ǻkesson, B.; Bergenståhl, B. “Total Antioxidant Capacity In Andean Food Species From Bolivia”. Revista Boliviana de Química 2005, 22, 89-93.[7] Campos, D.; Noratto, G.; Chirinos,R.; Arbizu, C.; Roca, W.; Cisneros, L. “Antioxidant capacity and secondary metabolites in four species of Andean tuber crops: native potato (Solanum sp.), mashua (Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruiz & Pav ´ on), Oca (Oxalis tuberosa Molina) and ulluco (Ullucus tuberosus Caldas)”. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 2006, 86, 1481–1488.[8] Halvorsen, B. L.; Holte, K.; Myhrstad, M.C.W.; Barikmo, I.; et al. “A systematic screening of total antioxidantsin dietary plants”. Journal of Nutrition 2002, 132, 461-471.[9] Re, R.; Pellegrini, N.; Proteggente, A.; Pannala, A.; Yang, M.; Rice-Evans, C. “Antioxidant activity applying an improved ABTS radical cation decolorization assay”. Free radical Biology & Medicine 1999, 26, 1231-1237. [10] Benzie, I.; Strain, J. J. “The Ferric Reduci ng Ability of Plasma (FRAP) as a Measure of Antioxidant Power: The FRAP Assay”. Analitycal Biochemestry 1996, 239, 70-76.[11] Scalzo, J.; Politi, A.; Pellegrini, N.; Mezzetti B.; Battino, M.“Plant genotype affects total antioxidant capacity and phenolic c ontents in fruit”. Nutrition 2005, 21, 207–213.[12] Kyoung, Ch. O.; Kim, D.; Smith, N.; Schroeder, D.; Taek, H. J.; Yong, L. Ch. “Daily consumption of phenolics and total antioxidant capacity from fruit and vegetables in the American diet”. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 2005, 85, 1715–1724.[13] Bonoli, M.; Verardo, V.; Marconi, E.; Fiorenza, C. M. “Antioxidant Phenols in Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) Flour: Comparative Spectrophotometric Study among Extraction Methods of Free and Bound Phen olic Compounds”. Journal of the Science Food Chemistry 2004, 84 5195- 5200.[14] Singleton, V.L.; Rossi, J. A. Jr. “Colorimetry of total phenolics with phosphomolybdic-phosphotungtic acid reagent”. American journal of Enology and Viticulture, 1965, 16, 144-158.4总酚类化合物含量测定以及南美洲根筋类植物的抗氧化能力Trinidad G. Salluca abc, J. Mauricio Peñarrieta abc, J. Antonio Alvarado a* and Björn Bergenståhl cInstituto de Investigaciones Químicas, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz-Bolivia, b Biomedical Nutrition, LundUniversity, Lund-Sweden, c Food Technology,Lund University, Lund-Sweden关键词：南美洲根筋类植物，大洋洲，胡萝卜根部，总抗氧化能力，2，2′-连氮-二(3-乙基苯并噻唑啉-6-磺酸)，三价铁降低抗氧化(剂)能力，总酚类化合物含量。

胡萝卜素代谢和生物学功能研究胡萝卜素是一类含有芳香结构的天然类黄酮化合物，它们的化学结构主要包括苯丙烷和吲哚环，具有强大的抗氧化作用，被广泛认为是预防代谢疾病和癌症的必要物质。

其中最常见的胡萝卜素是β-胡萝卜素和α-胡萝卜素，它们都属于维生素A家族，是动物生长和发育所必需的物质。

然而，人类无法自己合成这些物质，必须从膳食中获取。

胡萝卜素代谢和转化胡萝卜素被人体吸收后，需要经过一系列的生化反应才能够被有效利用。

首先，它们被油脂结合并进入腸道上皮细胞，然后由酯化酶水解出游离胡萝卜素。

在肝脏中，α-胡萝卜素和β-胡萝卜素被氧化成视黄醇，且在对甲酰四氢叶酸的转化中起到了重要的作用。

视黄醇是维生素A的前体，需要经过两个步骤才能够转化为维生素A。

其中第一步是视黄醇脱氢酶催化视黄醇转化为视黄酸，第二步则是由觉醛丢失酶催化将视黄酸还原成真正的维生素A。

在维生素A家族中，还有一类化合物叫做类视黄酮，它们是一类黄酮化合物，在人类和动物的膳食中广泛存在。

类视黄酮和维生素A的生物学功能非常相似，都具有重要的保健作用，但相较之下类视黄酮的生化代谢则相对简单。

类视黄酮在肠道和肝脏中未经代谢即可被人体吸收，然后在人体组织中发挥抗氧化和抗炎作用。

胡萝卜素的生物学功能维生素A和类视黄酮是膳食中的必需成分，它们在人体内发挥了多种生理功能。

首先，维生素A是一个广泛的功能蛋白修饰物，其中维生素A酸是一种按需生成的信号分子，能够干扰转录因子的活动从而影响一系列重要的生理过程。

维生素A在视觉功能方面也具有至关重要的作用。

视黄醛是视觉信号的传递物质，当视黄醛与视黄酸结合时则能够转化为维生素A，进而影响视网膜的光感受能力和视力调节。

除此之外，维生素A还参与了人体免疫系统和生殖系统的调节过程，对于细胞分化、增殖和凋亡等生命历程具有调控作用。

类视黄酮则能够通过抑制自由基的生成和氧化损伤来发挥保健作用，对于癌症、心血管疾病、老年痴呆等健康问题有一定的预防作用。

生物化学英文翻译nucleoside 英语翻译：核苷Okazaki fragment 英语翻译：冈崎片段oncogene英语翻译：癌基因，原癌基因one carbon unit 英语翻译：一碳单位operator 操纵基因operon 操纵子orotic acid 乳清酸ossification 成骨作用oxaloacetic acid 草酰乙酸oxidases 氧化酶类oxidative phosphorylation 氧化磷酸化oxidoreductase 氧化还原酶palindrome 回文结构pancreatic lipase 胰脂肪酶pantothenic acid 遍多酸pentose 戊糖pentose phosphate pathway 磷酸戊糖途径pepsin 胃蛋白酶pepsinogen 胃蛋白酶原peptide 肽peptide bond 肽键peptidyl site 肽基位或P位peroxidase 过氧化物酶phenylalanine 苯丙氨酸phosphatidic acid 磷脂酸phosphogluconate 磷酸葡萄糖酸phospholipase 磷脂酶plasmid 质粒polycistron 多作用子polypeptide 多肽porphyrin 卟啉precipitation 沉淀preproalbumin 前清蛋白原primary structure 一级结构primase 引发酶primer 引物glucogenic amino acid 生糖氨基酸 glucokinase 葡萄糖激酶 gluconeogenesis 糖(原)异生作用 glutamic acid 谷氨酸glutaminase 谷氨酰胺酶glutamine 谷氨酰胺glutathione 谷胱甘肽glycerol 甘油glycine 甘氨酸glycogen 糖原glycogen phosphorylase 糖原磷酸化酶 glycogen synthase 糖原合成酶 glycolysis 糖酵解guanosine 鸟苷helicase 解链酶(解旋酶)heme 血红素heteroduplex 杂化双链hexokinase 己糖激酶histamine 组胺histidine 组氨酸housekeeping gene 管家基因hybridization 杂交hydrogen bond 氢键hydrolase 水解酶类hydroperoxidases 氢过氧化酶类hydrophobic bond (hydrophobic interaction) 疏水键hydroxyapatite 羟磷灰石hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA cleavage enzyme HMG CoA裂解酶hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA synthetase HMG CoA合酶Hydroxyproline 羟脯氨酸acceptor site 受位acetone中文翻译：丙酮activator 中文翻译：激活蛋白，激活剂，活化物adenine (A) 腺嘌呤adenosine 腺苷aerobic dehydrogenase 需氧脱氢酶alanine 丙氨酸albumin 英语翻译：白蛋白，清蛋白allopurinol 别嘌呤醇allosteric effect 别构(位)效应allosteric enzyme 变构酶，别位酶allosteric regulation 别构调节amine 中文翻译：胺aminoacyl site A位，氨酰基位anticodon 反密码子arginine 精氨酸ascorbic acid 抗坏血酸 (维生素C)asparagine 天冬酰胺aspartic acid 天冬氨酸asymmetric transcription 不对称转录attenuator 衰减子base 中文名称：碱基base pairing 碱基配对bile pigment 胆色素biotin 生物素biotransformation 生物转化calcitriol １，２５二羟胆骨化醇（钙三醇）calcium dependent protein kinase Ca依赖性蛋白激酶，蛋白激酶C(C激酶) Calmodulincarbohydrate 糖carnitine 肉毒碱catalase 触酶，过氧化氢酶cephalin 脑磷脂de novo synthesis 从头合成degradation英文翻译：降解denaturation 变性deoxycholic acid 脱氧胆酸deoxyribonucleotide 脱氧核糖核苷酸dialysis 英语翻译：透析dihydroxyacetone phosphate 磷酸二羟丙酮 disulfide bond 二硫键DNA polymerase DNA聚合酶domain 域,结构域,功能区donor site 给位double helix 双螺旋effector 效应器,效应物elongation 英文翻译：延长 endopeptidase 内肽酶enhancer 增强子 enolphosphopyruvate 磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸 enzyme 酶essential amino acid 必需氨基酸 essential fatty acid 必需脂肪酸exon 外显子exopeptidase 外肽酶fat 脂肪feedback inhibition 反馈抑制作用feritin 铁蛋白ferrochelatase 亚铁螯合酶folic acid 叶酸free fatty acid 游离脂肪酸free radicals 英文翻译：自由基fructose diphosphatase 果糖二磷酸酶gene cloning 基因克隆gene expression 基因表达gene library 基因文库gene transfer 基因导入,转基因genetic code 遗传密码genetic engineering 基因工程genetic recombination 基因重组genome 染色体基因，基因组globin英语翻译：珠蛋白 hypocalcemia 英文翻译：低钙血症induction 诱导initiator codon 起动信号,起始密码子 intermediary metabolism 中间代谢ionic bond 离子键isocitrate dehydrogenase 异柠檬酸脱氢酶isoleucine 异亮氨酸isomerase 异构酶类isozyme 同工酶jaundice 黄疸ketogenic amino acid 生酮氨基酸key enzyme 关键酶kinase 激酶lactate 乳酸盐lecithin 卵磷脂leucine 亮氨酸ligase 连接酶linoleate 亚油酸linolenate 亚麻酸lipoic acid 硫辛酸lipoid 英语翻译：类脂lipoprotein 脂蛋白lithocholic acid 石胆酸lyases 裂合酶类malate 苹果酸malate aspartate shuttle 苹果酸天冬氨酸穿梭metabolic regulation 代谢调节mitogen activated protein kinase 分裂原活化蛋白激酶mixed function oxidase 混合功能氧化酶molecular cloning 分子克隆molecular disease 分子病monooxygenase 单加氧酶monooxygenase system 单加氧酶体系nicotinamide 烟酰胺，尼克酰胺nitrogen balance 氮平衡pyruvate carboxylase 丙酮酸羧化酶pyruvate dehydrogenase complex 丙酮酸脱氢酶复合体pyruvate kinase 丙酮酸激酶quaternary structure 四级结构recombinant DNA 重组DNAgenetic engineering英语翻译：基因工程 regulatory gene 调节基因renaturation 复性repair 修复replication 复制repression 阻遏residue 残基respiratory chain 呼吸链restriction endonuclease 限制性内切核酸酶retinol 视黄醇(维生素A)reverse transcriptase 逆转录酶reverse transcription 逆转录作用salting out 盐析salvage pathway 补救(重新利用)途径screening 筛选secondary structure 二级结构semiconservative replication 半保留复制sense strand 有意义链sequence 序列serine 丝氨酸signal recognition particle 信号肽识别颗粒silencer 抑制子simple protein 单纯蛋白质specificity 特异性splicing 剪接作用squalene 鲨烯stage specificity 阶段特异性stercobilinogen 粪胆素原stress 应激structural gene 结构基因substrate 英语翻译：作用物substrate level phosphorylation 作用物(底物)水平磷酸化subunit 亚单位，亚基succinate dehydrogenase 琥珀酸脱氢酶supersecondary structure 超二级结构Taurine 牛磺酸telomerase 端粒酶telomere 端区(端粒)template strand 模板链termination 终止terminator 终止子terminator codon 终止信号tertiary structure 三级结构thiamine 硫胺素(维生素B1) threonine 苏氨酸thymidine 胸苷，胸腺嘧啶核苷thymine (T) 胸腺嘧啶tocopherol 生育酚proalbumin 清蛋白原processing英语翻译：加工proenzyme 酶原proline 脯氨酸promoter 启动基因 (启动子)，催化剂prosthetic group 辅基protease 蛋白酶pyridoxal 吡哆醛pyridoxamine英语翻译：吡哆胺。

生物合成英语
生物合成指的是生物体内通过生化反应合成有机分子的过程，包括蛋白质合成、核酸合成、脂类合成等。

以下是关于生物合成的英语词汇和表达：
1. Protein synthesis - 蛋白质合成
2. DNA synthesis - DNA合成
3. RNA synthesis - RNA合成
4. Lipid synthesis - 脂类合成
5. Enzyme synthesis - 酶合成
6. Metabolic pathways - 代谢通路
7. Biosynthesis - 生物合成
8. Synthetic biology - 合成生物学
9. Gene expression - 基因表达
10. Transcription - 转录
11. Translation - 翻译
12. Ribosome - 核糖体
13. Codon - 密码子
14. Anticodon - 反密码子
15. Amino acid - 氨基酸
16. Nucleotide - 核苷酸
17. Fatty acid - 脂肪酸
18. Coenzyme - 辅酶
19. Pathway intermediates - 代谢途径中间产物
20. Regulatory enzymes - 调节酶
以上是一些关于生物合成的英语词汇和表达，希望能对大家学习和掌握相关知识有所帮助。