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Chapter 7: Answers to Questions and Problems1. The four-firm concentration ratio is,4$175,000$150,000$125,000$100,0000.55$1,000,000C +++==.2.a. The HHI is222$200,000$400,000$500,00010,000=3,719$1,100,000$1,100,000$1,100,000HHI ⎡⎤⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞=++⎢⎥⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠⎢⎥⎣⎦. b. The four-firm concentration ratio is 100 percent.c. If the firms with sales of $200,000 and $400,000 were allowed to merge, the resulting HHI would increase by 1,322 to 5,041. Since the pre-merger HHI exceeds that under the Guidelines (1,800) and the HHI increases by more than that permitted under the Guidelines (100), the merger is likely to be challenged.3. The elasticity of demand for a representative firm in the industry is –1.5, since.5.16.09.09.06.0−=−=⇒−=F F E E .4.a. $100. To see this, solve the Lerner index formula for P to obtain11$35$100110.65P MC L ⎛⎞⎛⎞===⎜⎟⎜⎟−−⎝⎠⎝⎠. b. Since 11P MC L ⎛⎞=⎜⎟−⎝⎠, it follows that the markup factor is 1 2.8610.65⎛⎞=⎜⎟−⎝⎠. That is, the price charged by the firm is 2.86 times the marginal cost of producing the product.c. The above calculations suggest price competition is not very rigorous and that the firm enjoys market power.5.Managers should not specialize in learning to manage a particular type of market structure. Market structure generally evolves over time, and managers must adapt to these changes.6. To the extent that the HHIs are based on too narrow a definition of the product (orgeographic) market or the impact of foreign competition, the merger might be allowed. It might also be allowed if one of the firms is in financial trouble, or if significant economies of scale exist in the industry.7. As shown in the text, the HHI is⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎣⎡⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛++⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛+⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛++⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛+⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛=⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛∑=222222112......000,10000,10T n T j T i T T n i T i S S S S S S S S S S S S . (1) When firms i and j merge, the HHI becomes ⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎣⎡⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛++⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛+++⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛+⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛222221......000,10T n T j i T T S S S S S S S S S . (2) The difference between (2) and (1) is that 22⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛+⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛T j T i S S S S becomes 2⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛+T j i S S S .Thus, we can calculate how a merger between firms i and j will change the HHI by knowing only those two firms’ market shares. In general, since()22222⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛++⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛=⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛+T j T j i T i T j i S S S S S S S S S S , we know that a merger between firms i and j will cause the HHI to increase by 210,000i j w w ×, where w i and w j are the pre-merger market shares of the two merging firms. Using the information in the problem,()()()800000,102.2.2= represents the increase in the HHI due to the merger.8. No. The conditions for perfect competition include:a. There are many buyers and sellers of products.b. The products are homogenous.c. Consumers and producers have perfect information.d. There is free entry and exit.9. The four-firm concentration ratios in Table 7-2 are likely to overstate the level of concentration in the U.S. Imported beers account for much of the sales in the U.S. It is likely that the brewing industry is much less concentrated than Table 7-2 leads us to believe.10.This industry is most likely monopolistically competitive. Monopolistically competitive industries have concentration measures close to zero, but since eachfirm’s product is slightly differentiated, the Rothschild index will be greater than zero (unlike perfectly competitive markets).11.Monopolistically competitive. In a monopolistically competitive market, there aremany firms, but each firm produces a differentiated product. According to the causal view, the structure of differentiated products causes firms to capitalize on the absence of close substitutes by charging higher prices and earning higher profit. Thus,structure causes conduct resulting in performance. According to the feedback critique, the conduct of firms may determine the market structure. Firms’ products may bedifferentiated because of firms’ conduct in the industry. Examples of such conductinclude advertising and other behavioral tactics that feedback into demand, causingconsumers to view products as differentiated. Thus, it is not at all clear thatdifferentiated products are a structural variable. The willingness of consumers to pay for product variety gives firms an incentive to offer different products (thin-and-crispy pizza, pan pizza, pizza delivery, etc.).12.Merger (a) is the only horizontal merger, and therefore the only merger that would bescrutinized under the Guidelines for horizontal mergers. Merger (b) is a conglomerate merger, while merger (c) is a vertical merger.13.While the pre-merger four-firm concentration ratio is 72 percent, the pre-merger HHIis only 1,535. The merger would increase the HHI by only 100 to 1,635. The merger is unlikely to be blocked based on the merger guidelines.14.If approved, the merger would raise the HHI by ()()()702000,1013.27.2= points (see the solution to problem 7). Since the pre-merger HHI is 3,025, which is greater thanthe Guidelines (1,800), and the HHI increases by 702 (which is greater than the 100points permitted in the Guidelines), it is unlikely that the merger will receiveunconditional approval.15.See Table 7-1.O w n P rice Elasticity of M arket Dem andO w n P rice E lasticityof D em and forR epresentative Firm'sP roduct R othsc hild IndexA griculture-1.8-96.20.019C onstruction-1.0-5.20.192Du rable m anufacturing-1.4-3.50.400No ndu rable m anufacturing-1.3-3.40.382Transportation-1.0-1.90.526Com m unication and utilities-1.2-1.80.667W holesale trade-1.5-1.60.938R etail trade-1.2-1.80.667Finance-0.1-5.50.018S ervices-1.2-26.40.045Table 7-1Based on the Rothschild indices in Table 7-1, wholesale trade most closely resembles a monopoly, while finance most closely resembles perfect competition.16. The Lerner index is $3$0.300.9$3P MC L P −−===, which indicates the firm has considerable market power. This makes sense because the product that the firm sells is currently under patent protection, which essentially makes the firm a legal monopoly.17.Based on the information contained in Table 7-3 of the text, the food and apparel industries are most competitive and therefore probably represent the best match for the expertise of these managers.18. The market for color film in the U.S. is highly concentrated. The five-firmconcentration ratio is 100 percent and Kodak alone accounts for 67 percent of all rolls sold. Market demand for color film is relatively elastic at -1.75; indicating that a 10 percent increase in price leads to a 17.5 percent decline in quantity demand for color film. The Rothschild index indicates that market demand relative to the demand for Kodak color film is 875.0275.1=−−=R , indicating that Kodak’s demand is, roughly, as sensitive to price changes as is the entire market demand. The Lerner index for Kodak is 50.095.6$475.3$95.6$=−=L , indicating that Kodak’s markup factor is 2. For every $1 spent on color film, $0.50 is markup. Taken together, these things suggest that the color film industry in the U.S. closely resembles an oligopoly.19. Note first that a merger with Unilever or Tricor Braun is not a horizontal merger. Moreover, while a horizontal merger with either Dole or Goya is likely to enhance Del Monte’s profitability (profits as a percentage of sales are 8.7 and 7.1, respectively and the Lerner Indices are 0.14 and 0.32, respectively), the market for cannedtomatoes and canned pineapple are highly concentrated. The four-firm concentration ratio and HHI for the canned tomatoes market are, respectively, 86.3 percent and 3,297. Similarly, the four-firm concentration ratio and HHI in the canned pineapple industry are 94.2 percent and 5,457, respectively. This information suggests that potential mergers in these industries are likely to be scrutinized.20.On the surface the industry analysts’ suggestion would represent a merger tomonopoly and the HHI before and after the merger exceeds the threshold for raising antitrust concerns. However, there are several reasons why the merger might beallowed. First, satellite radio may not be its own industry, but rather a smaller part of a larger market that include MP3 players, AM and FM radios, and the like. Their market shares in this more broadly defined market are trivial, and therefore themerger would not impact the HHI in the more broadly defined market. Additionally, the merger might be allowed if the (1) firms could show significant cost savings; (2) rapidly changing technology in the portable music industry would prevent anti-competitive behavior; (3) government viewed the firms as financially unstable; or (4) barriers to entry were low enough to allow competition from new entrants after the merger.21.With number portability, the services of the various providers are now closersubstitutes to each other. One implication is that the cost to consumers of switchingservice providers is not lower, which increases the likelihood that consumers wouldswitch for small price reductions. These factors make the demand for the individualcellular service providers more elastic (increase the price elasticity of demand). Local number portability, however, is unlikely to affect the elasticity of demand for theindustry as a whole. If the elasticity of demand increases for individual firms, butremains constant for the industry, the Rothschild index will decrease.。
管理经济学每章小结绪论管理经济学是一门如何把经济学（主要是微观经济学）的理论和分析方法应用于企业管理决策实践的学科。
管理经济学与微观经济学都研究企业的行为，都要根据对企业目标的假设，再结合企业内外的环境来研究。
但两者又是有区别的。
微观经济字是一门理论科学，研究的是抽象的企业；而管理经济学则一门应用科学，研究的现实的企业。
微观经济学是以企业的唯一目标是追求最大利润为假设的；而管理经济学则认为现实企业的目标从短期看，只能是有条件地谋求尽可能多的利润；从长期看，则是追求企业价值的最大化。
微观经济学是以企业所处环境的全部信息已知为假设的，据此来研究企业行为的一般规律；而管理经济字则认为企业的环境信息是不确定的，因而需要依靠多种学科的知识对有关的数据进行预测和估计，在不确定条件下进行具体决策。
管理经济学借用微观经济学的一些基本经济分析方法和原理作为自己的理论支柱。
它们是：建立经济模型、边际分析法、需求弹性原理、关于市场机制和市场竞争的基本原理、边际收益递减规律、机会成本概念和资金的时间价值等。
正是这些理论支柱大大提高了社会主义市场经济条件下管理决策的科学水平。
企业的目标可以分为短期目标和长期目标。
企业的短期目标总是多样化的，尽管利润是其中一个重要目标。
企业的长期目标则是企业价值的最大化。
企业利润可以分为会计利润、经济利润和正常利润。
经济利润等于销售收入减机会成本。
机会成本是指资源用于其他的、次好的用途所可能得到的净收入。
经济利润是企业资源优化配置的指示器，因而是决策的基础。
会计利润是不能用于决策的。
正常利润是指业主如果把他在本企业的投资用于其他相同风险的事业所可能得到的收入，这笔支出是为把业主的资金留住在本企业所必需的，它属于机会成本性质。
还可以把企业的成本分外显成本和内含成本，两者的和等于机会成本。
第一章市场供应及其运行机制需求是指一定时期内，在一定条件下，消费者愿意购买并能够买得起的某种产品或劳务的数量。
0slcysw第7章管理经济学| You have to believe, there is a way. The ancients said:" the kingdom of heaven is trying to enter". Only when the reluctant step by step to go to it 's time, must be managed to get one step down, only have struggled to achieve it.-- Guo Ge Tech第7章定价实践补充：一、定价目标：1、以盈利作为定价目标2、以扩大销售作为定价目标3、以稳固价格作为定价目标4、以应对竞争作为定价目标06年4月12. 企业定价目标不包括．．．〔〕A. 以扩大销售为目标B. 以稳固价格为目标C. 以应对竞争为目标D. 以塑造形象为目标二、决定价格的要紧因素1、产品的成本2、产品的需求3、竞争对手的情形4、政府关于企业定价的政策和法令07年4月12. 决定产品价格的要紧因素不包括．．．〔〕A. 产品成本B. 销售渠道C. 产品的需求D. 竞争对手情形三、企业定价的一样方法1、以成本为基础定价〔1〕成本加成定价法〔2〕目标投资回报率定价法〔3〕增量分析定价法2、以需求为基础定价3、以竞争为基础定价(1)、随行就市定价法〔2〕、投标时最优报价的确定03年4月11.企业定价的一样方法，不应包括以( )为基础的定价方法。
A.成本 B.需求 C.竞争 D.质量05年4月13. 以下定价方法中，不属于．．．以成本为基础的定价是〔 〕 A. 成本加成定价法 B. 目标投资回报率定价法 C. 增量分析定价法D. 随行就市定价法第1节 成本加成定价法 一、什么是成本加成定价法成本加成定价法是最常用的一种定价方法。
它是以全部成本〔固定成本加变动成本〕作为基础，按三步来确定价格Step 1. 估量单位产品的变动成本；Step 2. 估量固定费用，然后按照标准产量，把总固定成本分摊到单位产品上，求得平均固定成本AFC ，再加上平均变动成本AVC 得到平均成本AC ；Step 3. 在平均成本AC 的基础上加上用目标利润率运算的利润额，得到价格P 。
《管理经济学》课程教学大纲课程类别：专业基础课适用专业：工商企业管理适用层次：高起专适用教育形式：成人教育考核形式：考试所属学院：经济管理学院先修课程：经济数学一、课程简介《管理经济学》是一门研究如何把传统经济学理论和经济分析方法应用于企业管理决策实践的课程，它涉及的是企业资源配置有关的经济决策。
它为企业决策和管理提供分析工具和方法，其理论主要是围绕需求、生产、成本、市场等几个因素提出。
二、课程学习目标1、理解微观经济学的基本概念与基本原理。
2、理解经济学的边际分析方法。
3、应用微观经济学基本原理分析企业管理实践问题。
三、与其他课程的关系《经济数学》是本课程的前修课程。
四、课程主要内容和基本要求本课程为企业经营决策提供了一种系统而又有逻辑的分析方法，这些经营决策既影响日常决策，也影响长期计划决策的经济力。
课程主要内容包括：市场供求与市场运行机制、需求分析、生产决策分析、成本利润分析、市场结构和企业行为、定价实践、长期投资决策、企业决策中的风险分析等。
第一章绪论『知识点』管理经济学的研究对象与任务、企业管理决策、管理经济学的基本方法、企业的性质和目标、企业的利润。
『基本要求』通过本章的学习，了解管理经济学的研究对象与任务；理解企业管理决策与管理经济学间的关系；掌握管理经济学的基本方法、企业的目标与企业的利润。
『关键知识』1、管理经济学的研究对象：企业管理的经济决策实践。
2、管理经济学的基本方法：边际分析法。
3、企业的目标：短期目标、长期目标。
4、企业的利润：会计利润与经济利润；机会成本；正常利润；外显成本与内涵成本。
『重点』1、边际分析法。
2、企业的短期目标与长期目标。
3、企业会计利润与经济利润。
4、机会成本、外显成本与内涵成本。
『难点』1、机会成本的理解与应用。
2、会计利润与经济利润的区别与应用。
3、边际概念的理解与应用。
第二章市场供求及其运行机制『知识点』需求量及其影响因素、需求函数、需求曲线、需求的变动和需求量的变动；供给量及其影响因素、供给函数、供给曲线、供给的变动和供给量的变动；供求法则和需求供给分析；社会资源的市场机制配置。
第七章企业定价策略一、思考练习1．什么是商品定价目标？包括哪些内容？企业定价目标是指企业希望通过定价活动所要达到的目的或意图。
企业定价目标主要有利润、竞争、市场份额、价格稳定四个，还有诸如投资收益、销售额、产品或企业形象、顾客满意度等其他定价目标。
2．影响商品定价的因素有哪些？（1）成本（2）市场：市场需求、市场结构、巿场竞争程度、消费心理（3）产品属性：产品种类、产品特性、产品生命周期3．假定某企业所生产产品的变动成本为20元/件。
预期产量10 000件，固定成本20 000元。
如果企业的目标成本利润定为20%，企业应该给产品定价多少？解平均变动成本＝20 元平均固定成本＝2万÷1万＝2 元则单位产品的总成本＝20+1＝21 元预期目标成本利润率为20%，所以，商品定价＝21×（1+20%）＝25.2 元4．需求差异定价的条件是什么？（1）符合国家的相关法律法规和地方政府的相关政策；（2）市场能够细分，且各细分市场具有不同的需求弹性。
顾客对产品的需求有明显的差异，需求弹性不同，市场能够细分；（3）不同价格的执行不会导致本企业以外的企业在不同的市场间进行套利。
低价市场和高价市场之间是相互独立的，不能进行交易，否则低价市场的购买者将低价购进的商品在高价市场上出售，将导致企业差异定价目标不能实现；（4）顾客在主观上或心理上确实认为产品存在差异。
不会引起顾客的反感，使他们不会产生被歧视的感觉，从而放弃购买或抵制购买。
5．什么是撇脂定价？举例说明其应用。
所谓“撇脂定价策略”，又称高价法，即在产品投放市场的初期阶段，将新产品的价格定在高于老产品价格多倍的价位上，并且抢占需求弹性小的市场出售，突出“新”给顾客带来的更多效用，以便尽快收回投资，取得相当的利润。
之后随着时间的推移，再逐步降低价格，使新产品进入弹性大的市场。
这实质上是先高价后低价，尽快收回投资和利润的做法。
彩电行业、PC行业、汽车行业是撇脂定价的频繁发生之地，这些行业由于受技术、资金和人才等门槛的限制，普遍具有新兴行业的启动期竞争力较弱、垄断和竞争交织等特点，故经常使用撇脂定价策略。
