Architecture of a Source Code Exploration Tool A Software Engineering Case Study

A SINGLE PC SOLUTION FOR RAPID CONTROL PROTOTYPING IN WINDOWS ®.QUARC generates real-time code directly from Simulink®-designed controllers and runs the generated code in real-time on the Windows® target - all on the same PC. The Data Acquisition Card seamlessly interfaces with Simulink® using Hardware-in-the-loop blocks provided in the QUARC T argets Library.SPLIT SECOND CONTROL DESIGN – A DECADE IN ThE MAkINGQUARC was built on the legacy of WinCon, the first real-time software to run Simulink®-generated code in Windows®. QUARC seamlessly integrates with Simulink® and redefines the traditional design-to-implementation interface toolset. Just click a button to enjoy more functionality and development flexibility, all geared towards improved real-time performance. Academics havesuccessfully deployed many advanced control and mechatronic systems, ranging from intelligent unmanned systems to force-feedback-enabled virtual reality.ADVANCEDINDUSTRIAL R&DACADEMIA INDUSTRYFOUR USES OF QUARCCONTROLS EDUCATION INNOVATIVERESEARCH GRADUATE-LEVEL EXPLORATION Enhance your engineering courses with industry- relevant hands-on learning Explore practical solutions for real-life challenges with a synergistic approachConduct ground-breaking research in emerging areas such as Unmanned Vehicle Systems and hapticsFast track time-to-market with an affordable rapid control prototyping solutionChoosing software for control system design andimplementation is critical for timely, successful research and development. Quanser knows this because we’ve pioneered control engineering for over 20 years. That’s why we created QUARC – a powerful rapid control prototyping tool that significantly accelerates control design and implementation. initially designed for industrial demands, QUARC is nonetheless ideal foradvanced research, masters-level, and evenundergraduate, teaching. QUARC is an integral part of all Quanser control lab workstations and is used all over the world by thousands of educational institutions and organizations, including the Canadian Space Agency and Defense Research and Development Canada. Discover what QUARC can help you achieve in less time and effort than you might be spending now.ACCELERATE CONTROLS EDUCATIONQUARC is an ideal tool to teach control concepts. It allows students to draw a controller, generate code and run it - all without Digital Signal Processing or without writing a single line of code. The capabilities of this powerful yet adaptable software are emphasized by the comprehensive curriculum that accompanies Quanser’s control lab equipment. The supplied Instructor and Student Workbooks feature lab exercises and projects based on Simulink®. They help focus students’ efforts on key control concepts rather than tedious code writing. The curriculum is developed by engineers for engineers to effectively demonstrate and teach the mechatronic design approach practised in industry. This includes modeling, controller design, simulation and implementation. An excellent low-cost rapid control prototyping system, QUARC is being usedby thousands of institutions worldwide. It is an effective and efficient teaching tool for undergraduate and graduate-level courses in classical and modern control theory.hOW QUARC FUSES MULTIPLEENGINEERING COURSESThe Integrated Learning Centre at Queen’s University fuses all engineering disciplines into one modern lab. Quanser’s workstations, featuring a wide range of modular Quanser experiments, are used here to teach introductory, intermediate and advanced controls. QUARC software is an integral part of all those workstations. An economical approach to outfitting a lab, it also keeps students motivated, providing access to even more hands-on learning.CONTROLS EDUCATIONis done, allowing the studentsto focus more on the controldesign theory and less on theworkings of MATLABSimulink, thus improvingthe learning experience.”Dr. Wen-Hua Chen,Loughborough University,United KingdomThis Flexible Link module furtherexpands your topics of study withthe SRV02 workstation.All on a Single PCQUARC provides a single PC solution for rapid control prototypingin Windows XP® or Vista®. It generates real-time code directly fromSimulink®-designed controllers – but for the same PC. This single PCSolution for rapid control prototyping significantly accelerates controldesign and implementation. This helps students focus on theimportant aspects of the control design process and completeproject-based assignments successfully.Simple. Intuitive.QUARC user interfaces are easy to understand without training.For example, QUARC’s “external mode” communications allow theSimulink® diagram to communicate with real-time code generatedfrom the model. Tune parameters of the running model by changingblock parameters in the Simulink® diagram. Want to view the statusof a signal in the model? Simply open a Simulink® Scope (or any otherSink in the diagram) while the model runs on the target. Furthermore,data can be streamed to the MATLAB® workspace or to a file on diskfor off-line analysis.Low MaintenanceQUARC streamlines the process of maintaining and servicing a laboratorywithout sacrificing system performance or an excessive amount of yourstaff’s time. The extremely flexible host-target structure allows QUARC usersto maximize limited resources (i.e. PC, laptop and hardware) with minimaleffort or cost. Host (control design environment) and target (platformwhich executes the real-time code) can be on separate computers yet stillcommunicate through a network connection. QUARC can sustain anypossible multi-configuration. Ask about License Server Architecture.The Integrated Learning Center, Queen’s University, Canada.BRING ThEORIES TO LIFEWhether you’re exploring emerging technologies or transforming knowledge into solutions for real-world challenges, count on Quanser to help you achieve your research goals. The power of QUARC software combined with Quanser’s innovative plants can helpresearchers test their theories in real-time, on real hardware. QUARC seamlessly integrates with Quanser’s research platforms toimplement virtually any control algorithm. Combine QUARC with Quanser’s multi-function Data Acquisition card and plants to create a self-contained control workstation ideal for advanced research. Use it to design, simulate, implement, and test a variety of time-varyingsystems: communications, controls, signal processing, video processing, and image processing.All this is achievable quickly , easily and affordably because the workstation is a fully integrated, open-architecture solution.The set-up pictured below shows a 3 DOF Gyroscope workstation as one example of a Quanser workstation for high level research. This typical configuration entails: • P lant • Amplifier• Data Acquisition Card • Virtual Plant Simulation• Rapid Control Prototyping Design Software • Pre-designed ControllersFor more information about the Quanser’s research platformsplease visit /MCC.14323 DOF GYROSCOPEFeaturing three Degrees Of Freedom (DOF), this dynamically diverse experimental platform is ideal for teaching rotational dynamic challenges.DATA ACQUISITION CARDMeasure and command real-time signals with high I/Osampling period. QUARC supports a wide range of Quanser and National Instruments data acquisition cards. For a complete list please visit /QUARC.AMPLIFIER AMPAQQuanser’s multi-channel linear current amplifier is ideal forprecision controls. The AMPAQ connects to the DAQ terminal board and is connected to the 3-DOF Gyroscope with its easy-connect cables.SOFTWARE TO ACCELERATE DESIGN3-DOF Gyroscope models are designed to run in real-time with QUARC ® software, which integrates seamlessly withMATLAB ®/Simulink ®.“Using Quanser’s software, we can easily design control systems for many plants. We can apply complex control strategies quickly and effectively - and it is very easy to verify theory on the real plant.”Kenichi yano,Associate Professor, Gifu University , JapanEFFORTLESS INTEGRATION FOR MEChATRONIC RESEARChQUARC is a powerful, flexible mechatronic integration tool, providing time-saving and simple solutions to those unique challenges encountered when you’re developing mechatronic systems. Whether you have custom-made research platforms or use manufactured equipment, QUARC is the only software that makes it easy to interface with all of them. QUARC offers a suite of third-party device blocks which help researchers seamlessly interface and control KUKA robots, PGR cameras and SensAble® PHANTOM devices, to name a few. These blocks not only allow a Simulink® model to communicate with external devices but also implement the mathematical framework for controlling them. All this is possible without the need to learn new tools or hand coding since the controller design and integration is performed in an environment most researchers are familiar with, such as Windows®, MATLAB®, Simulink®.“QUARC’s support of TCP/IP has been a tremendous help for our research. It allowed us to develop a distributed sensing system that isn’t dependent on expensive I/O hardware or DAQ boards. Further, this allows for safety-critical redundancy when we aredoing vehicle control tests.”Sean Brennan,Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering,Pennsylvania State University , USAQUARC OFFERS OVER 10 BLOCKSETSThe table provides an overview. At a glance,you can see specific research applications, unique attributes and technical specifications.Now you can enjoy greater flexibility whenimplementing control schemes. QUARC expands the possibilities for complex control design by:multiple operating Systems Support.QUARC is designed so that code could be generated for multipleoperating systems and hardware platforms while maintaining a common, seamless and easy-to-use interface. Simulink® models can run in real-time on a variety of targets - a target being acombination of operating system and processor for which QUARC generates code from a Simulink® diagram. Targets includeWindows® and QNX®. The number of targets QUARC supports is continually increasing.Support for Communications.The QUARC Stream API offers a flexible and protocol-independent communications framework. Conduct standard communication between QUARC models and more: between a QUARC model and an external third-party application (e.g., graphical userinterface) or even between two external third-party applications. The Stream API is independent of the development environment and can be used in C/C++, .NET, MATLAB®, LabVIEW TM , etc. The Stream API enables the communication between multiple real-time model over the internet. This could be used for distributed control, teleoperation, device interfacing, etc. The stream API natively supports the following protocols: TCP/IP, UDP, serial, shared memory , named pipes, ARCNET, and more.For demos and tutorials on QUARC’s communication capabilities request a free trial of QUARC at /QUARC.increasing number of Blocksets.The number of interfaces QUARC supports is continuallyincreasing over time to ensure easy integration with recent and popular third-party devices. Here are a few more examples: • Nintendo Wiimote• Q bot- An Unmanned Ground Vehicle based on iRobot Create®• Schunk Grippers• SparkFun Electronics SerAccelGet an updated list of interfaces supported by QUARC at /QUARC/blocksetsDESCRIPTIONUsing the KUKA Robot Blockset you can control any KUKA robot equipped with RSI (Robot SensorInterface) through the interactive Simulink® environment without tedious hand coding and cumbersome hardware interfacing.This blockset is not included in the standard QUARC license and is sold separately.The Point Grey Research (PGR) Blockset is used to acquire images from some of the Point Grey Research cameras. QUARC also provides image processing blocksets that can be used to find objects of a given color within a source image or convert images from one format to another.This blockset is included in the standard QUARC license.The Wiimote (Wii Remote) block reads the state of the Wiimote and outputs the button, acceleration, and Infra Red (IR) camera information. Using this blockset you can easily interface the Wiimote into the controller. This blockset is included in the standard QUARC license.The Novint Falcon Blockset is used for implementing control algorithms for the Falcon haptic device. Using the Blockset significantly simplifies the task of designing controllers for the Falcon.This blockset is included in the standard Quarc license.TEChNICAL CAPABILITIES AND SPECIFICATIONS• E nables the deployment of real-time executables with GUI • S upport for setting and getting values (e.g., knobs, displays, scopes, and other inputs and outputs)Supported devices:• SensAble PHANTOM Omni • SensAble PHANTOM Desktop • SensAble PHANTOM Premium• SensAble PHANTOM Premium 6DOF Data provided as output,• GPS position (latitude, longitude, altitude)• Number of visible satellites (dilution of precision data)• Accuracy information (dilution of precision – DOP)Typical accuracy 1-3m (WAAS)SUGGESTED RESEARCh APPLICATIONS• GUI Design (e.g. Cockpit)• Force feedback virtual reality• Haptically-enabled medical simulations • Teleoperation• Precise robotic manipulation• Image-based control and localization • Autonomous navigation and control • Fault detection• Image-based control and localization• Autonomous navigation and control • Image recognition • Mapping• Obstacle detection and avoidance • Visual servoing and tracking • Vision feedback• Teleoperation• Robotic manipulation• Force feedback virtual reality• Haptically enabled medical simulations • Teleoperation• Localization• Autonomous navigation and control• M ission reconfiguration(e.g., for Unmanned Vehicle Systems)• Fault recovery • Safety watchdogDYNAMICRECONFIGURATIONkUkA ROBOT ALTIASENSABLEPhANTOM ® SERIESVISUALIzATIONPGR CAMERASWII REMOTENOVINT FALCONGPSNATURAL POINTOPTITRACkThe PHANTOM® Blockset lets you control the series of PHANTOM® haptic devices via Simulink®. For added flexibility researchers can combine the Phantom Blockset and Visualization Blockset to enjoy seamless haptics rendering of virtual environments.This blockset is not included in the standard QUARC license and is sold separately.The Visualization Blockset creates 3D visualizations of simulations or actual hardware in real-time. By combining meshes and textures, you can create objects to seamlessly integrate high-performance graphics with real-time controllers. Comprehensive documentation and examples along with additional content are provided to help new users get started and master this blockset quickly. QUARC Visualization blockset is used in the Virtual Plant Simulation of selected Quanser plants such as SRVO2 and Active Suspension. This blockset is included in the standard QUARC license.• Y coordinates of up to four IR points detected by the wiimote IR camera. Valid values range from 0 to 767 inclusive.• A compatible Bluetooth device must be installed on the PC• A bility to command either Cartesian or joint velocity set points • A bility to measure the Cartesian positions, joint angles and joint torques • A bility to set either Cartesian or the joint minimum and maximum velocity limits • K UKA built-in safety checks are still enabled for safe operation• S end forces and torques in Cartesian or joint space • Read encoder values, position, and joint angles• Send commands in two different work spaces to the Phantom device • T he block outputs the gimbal angles of the device plus the values associated with the buttons and the 7 DOF available on the device (thumb-pad or scissors)• R emotely connect to a visualization server with multiple clients • N o interference with the operation of your real-time controller• Plugins provided for Blender and Autodesk’s 3ds Max 2008, 2009 and 2010• S et different material properties such as diffuse color, opacity , specular color, shininess, and emissivity.• T exture map support for png, jpg, tiff, and bmp.• X 3D support• C onfigurable mouse and keyboard interface for manually navigating around the environment • P erformance far exceeds TMW’s Virtual Reality toolbox• U p to 16 cameras can be connected and configured for single or multiple capture volumes • C apture areass up to 400 square feet • S ingle point tracking for up to 80 markers, or 10 rigid-body objects • T ypical calibration time is under 5 minutes • P osition accuracy on the order of mm under typical conditions• U SB 2.0 connectivity to ground station PC• U p to 100 fps tracking• S upport for Draganflyer 2 HI-COL and the FireflyMV • F rame rate selection from 7.5 fps to 60 fps • R esolutions from 640 x 480 to 1024 x 768, • C olor or grayscale, and custom image (subimage) sizes supported for faster framerates• C ontinuity of states between the model being switched-out and the model being switched-in, as a necessary condition to the system stability • S witching within one sampling interval, as a necessary condition to the system stability • D ynamic reconfiguration can be triggered either automatically (e.g., from a supervisory model) or manually• D ynamic Reconfiguration can be triggered either locally or remotely (i.e., on a remote target)The OptiTrack Blockset allows motion capture and tracking by using 3 or more synchronized infrared (IR) cameras that capture images containing reflective markers within a workspace. The blockset can be used to track either individual markers or rigid bodies. This Blockset makes it easy to conduct vision-based control experiments in real-time, especially for objects that were previously difficult to track, such as indoor autonomous vehicles.This blockset is not included in the standard QUARC license and is sold separately.The GPS Blockset allows GPS receivers to be easily accessed, thereby adding GPS localization to an experimentalplatform. This Blockset integrates with Ublox GPS devices as well as NMEA compliant GPS devices. This blockset is not included in the standard Quarc license and is sold separately.The Altia Design Blockset enables the user to interact with the real-time code from Altia GUIs. Unlike theMATLAB® GUIs, MATLAB® and Simulink® are not required when using Altia GUIs. This blockset gives you the tools you need to generate complete production systems without writing a single line of code. This blockset is included in the standard QUARC license.The Dynamic Reconfiguration Blockset lets you dynamically switch models on the target machine within a sampling interval. A running model may be replaced with another model while ensuring continuity of states between both with no interruptions (i.e. no skipped sample). For a demo and tutorial on the Dynamic Reconfiguration blockset request a free trial of QUARC at /QUARC.This blockset is not included in the standard QUARC license and is sold separately.Data provided as output:• P osition: X, Y, and Z position in Cartesian coordinates• Button information: Whether a button is currently pressed or not • F orce: X, Y, and Z forces applied by the Falcon end-effectormodel 1model 2* Please note that prices for blocksets may vary. For more information or to request a quote please contact sales@.• Payload 5 kg • Number of axes 6• Repeatability <±0.02 mm • Weight 28 kg• Mounting positions floor or ceiling • Controller KR C2sr • Max speed 8.2 m/sData provided as output:• X, Y, and Z axis accelerations • Button states • X coordinates of up to four IR points detected by the wiimote IR camera. Valid values range from 0 to 1023 inclusive• S upport for setting values (i.e. Meters and other outputs)• F eatures the Quanser Plot library for AltiaBLOCkSET* • Virtual reality rendering• Game and medical simulation• Simulation of mechanical components • Data fusion • R eal-time status displays of physical hardware• Virtual cockpit for aerial vehicles REQUEST A FREE 30 DAY TRIAL OF QUARC TODAY. VISIT /QUARC• Robotic manipulation • Teleoperation“The Host Computer System for the Challenging Environment Assessment Laboratory (CEAL) at the Toronto Rehabilitation Institute (TRI) was developed using Quanser’s QU ARC real-time software. The power of QU ARC, with Quanser’s engineering support, enabled TRI to create a flexible developmentenvironment for researchers to implement sophisticated real-time experiments, using a large-scale 11-ton, 6-DOF motion platform and high-performance audio-visual rendering systems”Dr. Geoff Fernie , Vice President, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, CanadaQUARC ACCELERATES MEChATRONIC DEVELOPMENT WITh RAPID CONTROL PROTOTYPINGQUARC is a powerful Rapid Control Prototyping (RCP) platform that meets industrial research and development demands. This robust software helps manage the increasing complexity of controlengineers’ tasks and accelerates their ability to test control strategies. Generating countless iterations of Simulink® control designsbecomes almost effortless - a block diagram design is automatically implemented on the system and computed in real time, eliminating the need for manual coding. This RCP platform is adaptable to virtually any mechatronic interfaces and scalable for complex multi-input and multi-output systems.Affordable Industrial-Grade PerformanceFor a fraction of the cost of comparable systems, Research and Development engineers can convert a PC into a powerful platform for control system development and deployment. When combined with a Quanser Power Amplifier and a Quanser Data Acquisition Card, QUARC software provides an ideal rapid prototyping and hardware-in-the-loop development environment. QUARC is also compatible with a wide range of commercially available data acquisition cards, including National Instruments boards.QUARC evolved from experience with its predecessor WinCon.The Canadian Space Agency played an intricate role in defining and confirming many of the features of QUARC. This was done in the context of their micro-satellite development program on an early stage prototype. It has since been adopted by industries requiring the latest in performance and development flexibility such as the Aerospace, Defence and Medical device industries.QUARC capabilities and features are designed to optimize the RCP process. Below are a few samples of such features.• F lexible and extensible communications blocks configurablefor real-time TCP/IP, UDP, serial, shared memory and other protocols • P erformance Diagnostics • R TW Code Optimization support • M odularity and incremental builds via model referencing • C ontrol of thread priorities and CPU affinity • A synchronous execution (e.g., ideal for efficient communication) • R un any number of models on one target – or simultaneously on multiple targets • S elf-booting models for embedded targets• E xternal Hardware-In-the-Loop card and communication interfacing provided in C/C++, MATLAB®, LabVIEW TM , and .NET languages • M ultiprocessor (SMP) support, e.g., on a quad-core Windows target QUARC models can take advantage of all four cores. • S imulink® 3D Animation (formerly known as Virtual Reality) Toolbox support• A bility to interface with MATLAB® GUIs, LabVIEW TM panels, and Altia“We have been using Quanser’s QU ARC software to do real-time robot control. QU ARC enables fast and easy prototyping of control algorithms with hardware in the loop and has been an invaluable tool for algorithm development, simulation, and verification.”Paul Bosscher, Harris Corporation, USAChallenging environment AssessmentLaboratory (CeAL) will be one of the most advanced rehabilitation research facilities in the world.INNO VATE, RESEARCHAND EXPLOIT KNOWLEDGE.QU ANSERCONSULTING SOFTWAREHARDWAREPlantDAQAmplifierQUARC®: A POWERFUL ENGINEFOR ENGINEERING DEPARTMENTSThree issues challenge university engineering departments everywhere: teaching, research and budget. One solution resolves them: QUARC software from Quanser!For T eaching: Created by engineers for engineers, QUARC is an excellent low-cost rapid control prototyping system. Working seamlessly with Simulink®, QUARC helps students put ideas andtheory into practice sooner. Plus curriculum is offered to help educators focus on what matters most. With more hands-on learning, undergraduate and graduate students alike are captivated and motivated to study further.For Research: Originally designed for industrial use, QUARC is idealfor advanced research. From the precise control of surgical robots to unmanned air vehicles and beyond, ideas can be tested in real-time- even ideas that are out of this world. Small wonder our client list includes NASA, the Canadian Space Agency and thousands of universities and colleges. (Look on your left.)For your department’s budget: QUARC seamlessly integrates over80 Quanser experiments - from introductory to very advanced. These are modular by design and maximize efficiencies, offering multiple uses for one workstation. Academics ourselves, Quanser appreciates your need for careful budgeting. So QUARC is competitively pricedand available with single- or multiple-user licenses.Learn more at /QUARCProducts and/or services pictured and referred to herein and their accompanying specifications may be subject to change without notice. Products and/or services mentioned herein are trademarks or registered trademarks of Quanser Inc. and/or its affiliates. Other product and company names mentioned herein are trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners.©2010 Quanser Inc. All rights reserved. Rev 2.0。

by:NXP Semiconductors1Introduction The S32R274 is a 32-bit Power Architecture ® based Microcontroller (MCU) unitfor automotive applications. It extends the MPC5775K family by a value deviceoptimized for surround RADAR sensors and midrange front RADAR sensors.The family members are designed to address advanced RADAR signalprocessing capabilities and merge it with microcontroller capabilities forgeneric software tasks and car bus interfacing.S32R274 meets the high performance computation demands required by modern beamforming fast chirp modulation RADAR systems by offering unique signal processing acceleration together with powerful multi-core architecture.The S32R274 supports automotive safety applications that require a highSafety Integrity Level (ASIL) and adds SHE compliant security features toprevent unauthorized manipulations. The high integration level of S32R274 enables the customer to build compact, safe and secure, low cost RADAR sensors with leading edge performance. The family members have a high level of software compatible for shared hardware modules.S32R274 is a high end automotive MCU designed to support computation intensive application, like ADAS RADAR.Figure 1.RADAR application overview2Signal Processing Toolbox (SPT) in S32R familyIn radar signal processing or acceleration, Signal Processing T oolbox (SPT) and Z7 SIMD units are used.•Accelerated hardware FFT , vector math, peak search, statistics•Generic DSP functionality with SPE and VFPU unit of Z7 coresSignal Processing T oolbox (SPT) contains all the hardware modules required for processing of the sampled RADAR signals. It is a powerful processing engine containing high-performance signal processing operations, driven by a specific use-orientedinstruction set. The programmability ensures flexibility for modifications of signal processing. The CPU is removed from frequent scheduling of hardware operations, but still controls and interacts with the processing flow.Contents1 Introduction (1)2 Signal Processing Toolbox (SPT)in S32R family....................................13 SPT execution......................................34 SPT internal memory...........................45 Common instruction fields.................46 SPT programming................................47 Conclusion. (6)8 Reference.............................................7AN12424SPT Programming on S32R Rev. 0 — May 2019Application NoteSPT is connected to the device by an advanced high performance master bus and a peripheral bus.Figure 2.SPT in S32R274 block diagramThe system bus master interface performs fast data transfers between external memory and local RAM.The purpose of the peripheral interface is to set configuration, get status information and basic control of SPT (start/stop, program pointer) and to trigger interrupts. It can also be used to exchange small amounts of the data between the CPU and the SPT , such as constant operands.Figure 3.SPT block diagramIt has the following features:•Acquisition of ADC samples—Capturing of ADC samples within programmed window—On-the-fly statistical computation—Supports MIPICSI2 interface•Provides HW acceleration for—FFT (8 - 4096 point)—Histogram calculation—Maximum and peak searchSignal Processing Toolbox (SPT) in S32R family—Mathematical operations on vector data•High-speed DMA data transfer—Supports system RAM, TCM and Flash memory transfers—Includes compression/decompression capability for reduction of storage footprint•Instruction based program flow—High-level commands for signal processing operations—Simple control commands—Local instruction buffer—Automatic instruction fetch from main memory—CPU interaction possible•CPU interruption notification•Watchdog•Debug Support - Single Stepping and Jamming ModeIt has three operation modes:1.STOP mode2.System Debug mode3.Normal mode3SPT executionThe SPT executes a list of instructions. These commands contain all the information to perform signal processing operations on data vectors consisting of a set of numbers. The instruction list is provided by the CPU in a memory buffer (SRAM or flash) and read by the SPT with autonomous triggered DMA operations. Preparation of command scripts is performed off-line duringdevelopment on a different system, such as a PC.Figure 4.SPT operation modelData as results or inputs of signal processing operations can be transferred between operand/twiddle RAM and system RAM or TCM by DMA operations. These kind of DMA operations are also scheduled by commands in the script.CPU application software functions may be invoked between signal processing operations. In order to synchronize these SW functions with the processing flow, interrupts and polling flags are provided, which may be activated as a result of specificcommands. In the same way, eDMA operations can be triggered from the SPT . The data transfer descriptors need to be prepared by application software.T o enable advanced and precisely timed pipelining of HW assisted operations, SPT command execution can also be synchronized with or triggered by events from CTE or MIPICSI2.SPT executionSPT internal memoryProgram execution is performed by a dedicated register machine. The program execution may be stalled at the end of each command and can be synchronized with events provided by the CTE or MIPICSI2. The CPU can stop and release program execution and execute its own instructions in the same time.The SPT command sequence is provided by CPU SW and written to a buffer in the system RAM or flash, where CSDMA fetches or alternatively transfers the list of instructions to the command queue.The program is executed sequentially, one command following the next in the chain with the exception being loops and asynchronous PDMA instruction. The end of a sequence is marked with a specific termination command. The start address of the instruction sequence is configured by application software using the peripheral interface.The command queue stores a number of instructions to be executed, which may be a shorter sequence than the complete instruction list. It maintains an instruction pointer to the current executed operation, which is incremented when the current operation is completed. This instruction pointer indicates the position in the complete instruction list sequence relative to the first instruction.Loop instructions are special cases, the program sequence may continue with a lower address depending on the state of the loop counter. The start and next command address of the loops are saved in special registers. Up to four nested loops are supported. Jump instructions or branch instructions are another case where the program may cause the program to branch to a non-contiguous address location. It is the responsibility of the assembler to ensure that the sanity of the program structure is not violated i.e. infinite loops, jumping into or out of a loop, etc.4SPT internal memorySPT contains internal memory resources namely, Operand RAM, Twiddle RAM and work registers. Out of these, only the work registers can be directly accessed via the peripheral interface and are visible on the SPT external memory map.The CPU can access these internal memory resources via the hardware accelerators. The instruction bitfields SRC_ADD and DEST_ADD point to these memories.The Twiddle RAM extends from location 0x4000 to 0x4FFF. However the area from 0x5000 to 0x7FFF is aliased to the Twiddle RAM i.e. it wraps around to point to the T widdle RAM. It should be noted that the memory accesses to the T widdle RAM should not cross the area from 0x4000 to 0x7FFF.The Operand RAM extends from location 0x8000 to 0xBFFF. But the area from 0xC000 to 0xFFFF is aliased to the Operand RAM. The memory accesses to the Operand RAM should not cross the area from 0x8000 to 0xFFFF.5Common instruction fieldsCommon instructions contains the following fields.•Opcode•Source and Destination address•Indirect Memory address•Source and destination address increment•Vector size•Input datatype/preprocessing6SPT programming6.1Programming based on RSDKNXP Radar SDK(RSDK) provides basic radar processing algorithms and device drivers for S32R hardware devices. Its purpose is to facilitate radar algorithm development (using SPT kernels, MA TLAB models), creation of higher level algorithms (starting from the basic blocks supplied with RSDK) and easy application development by integrating driver and platform support.Radar SDK (Radar SDK for S32R27 SPT accelerator ) could be downloaded from NXP website.RSDK SPT module consists of the SPT Driver, SPT Kernels software components.The SPT Driver serves as an interface between the user application running on the host CPU cores and the SPT hardware. The figure below shows a high-level block diagram of SPT software architecture. Its purpose is to enable the integration and executionof low-level microcode kernels on the SPT (Signal Processing T oolbox) accelerator for baseband radar signal processing.Figure 5.SPT software architectureThe SPT Kernels are individual precompiled routines of SPT code packed into a library, each implementing a part of the radar processing flow.T ogether, the SPT Driver and SPT Kernels library provide a software abstraction of the built-in SPT hardware functions (e.g. FFT ,Maximum Search, Histogram etc.) combined in a series of algorithms.The RSDK package also includes RSDK Sample Applications showing how to integrate these software components into the user code.6.2Programming based on graphic toolS32 Design Studio SPT graphical tool allows user to use graphical modeling workbench by leveraging the Eclipse Modeling technologies. It provides a workbench for model-based architecture engineering. Graphical tool equips teams who have to deal with complex architectures. The graphical tool includes everything necessary to easily create and manipulate models. The output of this tool is SPT assembler source code.The SPT graphical tool is integrated with the New S32DS Project wizard for devices which have SPT module. SPT1, SPT2 and SPT2.5 versions of SPT modules are supported. The SPT graphical tool can be used after project creation with the new graph tools project wizard. For detailed description of new project wizards, please read S32 Design Studio for Power Architecture, Version 2017.R1 reference manual.After the project is generated, SPT graphical tool windows could be gotten in IDE. User could drag 'Instructions', 'Flow' and 'Directives' from Palette window into working flow window.SPT programmingEach 'Instructions', 'Flow' or 'Directives' could change their setting in properties window. After finished the design of SPT working flow, generate SPT code through right click mouse.Figure 6.Generate project with SPT graphical toolFigure 7.SPT graphical tool windowsFigure 8.Example working flow and generate code7ConclusionThe SPT is a powerful processing engine containing high-performance signal processing operations driven by a specific instruction set. Its programmability ensures flexibility while removing the CPU from frequent scheduling of hardware operations, while still controlling and interacting with the processing flow. RSDK supports the API of SPT for customer and graphics tool for SPT programming could meet the flexible design request.8Reference•S32R274 Reference Manual•Radar SDK for S32R27 SPT accelerator •AN5375, S32R RADAR Signal CompressionHow To Reach Us Home Page: Web Support: /support Information in this document is provided solely to enable system and software implementers to use NXP products. There are no express or implied copyright licenses granted hereunder to design or fabricate any integrated circuits based on the information in this document. NXP reserves the right to make changes without further notice to any products herein.NXP makes no warranty, representation, or guarantee regarding the suitability of its products for any particular purpose, nor does NXP assume any liability arising out of the application or use of any product or circuit, and specifically disclaims any and all liability, including without limitation consequential or incidental damages. “Typical” parameters that may be provided in NXP data sheets and/or specifications can and do vary in different applications, and actual performance may vary over time. All operating parameters, including “typicals,” must be validated for each customer application by customer's technical experts. NXP does not convey any license under its patent rights nor the rights of others. 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软件测试部分中英文对照A Acceptance test ing:验收测试Acceptance Testing：可接受性测试Accessibi l i t y test:软体适用性测试actual outcome：实际结果Ad hoc test ing:随机测试Algorithm analysis:算法分析algori thm：算法Alpha test ing:α测试analysis：分析anomaly：异常applicat ion software：应用软件Applicat ion under test(AUT) :所测试的应用程序Architecture:构架Arti fact:工件AS Q：自动化软件质量（Automated Software Quality）Assertion checking :断言检查Associat ion:关联Audit:审计audit trai l：审计跟踪Automated Testing：自动化测试软件测试部分中英文对照BBackus-Naur Form：BNF范式baseline：基线Basic Block：基本块basis test set：基本测试集Behaviour:行为Bench test:基准测试benchmark：标杆/指标/基准Best practise:最佳实践Beta test ing:β测试Black Box Testing：黑盒测试Blocking bug :阻碍性错误Bottom-up test ing:自底向上测试boundary value coverage：边界值覆盖boundary value test ing：边界值测试Boundary values :边界值Boundry Value Analysis：边界值分析branch condit ion combination coverage：分支条件组合覆盖 branch condit ion combination test ing：分支条件组合测试 branch condit ion coverage：分支条件覆盖branch condit ion test ing：分支条件测试branch condit ion：分支条件Branch coverage :分支覆盖branch outcome：分支结果branch point：分支点branch test ing：分支测试branch：分支Breadth Testing：广度测试Brute force test ing:强力测试Buddy test:合伙测试Buffer:缓冲Bug:错误Bug bash :错误大扫除bug f ix:错误修正Bug report:错误报告Bug tracking system: 错误跟踪系统bug：缺陷Build:工作版本（内部小版本）Build Verficat ion tests(BVTs):版本验证测试Build-in:内置软件测试部分中英文对照CCapabil i ty Maturity Model (CM M): 能力成熟度模型Capabil i ty Maturity Model Integrat ion(CM MI):能力成熟度模型整合capture/playback tool：捕获/回放工具Capture/Replay Tool：捕获/回放工具CAS E：计算机辅助软件工程（computer aided software engineering）CAST：计算机辅助测试cause-effect graph：因果图cert i f i cat ion：证明change control：变更控制Change Manage ment :变更管理Change Request :变更请求Character Set :字符集Check In:检入Check Out :检出Closeout :收尾code audit：代码审计Code coverage :代码覆盖Code Inspection：代码检视Code page :代码页Code rule:编码规范Code sytle:编码风格Code W alkthrough：代码走读code-based test ing：基于代码的测试coding standards：编程规范Co m m o n sense :常识Co mpatibi l i t y Testing：兼容性测试complete path test ing：完全路径测试 completeness：完整性complexity：复杂性Co mponent test ing:组件测试Co mponent：组件computation data use：计算数据使用computer system security：计算机系统安全性 Concurrency user :并发用户Condit ion coverage :条件覆盖condit ion outcome:条件结果condit ion:条件configurat ion control：配置控制Configurat ion i tem :配置项configurat ion manage ment：配置管理Configurat ion test ing:配置测试conformance cri ter ion： 一致性标准Conformance Testing： 一致性测试consistency ： 一致性consistency checker： 一致性检查器Control f low graph :控制流程图control f low graph：控制流图control f low：控制流conversion test ing：转换测试Core team:核心小组correct ive maintenance：故障检修correctness ：正确性coverage ：覆盖率coverage i tem：覆盖项crash：崩溃cri t i ca l i t y analysis：关键性分析cri t i ca l i t y：关键性CR M(change request manage ment):变更需求管理Customer-focused mindset :客户为中心的理念体系Cyclomatic complexity:圈复杂度软件测试部分中英文对照D data corruption：数据污染data defini t ion C-use pair：数据定义C-use使用对 data defini t ion P-use coverage：数据定义P-use覆盖 data defini t ion P-use pair：数据定义P-use使用对 data defini t ion：数据定义data defini t ion-use coverage：数据定义使用覆盖 data defini t ion-use pair：数据定义使用对 data defini t ion-use test ing：数据定义使用测试 data dict ionary：数据字典Data Flow Analysis:数据流分析data f low analysis：数据流分析data f low coverage：数据流覆盖data f low diagram：数据流图data f low test ing：数据流测试data integri ty：数据完整性data use：数据使用data validat ion：数据确认dead code：死代码Debug:调试Debugging：调试Decision condit ion：判定条件Decision coverage :判定覆盖decision coverage：判定覆盖decision outcome：判定结果decision table：判定表decision：判定Defect:缺陷defect density:缺陷密度Defect Tracking :缺陷跟踪Deployment :部署Depth Testing：深度测试design for sustainabi l i t y:可延续性的设计 design of experiments：实验设计design-based test ing：基于设计的测试Desk checking :桌前检查desk checking：桌面检查Determine Usage Model :确定应用模型Determine Potential Risks :确定潜在风险 diagnostic：诊断DIF(decimation in frequency) :按频率抽取dirty test ing：肮脏测试disaster recovery：灾难恢复DIT （decimation in t ime）:按时间抽取 documentation test ing：文档测试 domain test ing：域测试domain：域DTP DETAIL TEST PLAN详细确认测试计划Dyna mic analysis:动态分析dynamic analysis：动态分析Dyna mic Testing：动态测试软件测试部分中英文对照E embedded software：嵌入式软件emulator：仿真End-to-End test ing：端到端测试Enhanced Request :增强请求enti ty relat ionship diagram：实体关系图 Encryption Source Code Base： 加密算法源代码库 Entry cri ter ia:准入条件entry point：入口点Envisioning Phase:构想阶段Equivalence class :等价类Equivalence Class：等价类equivalence part i t ion coverage：等价划分覆盖Equivalence part i t ion test ing:等价划分测试equivalence part i t ion test ing:参考等价划分测试equivalence part i t ion test ing：等价划分测试Equivalence Parti t ion ing：等价划分Error:错误Error guessing :错误猜测error seeding：错误播种/错误插值error：错误Event-driven :事件驱动Exception handlers:异常处理器exception：异常/例外executable statement：可执行语句Exhaustive Testing：穷尽测试exit point：出口点expected outcome：期望结果Exploratory test ing:探索性测试软件测试部分中英文对照FFailure:失效Fault:故障fault：故障feasible path：可达路径feature test ing：特性测试Field test ing:现场测试FM E A：失效模型效果分析（Failure Modes and Effects Analysis）FM E C A：失效模型效果关键性分析(Fai lure Modes and Effects Crit ical i t y Analysis) Framework :框架FTA：故障树分析(Fault Tree Analysis)functional decomposit ion：功能分解Functional Specif icat ion：功能规格说明书Functional test ing:功能测试Functional Testing：功能测试软件测试部分中英文对照GG11N(Globalizat ion):全球化Gap analysis:差距分析Garbage characters:乱码字符glass box test ing：玻璃盒测试Glass-box test ing:白箱测试或白盒测试Glossary :术语表G UI(Graphical User Interface):图形用户界面软件测试部分中英文对照H－MHard-coding :硬编码Hotfix:热补丁IGKL M NI18N(Internat ional izat ion):国际化Identi fy Exploratory Tests –识别探索性测试IEEE：美国电子与电器工程师学会（Inst i tu te of Electr ical and Electronic Engineers）Incident事故Incremental test ing:渐增测试incremental test ing：渐增测试infeasible path：不可达路径input domain：输入域Inspection :审查inspection：检视instal labi l i t y test ing：可安装性测试Instal l i ng test ing:安装测试instrumentation：插装instrumenter：插装器Integrat ion:集成Integrat ion test ing:集成测试interface :接口interface analysis：接口分析interface test ing：接口测试interface：接口inval id inputs：无效输入isolat ion test ing：孤立测试Issue :问题Iterat ion:迭代Iterat ive development:迭代开发job control language：工作控制语言Job：工作Key concepts :关键概念Key Process Area :关键过程区域Keyword driven test ing:关键字驱动测试Kick-off meeting :动会议L10N(Localizat ion):本地化Lag t ime :延迟时间LCSAJ：线性代码顺序和跳转（Linear Code Sequence And Jump）LCSAJ coverage：LCSAJ覆盖LCSAJ test ing：LCSAJ测试Lead t ime :前置时间Load test ing:负载测试Load Testing：负载测试Localizabi l i t y test ing:本地化能力测试Localizat ion test ing:本地化测试logic analysis：逻辑分析logic-coverage test ing：逻辑覆盖测试Maintainabi l i t y:可维护性maintainabi l i t y test ing：可维护性测试Maintenance :维护Master project schedule :总体项目方案Measurement :度量Me m ory leak :内存泄漏Migration test ing:迁移测试Milestone :里程碑Mock up :模型，原型modified condit ion/decision coverage：修改条件/判定覆盖 modified condit ion/decision test ing：修改条件/判定测试 modular decomposit ion:参考模块分解Module test ing:模块测试Monkey test ing:跳跃式测试Monkey Testing：跳跃式测试mouse over：鼠标在对象之上mouse leave：鼠标离开对象MTB F：平均失效间隔实际（mean t ime between fai lures）MTP M AIN TEST PLAN主确认计划MTTF：平均失效时间 （mean t ime to fai lure）MTT R：平均修复时间（mean t ime to repair）multip le condit ion coverage：多条件覆盖mutation analysis：变体分析软件测试部分中英文对照N－RN/A(Not applicable):不适用的Negative Testing :逆向测试,反向测试,负面测试negative test ing:参考负面测试Negative Testing：逆向测试/反向测试/负面测试non-functional requirements test ing:非功能需求测试nominal load:额定负载N-switch coverage：N切换覆盖N-switch test ing：N切换测试N-transit ions：N转换off by one：缓冲溢出错误Off-the-shelf software :套装软件operational test ing：可操作性测试output domain：输出域paper audit:书面审计Pair Program ming:成对编程part i t ion test ing：分类测试Path coverage :路径覆盖path coverage：路径覆盖path sensit iz ing：路径敏感性path test ing：路径测试path：路径Peer review :同行评审Performance :性能Performance indicator:性能（绩效）指标Performance test ing:性能测试Pilot:试验Pilot test ing:引导测试Portabi l i t y:可移植性portabi l i t y test ing：可移植性测试Posit ive test ing:正向测试Postcondit ion:后置条件Precondit ion:前提条件precondit ion：预置条件predicate data use：谓词数据使用predicate：谓词Prior i ty:优先权program instrumenter：程序插装progressive test ing：递进测试Prototype :原型Pseudo code :伪代码pseudo-local izat ion test ing：伪本地化测试pseudo-random：伪随机Q C：质量控制（quali ty control）Quality assurance(QA):质量保证Quality Control(QC) :质量控制Race Condit ion：竞争状态Rational Unified Process(以下简称RU P):瑞理统一工艺Recovery test ing:恢复测试recovery test ing：恢复性测试Refactoring:重构regression analysis and test ing：回归分析和测试 Regression test ing:回归测试Release :发布Release note :版本说明release：发布Reliabi l i t y:可靠性rel iabi l i t y assessment：可靠性评价rel iabi l i t y：可靠性Requirements manage ment tool:需求管理工具Requirements-based test ing:基于需求的测试Return of Investment（R OI）:投资回报率review：评审Risk assessment :风险评估risk：风险Robustness :强健性Root Cause Analysis(RCA):根本原因分析软件测试部分中英文对照S－Z safety cri t i ca l：严格的安全性safety：（生命）安全性Sanity test ing:健全测试Sanity Testing：理智测试Sche ma Repository:模式库Screen shot :抓屏、截图SDP：软件开发计划（software development plan）Security test ing:安全性测试security test ing：安全性测试security.：（信息）安全性serviceabil i t y test ing：可服务性测试Severity:严重性Shipment :发布simple subpath：简单子路径Simulation:模拟Simulator:模拟器SLA(Service level agreement):服务级别协议SLA：服务级别协议（service level agreement）S moke test ing:冒烟测试Software development plan(SDP):软件开发计划Software development process:软件开发过程software development process：软件开发过程 software diversi ty：软件多样性software element：软件元素software engineering environment：软件工程环境software engineering：软件工程Software l i fe cycle :软件生命周期source code：源代码source statement：源语句Specif icat ion:规格说明书specif ied input：指定的输入spiral model ：螺旋模型SQ A P SOFT W A R E QU ALITY ASS U R E N C E PLAN软件质量保证计划SQL：结构化查询语句（structured query language）Staged Delivery：分布交付方法state diagram：状态图state transit ion test ing：状态转换测试 state transit ion：状态转换state：状态Statement coverage :语句覆盖statement test ing：语句测试statement：语句Static Analysis：静态分析Static Analyzer：静态分析器Static Testing：静态测试stat is t i ca l test ing：统计测试Stepwise ref inement :逐步优化storage test ing：存储测试Stress Testing :压力测试structural coverage：结构化覆盖structural test case design：结构化测试用例设计structural test ing：结构化测试structured basis test ing：结构化的基础测试structured design：结构化设计structured program ming：结构化编程structured walkthrough：结构化走读stub：桩sub-area：子域Su m m ary： 总结SVV P SOFT W A R E Vevif icat ion&Validat ion PLAN： 软件验证和确认计划symbolic evaluation：符号评价symbolic execution:参考符号执行symbolic execution：符号执行symbolic trace：符号轨迹Synchronizat ion:同步Syntax test ing:语法分析system analysis：系统分析System design :系统设计system integrat ion：系统集成System Testing :系统测试TC TEST CAS E测试用例TCS TEST CAS E SPE CIFICATIO N测试用例规格说明TDS TEST DESIG N SPE CIFICATION测试设计规格说明书technical requirements test ing：技术需求测试Test :测试test automation：测试自动化Test case :测试用例test case design technique：测试用例设计技术test case suite：测试用例套test comparator：测试比较器test completion cri ter ion：测试完成标准test coverage:测试覆盖Test design :测试设计Test driver:测试驱动test environment:测试环境test execution technique:测试执行技术test execution:测试执行test generator:测试生成器test harness:测试用具Test infrastructure:测试基础建设test log:测试日志test measurement technique:测试度量技术Test Metrics:测试度量test procedure:测试规程test records:测试记录test report:测试报告Test scenario:测试场景Test Script:测试脚本Test Specif icat ion:测试规格Test strategy :测试策略test suite:测试套Test target:测试目标Test ware :测试工具Testabil i t y:可测试性testabi l i t y:可测试性Testing bed :测试平台Testing coverage :测试覆盖Testing environment :测试环境Testing i tem :测试项Testing plan :测试计划Testing procedure :测试过程Thread test ing:线程测试t ime sharing:时间共享t ime-boxed :固定时间TIR test incident report测试事故报告ToolTip:控件提示或说明top-down test ing:自顶向下测试TPS TEST PE O C E S S SPE CIFICATIO N测试步骤规格说明Traceabil i t y:可跟踪性traceabil i t y analysis:跟踪性分析 traceabil i t y matrix:跟踪矩阵Trade-off:平衡transaction:事务/处理transaction volume：交易量transform analysis:事务分析trojan horse:特洛伊木马truth table:真值表TST TEST SU M M A R Y REP O R T测试总结报告Tune System:调试系统T W TEST W A R E:测试件Unit Testing :单元测试Usabil i ty Testing:可用性测试Usage scenario:使用场景User acceptance Test :用户验收测试User database :用户数据库User interface(UI):用户界面User profi le:用户信息User scenario:用户场景V&V(Verif icat ion&Validat ion):验证&确认validat ion:确认veri f icat ion:验证version :版本Virtual user :虚拟用户volume test ing:容量测试VSS（visual source safe） ：VTP Verif icat ion TEST PLAN验证测试计划VTR Verif icat ion TEST REP O R T验证测试报告W alkthrough :走读W aterfal l model :瀑布模型W eb test ing:网站测试W hite box test ing:白盒测试W ork breakdown structure(WBS):任务分解结构。

1.1.WHAT IS SOFTWARE ENGINEERING?5The latter example indicates that errors in a software system may have serious financial consequences for the organization using it.One example of such afinancial loss is the large US airline company that lost$50M because of an error in their seat reservation system.The system erroneously reported that cheap seats were sold out,while in fact there were plenty available.The problem was detected only after quarterly results lagged considerably behind those of both their own previous periods and those of their competitors.Errors in automated systems may even have fatal effects.One computer science weekly magazine contained the following message in April1983:The court in D¨usseldorf has discharged a woman(54),who was on trialfor murdering her daughter.An erroneous message from a computerizedsystem made the insurance company inform her that she was seriouslyill.She was said to suffer from an incurable form of syphilis.Moreover,she was said to have infected both her children.In panic,she strangledher15year old daughter and tried to kill her13year old son and herself.The boy escaped,and with some help he enlisted prevented the womanfrom dying of an overdose.The judge blamed the computer error andconsidered the woman not responsible for her actions.This all marks the enormous importance of thefield of software engineering. Better methods and techniques for software development may result in largefinancial savings,in more effective methods of software development,in systems that betterfit user needs,in more reliable software systems,and thus in a more reliable environment in which those systems function.Quality and productivity are two central themes in thefield of software engineering.On the positive side,it is imperative to point to the enormous progress that has been made since the1960s.Software is ubiquitous and scores of trustworthy systems have been built.These range from small spreadsheet applications to typesetting systems,banking systems,Web browsers and the Space Shuttle software.The techniques and methods discussed in this book have contributed their mite to the success of these and many other software development projects.1.1What is Software Engineering?In various texts on this topic,one encounters a definition of the term software engineering.An early definition was given at thefirst NATO conference(Naur and Randell,1968):Software engineering is the establishment and use of sound engineeringprinciples in order to obtain economically software that is reliable andworks efficiently on real machines.The definition given in the IEEE Standard Glossary of Software Engineering Terminol-ogy(IEEE610,1990)is as follows:6INTRODUCTION Software engineering is the application of a systematic,disciplined,quantifiable approach to the development,operation,and maintenanceof software;that is,the application of engineering to software.These and other definitions of the term software engineering use rather different words.However,the essential characteristics of thefield are always,explicitly or implicitly,present:Software engineering concerns the development of large programs.(DeRemer and Kron,1976)make a distinction between programming-in-the-large and programming-in-the-small.The borderline between large and small obviously is not sharp:a program of100lines is small,a program of50000lines of code certainly is not.Programming-in-the-small generally refers to programs written by one person in a relatively short period of time.Programming-in-the-large,then,refers to multi-person jobs that span,say,more than half a year.For example:–The NASA Space Shuttle software contains40M lines of object code(this is30times as much as the software for the Saturn V project from the1960s)(Boehm,1981);–The IBM OS360operating system took5000man years of developmenteffort(Brooks,1995).Traditional programming techniques and tools are primarily aimed at support-ing programming-in-the-small.This not only holds for programming languages, but also for the tools(likeflowcharts)and methods(like structured program-ming).These cannot be directly transferred to the development of large programs.In fact,the term program--in the sense of a self-contained piece of software that can be invoked by a user or some other system component--is not adequate here.Present-day software development projects result in systems containing a large number of(interrelated)programs--or components.The central theme is mastering complexity.In general,the problems are such that they cannot be surveyed in their entirety.One is forced to split the problem into parts such that each individual part can be grasped,while the communication between the parts remains simple.The total complexity does not decrease in this way,but it does become manageable.In a stereo system there are components such as an amplifier,a receiver,and a tuner,and communication via a thin wire.In software,we strive for a similar separation of concerns.In a program for library automation,components such as user interaction,search processes and data storage could for instance be distinguished,with clearly given facilities for data exchange between those components.Note that the complexity of many a piece of software is not1.1.WHAT IS SOFTWARE ENGINEERING?7so much caused by the intrinsic complexity of the problem(as in the case of compiler optimization algorithms or numerical algorithms to solve partial differential equations),but rather by the vast number of details that must be dealt with.Software evolves.Most software models a part of reality,such as processing requests in a library or tracking money transfers in a bank.This reality evolves.If software is not to become obsolete fairly quickly,it has to evolve with the reality that is being modeled.This means that costs are incurred after delivery of the software system and that we have to bear this evolution in mind during development.The efficiency with which software is developed is of crucial importance.Total cost and development time of software projects is high.This also holds for the maintenance of software.The quest for new applications surpasses the workforce resource.The gap between supply and demand is growing.Time-to-market demands ask for quick delivery.Important themes within thefield of software engineering concern better and more efficient methods and tools for the development and maintenance of software,especially methods and tools enabling the use and reuse of components.Regular cooperation between people is an integral part of programming-in-the-large.Since the problems are large,many people have to work concurrently at solving those problems.Increasingly often,teams at different geographic locations work together in software development.There must be clear arrangements for the distribution of work,methods of communication,responsibilities,and so on.Arrangements alone are not sufficient,though;one also has to stick to those arrangements.In order to enforce them,standards or procedures may be employed.Those procedures and standards can often be supported by tools.Discipline is one of the keys to the successful completion of a software development project.The software has to support its users effectively.Software is developed in order to support users at work.The functionality offered shouldfit users’ers that are not satisfied with the system will try to circumvent it or,at best,voice new requirements immediately.It is not sufficient to build the system in the right way,we also have to build the right system.Effective user support means that we must carefully study users at work, in order to determine the proper functional requirements,and we must address usability and other quality aspects as well,such as reliability,responsiveness, and user-friendliness.It also means that software development entails more than delivering er manuals and training material may have to be written,and attention must be given to developing the environment in which the new system is going to be installed.For example,a new automated library system will affect working procedures within the library.8INTRODUCTION Software engineering is afield in which members of one culture create artifacts on behalf of members of another culture.This aspect is closely linked to the previous two items.Software engineers are expert in one or more areas such as programming in Java,software architecture, testing,or the Unified Modeling Language.They are generally not experts in library management,avionics,or banking.Yet they have to develop systems for such domains.The thin spread of application domain knowledge is a common source of problems in software development projects.Not only do software engineers lack factual knowledge of the domain for which they develop software,they lack knowledge of its culture as well.For example,a software developer may discover the‘official’set of work practices of a certain user community from interviews,written policies,and the like;these work practices are then built into the software.A crucial question with respect to system acceptance and success,however,is whether that community actually follows those work practices.For an outside observer,this question is much more difficult to answer.Software engineering is a balancing act.In most realistic cases,it is illusive to assume that the collection of requirements voiced at the start of the project is the only factor that counts.In fact,the term requirement is a misnomer.It suggests something immutable,while in fact most requirements are negotiable.There are numerous business,technical and political constraints that may influence a software development project.For example,one may decide to use database technology X rather than Y, simply because of available expertise with that technology.In extreme cases, characteristics of available components may determine functionality offered, rather than the other way around.The above list shows that software engineering has many facets.Software engineering certainly is not the same as programming,although programming is an important ingredient of software engineering.Mathematical aspects play a role since we are concerned with the correctness of software.Sound engineering practices are needed to get useful products.Psychological and sociological aspects play a role in the communication between human and machine,organization and machine,and between humans.Finally,the development process needs to be controlled,which is a management issue.The term‘software engineering’hints at possible resemblances between the construction of programs and the construction of houses or bridges.These kinds of resemblances do exist.In both cases we work from a set of desired functions,using scientific and engineering techniques in a creative way.Techniques that have been applied successfully in the construction of physical artifacts are also helpful when applied to the construction of software systems:development of the product in a number of phases,a careful planning of these phases,continuous audit of the whole process,construction from a clear and complete design,etc.1.1.WHAT IS SOFTWARE ENGINEERING?9Even in a mature engineering discipline,say bridge design,accidents do happen. Bridges collapse once in a while.Most problems in bridge design occur when designers extrapolate beyond their models and expertise.A famous example is the Tacoma Narrows Bridge failure in1940.The designers of that bridge extrapolated beyond their experience to create moreflexible stiffening girders for suspension bridges.They did not think about aerodynamics and the response of the bridge to wind.As a result, that bridge collapsed shortly after it wasfinished.This type of extrapolation seems to be the rule rather than the exception in software development.We regularly embark on software development projects that go far beyond our expertise.There are additional reasons for considering the construction of software as something quite different from the construction of physical products.The cost of constructing software is incurred during development and not during production. Copying software is almost free.Software is logical in nature rather than physical. Physical products wear out in time and therefore have to be maintained.Software does not wear out.The need to maintain software is caused by errors detected late or by changing requirements of the user.Software reliability is determined by the manifestation of errors already present,not by physical factors such as wear and tear. We may even argue that software wears out because it is being maintained.Viewing software engineering as a branch of engineering is problematic for another reason as well.The engineering metaphor hints at disciplined work,proper planning,good management,and the like.It suggests we deal with clearly defined needs,that can be fulfilled if we follow all the right steps.Many software development projects though involve the translation of some real world phenomenon into digital form.The knowledge embedded in this real life phenomenon is tacit,undefined, uncodified,and may have developed over a long period of time.The assumption that we are dealing with a well-defined problem simply does not hold.Rather,the design process is open ended,and the solution emerges as we go along.This dichotomy is reflected in views of thefield put in the forefront over time(Eischen,2002).In the early days,thefield was seen as a craft.As a countermovement,the term software engineering was coined,and many factory concepts got introduced.In the late1990’s, the pendulum swung back again and the craft aspect got emphasized anew,in the agile movement(see chapter3).Both engineering-like and craft-like aspects have their place,and we will give a balanced treatment of both.Two characteristics that make software development projects extra difficult to manage are visibility and continuity.It is much more difficult to see progress in software construction than it is to notice progress in building a bridge.One often hears the phrase that a program‘is almostfinished’.One equally often underestimates the time needed tofinish up the last bits and pieces.This‘90%complete’syndrome is very pervasive in software development.Not knowing how to measure real progress,we often use a surrogate measure,the rate of expenditure of resources.For example,a project that has a budget of100person-days is perceived as being50%complete after50person-days are expended.Strictly speaking,we then confuse speed with progress.Because of the imprecise measurement10INTRODUCTION of progress and the customary underestimation of total effort,problems accumulate as time elapses.Physical systems are often continuous in the sense that small changes in the specification lead to small changes in the product.This is not true with software. Small changes in the specification of software may lead to considerable changes in the software itself.In a similar way,small errors in software may have considerable effects.The Mariner space rocket to Venus for example got lost because of a typing error in a FORTRAN program.In1998,the Mars Climate Orbiter got lost,because one development team used English units such as inches and feet,while another team used metric units.We may likewise draw a comparison between software engineering and computer puter science emerged as a separate discipline in the1960s.It split from mathematics and has been heavily influenced by mathematics.Topics studied in computer science,such as algorithm complexity,formal languages,and the semantics of programming languages,have a strong mathematicalflavor.PhD theses in computer science invariably contain theorems with accompanying proofs.As thefield of software engineering emerged from computer science,it had a similar inclination to focus on clean aspects of software development that can be formalized,in both teaching and research.We used to assume that requirements can be fully stated before the project started,concentrated on systems built from scratch, and ignored the reality of trading off quality aspects against the available budget.Not to mention the trenches of software maintenance.Software engineering and computer science do have a considerable overlap.The practice of software engineering however also has to deal with such matters as the management of huge development projects,human factors(regarding both the development team and the prospective users of the system)and cost estimation and control.Software engineers must engineer software.Software engineering has many things in common both with otherfields of engineering and with computer science.It also has a face of its own in many ways.1.2Phases in the Development of SoftwareWhen building a house,the builder does not start with piling up bricks.Rather,the requirements and possibilities of the client are analyzedfirst,taking into account such factors as family structure,hobbies,finances and the like.The architect takes these factors into consideration when designing a house.Only after the design has been agreed upon is the actual construction started.It is expedient to act in the same way when constructing software.First,the problem to be solved is analyzed and the requirements are described in a very precise way.Then a design is made based on these requirements.Finally,the construction process,i.e.the actual programming of the solution,is started.There are a distinguishable number of phases in the development of software.The phases as discussed in this book are depicted infigure1.2.。