外文翻译

五分钟搞定5000字－外文文献翻译工具大全 /node/2151在科研过程中阅读翻译外文文献是一个非常重要的环节，许多领域高水平的文献都是外文文献，借鉴一些外文文献翻译的经验是非常必要的。

由于特殊原因我翻译外文文献的机会比较多，慢慢地就发现了外文文献翻译过程中的三大利器：Google“翻译”频道、金山词霸（完整版本）和CNKI“翻译助手"。

具体操作过程如下：1.先打开金山词霸自动取词功能，然后阅读文献；2.遇到无法理解的长句时，可以交给Google处理，处理后的结果猛一看，不堪入目，可是经过大脑的再处理后句子的意思基本就明了了；3.如果通过Google仍然无法理解，感觉就是不同，那肯定是对其中某个“常用单词”理解有误，因为某些单词看似很简单，但是在文献中有特殊的意思，这时就可以通过CNKI的“翻译助手”来查询相关单词的意思，由于CNKI的单词意思都是来源与大量的文献，所以它的吻合率很高。

另外，在翻译过程中最好以“段落”或者“长句”作为翻译的基本单位，这样才不会造成“只见树木，不见森林”的误导。

注：1、Google翻译：/language_toolsgoogle，众所周知，谷歌里面的英文文献和资料还算是比较详实的。

我利用它是这样的。

一方面可以用它查询英文论文，当然这方面的帖子很多，大家可以搜索，在此不赘述。

回到我自己说的翻译上来。

下面给大家举个例子来说明如何用吧比如说“电磁感应透明效应”这个词汇你不知道他怎么翻译，首先你可以在CNKI里查中文的，根据它们的关键词中英文对照来做，一般比较准确。

在此主要是说在google里怎么知道这个翻译意思。

大家应该都有词典吧，按中国人的办法，把一个一个词分着查出来，敲到google里，你的这种翻译一般不太准，当然你需要验证是否准确了，这下看着吧，把你的那支离破碎的翻译在google里搜索，你能看到许多相关的文献或资料，大家都不是笨蛋，看看，也就能找到最精确的翻译了，纯西式的！我就是这么用的。

外文文献原稿和译文原稿DATABASEA database may be defined as a collection interrelated data store together with as little redundancy as possible to serve one or more applications in an optimal fashion .the data are stored so that they are independent of programs which use the data .A common and controlled approach is used in adding new data and in modifying and retrieving existing data within the data base .One system is said to contain a collection of database if they are entirely separate in structure .A database may be designed for batch processing , real-time processing ,or in-line processing .A data base system involves application program, DBMS, and database.THE INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMSThe term database is often to describe a collection of related files that is organized into an integrated structure that provides different people varied access to the same data. In many cases this resource is located in different files in different departments throughout the organization, often known only to the individuals who work with their specific portion of the total information. In these cases, the potential value of the information goes unrealized because a person in other departments who may need it does not know it or it cannot be accessed efficiently. In an attempt to organize their information resources and provide for timely and efficient access, many companies have implemented databases.A database is a collection of related data. By data, we mean known facts that can be recorded and that have implicit meaning. For example, the names, telephone numbers, and addresses of all the people you know. You may have recorded this data in an indexed address book, or you may have stored it on a diskette using a personalcomputer and software such as DBASE Ⅲor Lotus 1-2-3. This is a collection of related data with an implicit meaning and hence is a database.The above definition of database is quite general. For example, we may consider the collection of words that made up this page of text to be usually more restricted. A database has the following implicit properties:● A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning. A random assortment of data cannot be referred to as a database.● A database is designed, built, and populated with data for a specific purpose. It has an intended group of user and some preconceived applications in which these users are interested.● A database represents some aspect of the real world, sometimes called the miniworld. Changes to the miniworld are reflected in the database.In other words, a database has some source from which data are derived, some degree of interaction with events in the real world, and an audience that is actively interested in the contents of the database.A database management system (DBMS) is composed of three major parts: (1) a storage subsystem that stores and retrieves data in files; (2)a modeling and manipulation subsystem that provides the means with which to organize the data and to add, delete, maintain, and update the data; and (3) an interface between the DBMS and its users. Several major trends are emerging that enhance the value and usefulness of database management systems.●Managers who require more up-to-date information to make effective decisions.●Customers who demand increasingly sophisticated information services and more current information about the status of their orders, invoices, and accounts.●Users who find that they can develop custom applications with database systems in a fraction of the time it takes to use traditional programming languages.●Organizations that discover information has a strategic value; they utilize their database systems to gain an edge over their competitors.A DBMS can organize, process, and present selected data elements from the database. This capability enables decision makers to search, probe, and query database contents in order to extract answers to nonrecurring and unplanned questions that aren’t available in regular reports. These questions might initially be vague and/or p oorly defined, but people can “browse” through the database until they have the needed information. In short, the DBMS will “mange” the stored data items and assemble the needed items from the common database in response to the queries of those who aren’t programmers. In a file-oriented system, user needing special information may communicate their needs to a programmer, who, when time permits, will write one or more programs to extract the data and prepare the information. The availability of a DBMS, however, offers users a much faster alternative communications path.DATABASE QUERYIf the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database ,as well as interrogate it ,this capability allows for managing personal database. However, it does not automatically leave an audit trail of actions and does not provide the kinds of controls necessary in a multi-user organization .There controls are only available when a set of application programs is customized for each data entry and updating function.Software for personal computers that perform some of the DBMS functions has been very popular .Individuals for personal information storage and processing intended personal computers for us .Small enterprises, professionals like doctors, architects, engineers, lawyers and so on have also used these machines extensively. By the nature of intended usage ,database system on there machines are except from several of the requirements of full-fledged database systems. Since data sharing is not intended, concurrent operations even less so ,the software can be less complex .Security and integrity maintenance are de-emphasized or absent .as data volumes will be small, performance efficiency is also less important .In fact, the only aspect of a database system that is important is data independence. Data independence ,as stated earlier ,means that application programs and user queries need not recognize physical organization of data on secondary storage. The importance of this aspect , particularly for the personal computer user ,is that this greatly simplifies database usage . The user can store ,access and manipulate data at ahigh level (close to the application)and be totally shielded from the low level (close to the machine )details of data organization.DBMS STRUCTURING TECHNIQUESSpatial data management has been an active area of research in the database field for two decades ,with much of the research being focused on developing data structures for storing and indexing spatial data .however, no commercial database system provides facilities for directly de fining and storing spatial data ,and formulating queries based on research conditions on spatial data.There are two components to data management: history data management and version management .Both have been the subjects of research for over a decade. The troublesome aspect of temporal data management is that the boundary between applications and database systems has not been clearly drawn. Specifically, it is not clear how much of the typical semantics and facilities of temporal data management can and should be directly incorporated in a database system, and how much should be left to applications and users. In this section, we will provide a list of short-term research issues that should be examined to shed light on this fundamental question.The focus of research into history data management has been on defining the semantics of time and time interval, and issues related to understanding the semantics of queries and updates against history data stored in an attribute of a record. Typically, in the context of relational databases ,a temporal attribute is defined to hold a sequence of history data for the attribute. A history data consists of a data item and a time interval for which the data item is valid. A query may then be issued to retrieve history data for a specified time interval for the temporal attribute. The mechanism for supporting temporal attributes is to that for supporting set-valued attributes in a database system, such as UniSQL.In the absence of a support for temporal attributes, application developers who need to model and history data have simply simulated temporal attributes by creating attribute for the time interval ,along with the “temporal” attribute. This of course may result in duplication of records in a table, and more complicated search predicates in queries. The one necessary topic of research in history data management is to quantitatively establish the performance (and even productivity) differences betweenusing a database system that directly supports attributes and using a conventional database system that does not support either the set-valued attributes or temporal attributes.Data security, integrity, and independenceData security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database of the database, called subschemas. For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data.Data integrity refers to the accuracy, correctness, or validity of the data in the database. In a database system, data integrity means safeguarding the data against invalid alteration or destruction. In large on-line database system, data integrity becomes a more severe problem and two additional complications arise. The first has to do with many users accessing the database concurrently. For example, if thousands of travel agents book the same seat on the same flight, the first agent’s booking will be lost. In such cases the technique of locking the record or field provides the means for preventing one user from accessing a record while another user is updating the same record.The second complication relates to hardware, software or human error during the course of processing and involves database transaction which is a group of database modifications treated as a single unit. For example, an agent booking an airline reservation involves several database updates (i.e., adding the passenger’s name and address and updating the seats-available field), which comprise a single transaction. The database transaction is not considered to be completed until all updates have been completed; otherwise, none of the updates will be allowed to take place.An important point about database systems is that the database should exist independently of any of the specific applications. Traditional data processing applications are data dependent.When a DMBS is used, the detailed knowledge of the physical organization of the data does not have to be built into every application program. The application program asks the DBMS for data by field name, for example, a coded representationof “give me customer name and balance due” would be sent to the DBMS. Without a DBMS the programmer must reserve space for the full structure of the record in the program. Any change in data structure requires changes in all the applications programs.Data Base Management System (DBMS)The system software package that handles the difficult tasks associated with creating ,accessing and maintaining data base records is called a data base management system (DBMS). A DBMS will usually be handing multiple data calls concurrently.It must organize its system buffers so that different data operations can be in process together .It provides a data definition language to specify the conceptual schema and most likely ,some of the details regarding the implementation of the conceptual schema by the physical schema.The data definition language is a high-level language, enabling one to describe the conceptual schema in terms of a “data model “.At the present time ,there are four underling structures for database management systems. They are :List structures.Relational structures.Hierarchical (tree) structures.Network structures.Management Information System(MIS)An MIS can be defined as a network of computer-based data processing procedures developed in an organization and integrated as necessary with manual and other procedures for the purpose of providing timely and effective information to support decision making and other necessary management functions.One of the most difficult tasks of the MIS designer is to develop the information flow needed to support decision making .Generally speaking ,much of the information needed by managers who occupy different levels and who have different levels and have different responsibilities is obtained from a collection of exiting information system (or subsystems)Structure Query Language (SQL)SQL is a data base processing language endorsed by the American NationalStandards Institute. It is rapidly becoming the standard query language for accessing data on relational databases .With its simple ,powerful syntax ,SQL represents a great progress in database access for all levels of management and computing professionals.SQL falls into two forms : interactive SQL and embedded SQL. Embedded SQL usage is near to traditional programming in third generation languages .It is the interactive use of SQL that makes it most applicable for the rapid answering of ad hoc queries .With an interactive SQL query you just type in a few lines of SQL and you get the database response immediately on the screen.译文数据库数据库可以被定义为一个相互联系的数据库存储的集合。

In traditional supply chain inventory management, orders are the only information firms exchange, but information technology now allows firms to share demand and inventory data quickly and inexpensively. We study the value of sharing these data in a model with one supplier, N identical retailers, and stationary stochastic consumer demand. There are inventory holding costs and back-order penalty costs. We compare a traditional information policy that does not use shared information with a full information policy that does exploit shared information. In a numerical study we find that supply chain costs are 2.2% lower on averagewith the full information policy than with the traditional information policy, and themaximum difference is 12.1%. We also develop a simulation-based lower bound over all feasible policies. The cost difference between the traditional information policy and the lower bound is an upper bound on the value of information sharing: In the same study, that difference is 3.4% on average, and no more than 13.8%. We contrast the value of information sharing with two other benefits of information technology, faster and cheaper order processing, which lead to shorter lead times and smaller batch sizes, respectively. In our sample, cutting lead times nearly in half reduces costs by 21% on average, and cutting batchesin half reduces costs by 22% on average. For the settings we study, we conclude that implementing information technology to accelerate and smooth the physical flow of goods through a supply chain is significantly more valuable than using information technology to expand the flow of information.Inventory management is a commercial enterprise management of the core areas, Enterprises can also achieve an effective key, if we can achieve from the purchase of stock,Sales then the entire flow of goods and capital flow situation for the unified management and reasonable production, timely sales and inventory is the smallest. reduce the backlog of material, then the business will achieve the best results.1.sessionIn my experience, session word is probably second only to the extent of the abuse of transaction, even more interesting is the transaction and the session in the context of the meaning of some of the same.session, the Chinese often translated into the session, its original meaning refers to the beginnings and ends of a series of action / information, such as a phone call from the dial to pick up the phone to hang up the middle of the process can be described as a series of session. Sometimes we can see that the case "during the session in a browser session ,...", term used here is its original meaning, is open from a browser window to close the period of ①. The most confusing is the "user (client) during the first session," the words, it may refer to a series of user actions (generally with a specific purpose related to a series of actions, such as log on to buy goods from to sign out such an online shopping checkout process, sometimes also called a transaction), but sometimes may be just that a connection could also be that the meaning of ①, the difference can only be inferred by context ②.However, when the term session is associated with the network protocol when it often implies a "connection-oriented" and / or "on hold" so the two meanings, "connection-oriented" refers to both the communication in the communication prior to first establish a communication channel, such as phone calls, until the other party answered the phone communication can begin, and this is the opposite of writing, before you sent the letter, the time you and can not confirm the other side of the address is correct, communication channels Buyi Ding can be established,but the sender, the communication has already begun. "Keep state" means the communication party is able to associate a series of messages, making messages between each other depends, for example, a waiter can recognize old customers come back and remember the last time the customer still owes a store, dollar . Examples of this type, "a TCP session" or "a POP3 session"③.And to the web server flourishing, session in the context of semantic web development has a new expansion, its meaning is mean to the client and server to maintain state between the solution ④. Session is also sometimes used to refer to such solutions, storage structures, such "stored in the session to xxx where" ⑤. For various 用于web development languages are available to some extent on the support of such a solution, so in the context of a particular language 下, session also used to denote a solution on behalf of the language, such as regular Java in the provision of javax.servlet.http.HttpSession referred to as the session ⑥.In view of this confusion has been changed, in this article use the term session will have different meanings depending on the context, drew attention to the resolution.In this article, the use of Chinese "during the browser session," to convey the meaning of ①, use "session mechanism" to convey the meaning ④, use the "session" expression meaning ⑤, use specific "HttpSession" to convey the meaning ⑥Second, HTTP protocol and the state to maintainHTTP protocol itself is stateless, HTTP protocol which is consistent with the original purpose of the client only needs a simple request to download some file server, either the client or the server not have been necessary records of past behavior to each other, and each time between the request are independent, like a customer and a vending machine or an ordinary (non-membership) as the relationship between supermarkets.However, smart (or greedy?) People soon discovered that if they can provide on-demand generation of dynamic web information will become more useful, like a cable TV with on-demand the same function. This demand on the one hand to force gradually add HTML form, script, DOM and other client-side behavior, on the other hand there is the server-side CGI practices to respond to client-side dynamic request, the HTTP protocol as the transport carrier also added a file upload , cookie these characteristics. The role which cookie is to solve the stateless HTTP protocol efforts defects. As for the subsequent emergence of the session mechanism is yet another in between the client and the server state solution.Let us use some examples to describe the session cookie and the differences and similarities between the mechanisms. I once frequented a coffee shop with free gifts to drink five cups of coffee offers a cup of coffee, but a one-time consumption of five cups of coffee is remote, then need a way to record a customer's consumption. Imagine that in fact nothing less than the following several options:1, the store's staff is very powerful, able to remember each customer's consumption, as long as customers entered the cafe, shop assistants know how to deal with the. This approach is the agreement itself to support the state.2, issue customers a card recording the number of consumers in general have a validity period. Each consumer, if this card is produced, then the consumer will be with the consumer before or after linking up. This approach is maintained in the client state.3, a membership card issued to customers, in addition to any information outside the card number is not recorded, each consumer, if the card is produced, then the records clerk in the store to find the card number corresponds to the record to add some consumer information. Thisapproach is maintained in the server-side state.As the HTTP protocol is stateless, but due to various considerations do not want to become a state, therefore, the last two programs has become a realistic option. Specifically cookie mechanism is used to maintain state of the client program, which uses a session mechanism to maintain state in the server-side program. We also see that, thanks to server-side maintain state of the program in customer client but also Xuyaobaocun a logo, so mechanisms may need the help of session cookie mechanism to identify the purpose of Da Dao saved, it actually alternatives are available.Third, the cookie mechanismThe basic principle cookie mechanism as simple as the above example, but there are several issues to resolve: "membership card" how to distribute; "membership card" of the content; and customers how to use the "Member Card."Orthodox cookie distribution is by extending the HTTP protocol to achieve, and the server through the HTTP response header with a line of special instructions to prompt the browser in accordance with the instructions generates the corresponding cookie. But pure client-side scripting such as JavaScript or VBScript can also generate the cookie.The cookie used by the browser in the background according to certain principles automatically sent to the server. Check all stored browser cookie, if a cookie is greater than or equal scope statement will be the location of the requested resources, put the resources of the HTTP request cookie attached to the head sent the request to the server. Means that McDonald's membership card can only be produced in the McDonald's store, if a store has also issued its own membership card, then enter the store when the addition to produce McDonald's membership card, but also to produce a member of the store card.cookie's contents include: name, values, expiration time, path and domain.You can specify a domain in which a domain such as. , the equivalent of main store signs, such as Procter & Gamble, you can also specify a specific domain of a machine under such or , can float Flexibility to do than.Path is the name behind the URL with the path, such as / or / foo, etc., can do more than a counter Rejoice.Path together with the domain constitutes a cookie's scope. If you do not set the expiration time, then the lifetime of this cookie to the browser during the session, simply close the browser window, cookie disappears. This period of life of the cookie browser session is called session cookie. Session cookie is generally not stored on the hard disk but kept in memory, of course, provided that it is not standardized. If you set the expiration time, the browser the cookie will be saved to the hard disk, open again after closing the browser, the cookie is still valid until the expiration time exceeds a set.Stored in a cookie on your hard disk in a different browser, shared between processes, such as the two IE windows. And stored in memory for the cookie, different browsers have different approaches. For IE, open windows in a press Ctrl-N (or from the File menu) to open the window can be shared with the original window while using other means to open the IE process will not have to open the windows shared memory cookie; for Mozilla Firefox0.8, all of the process and can share the same tab the cookie. In general is the window.open javascript window will open with the original windows shared memory cookie. Browser, this cookie for the session cookiedoes not believe that people only recognize the approach to the use of the regular session of web application development mechanism causing great distress.Here is a goolge set cookie response header exampleHTTP/1.1 302 FoundLocation: /intl/zh-CN/Set-Cookie: PREF = ID = 0565f77e132de138: NW = 1: TM = 1098082649: LM = 1098082649: S = KaeaCFPo49RiA_d8; expires = Sun, 17-Jan-2038 19:14:07 GMT; path = /; domain =. google . comContent-Type: text / htmlThis is the use of HTTPLook the HTTP Sniffer HTTP communications software to capture the part of the recordGoolge browser to access the resources again, automatically send out cookieUse Firefox can easily observe the current value of cookieUse HTTPLook with Firefox cookie can easily understand the working principle.IE can be set to ask before accepting cookieThis is a dialog box asking to accept cookie.Fourth, understand the session mechanismmechanism is a server-side session mechanism, the server uses a hash table is similar to the structure (and probably is to use a hash table) to save the information.When the program needs for a client's request to create a session when the server first checks the client's request is included in a session ID - known as the session id, if the description contains a session id for this client previously Create over session, the server in accordance with the session id to retrieve the session out of the use (if not retrieved, may be the new one), if the client request does not include session id, then create a session for this client and generate a session with this associated with the session id, session id value should be a not only will not repeat, not easy to find the law to copy the string, the session id to be returned in this response to the client saved.Save the session id of the ways to use cookie, so the interaction of the browser can automatically identify this play by the rules to the server. The name of this cookie are generally similar to SEEESIONID, and. For example, web applications weblogic generated cookie, JSESSIONID = ByOK3vjFD75aPnrF7C2HmdnV6QZcEbzWoWiBYEnLerjQ99zWpBng! -145788764, Its name is JSESSIONID.As the cookie can be artificially prohibited, there must be other mechanisms to be banned in the cookie when the session id still be able to pass back to the server. Often use a technique called URL rewriting, the session id is attached to the URL path directly behind, there are two additional ways, one is the URL path as additional information, showing the form of http:// ... .. / xxx; jsessionid = ByOK3vjFD75aPnrF7C2HmdnV6QZcEbzWoWiBYEnLerjQ99zWpBng! -145788764 The other is as a URL query string appended to the back, showing the form of http://.. (xxx)jsessionid=ByOK3vjFD75aPnrF7C2HmdnV6QZcEbzWoWiBYEnLerjQ99zWpBng!-145788764Both ways is no different for users, and only a server parsing the time to deal with the different ways, using the first ways are conducive to turning one kind of session id's information and to distinguish normal program parameters.Wei Liao Zai the interaction always maintain state, we must each client may request a path to the rear of containing this session id.Another technique known as hidden form fields. Is that the server will automatically modify the form, add a hidden field, so when the form is submitted to the session id passed back to the server. Example, the following form<form name="testform" action="/xxx"><input type="text"></ Form>Being passed to client will be rewritten before<form name="testform" action="/xxx"><input type="hidden" name="jsessionid"value="ByOK3vjFD75aPnrF7C2HmdnV6QZcEbzWoWiBYEnLerjQ99zWpBng!-145788764"><input type="text"></ Form>Application of this technology is now less, I contacted the very old iPlanet6 (SunONE Application Server's predecessor) on the use of this technology.In fact this technology can simply apply to the action URL rewriting instead.When talking about the session mechanism, often heard of such a misunderstanding, "as long as the browser is closed, session disappears." In fact, imagine the example card, unless the customer to make sales on the store card, otherwise the store would not easily remove the customer information. This is also true of the session, unless the procedure to inform the server to delete a session, otherwise the server will remain on the program are generally done in the user log off when the send a command to delete the session. However, the browser will never take the initiative to notify the server will be shut off, so the server will not have the opportunity to know the browser has been the reason why there is such a misconception, the majority of session mechanism to use a session cookie to store the session id and close your browser the session id is gone, once again connect to the server will not be able to find when the original session. If the server cookie settings are saved to the hard disk, or use some means to rewrite the browser's HTTP request header sent to the original session id sent to the server, then re-open the browser can still find the original session.It is precisely because of the closure does not cause the browser session is deleted, forcing server seesion set up a failure time, as the distance between the first use of the client session for more than the failure time, the server that the client has ceased its activities, the session will be deleted to save storage space.5, javax.servlet.http.HttpSessionHttpSession session mechanism is the Java platform implementation of norms, because it isonly the interface, specific to each web application server providers, in addition to standard support, there will still be no requirement of some norms in the nuances. Here we are with BEA's Weblogic Server8.1 as an example to demonstrate.First of all, Weblogic Server provides a set of parameters to control its HttpSession implementation, including the use of cookie switch option to use URL rewriting switches, session persistence settings, session failure time setting, as well as for the cookie a variety of settings, such as set cookie name, path, domain, cookie survival time.In general, session are stored in memory, when the process is stopped, or restart the server when the memory of the session will also be empty, if you set the session persistence feature, the server will save the session to your hard drive When the server process restart or the information can be used again, Weblogic Server supports sustainable manner including documents, databases, client-side cookie preservation and reproduction.Strictly speaking not a persistent copy saved, because the session is actually stored in memory, but the same information is replicated to each server process within the cluster, so even if a server process to stop working and still available from other processes obtain session.cookie settings will affect the survival time of the browser generates a session cookie is a cookie. The default is to use a session cookie. Interested can use it to test us in the fourth quarter, as mentioned in the misunderstanding.cookie path for the web application is a very important option, Weblogic Server on the default handling of this option makes it significantly different from other servers. We will discuss the topic later.Settings on the session reference [5] /wls/docs70/webapp/weblogic_xml.html # 10368696, HttpSession Frequently Asked Questions (In this section the implications for the session mixed ⑤and ⑥)1, session is created whenA common misconception is that the session in a client visit, was created, but the fact is that until a server-side program called HttpServletRequest.getSession (true) when such a statement is created, note that if the JSP does not appear to use <% @ page session = "false"%> closed session, the JSP file will be automatically compiled into a Servlet when the inclusion of such a statement HttpSession session = HttpServletRequest.getSession (true); This is also implied in JSP session object origin.As the session will consume memory resources, so if you do not intend to use the session, all the JSP should be turned off it.2, session is deleted whenComprehensive discussions earlier, session is deleted in the following cases a. program calls HttpSession.invalidate (); or b. from the last time before the client sends the session id than the interval session timeout settings; or c. server process is stopped (non-persistent session)3, how to do delete the browser closed session。

Stability of hybrid system limit cycles: application to the compass gait biped RobotIan A. Hiskens'Department of Electrical and Computer EngineeringUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUrbana IL 61801 USAAbstractLimit cycles are common in hybrid systems. However the non-smooth dynamics of such systems makes stability analysis difficult. This paper uses recent extensions of trajectory sensitivity analysis to obtain the characteristic multipliers of non-smooth limit cycles. The stability of a limit cycle is determined by its characteristic multipliers. The concepts are illustrated using a compass gait biped robot example.1 IntroductionHybrid system are characterized by interactions between continuous (smooth) dynamics and discrete events. Such systems are common across a diverse range of application areas. Examples include power systems [l], robotics [2, 3], manufacturing [4] and air-traffic control [5]. In fact, any system where saturation limits are routinely encountered can be thought of as a hybrid system. The limits introduce discrete events which (often) have a significant influence on overall behaviour.Many hybrid systems exhibit periodic behaviour. Discrete events, such as saturation limits, can act to trap the evolving system state within a constrained region of state space. Therefore even when the underlying continuous dynamics are unstable, discrete events may induce a stable limit set. Limit cycles (periodic behaviour) are often created in this way. Other systems, such as robot motion, are naturally periodic.Limit cycles can be stable (attracting), unstable (repelling) or non-stable (saddle). The stability of periodic behaviour is determined by characteristic (or Floquet) multipliers. A periodic solution corresponds to a fixed point of a Poincare map. Stability of the periodic solution is equivalent to stability of the fixed point. The characteristic multipliers are the eigenvalues of the Poincare map linearized about the fixed point. Section 4 reviews the connection between this linearized map and trajectory sensitivities.Poincare maps have been used to analyse the stability of limit cycles in various forms of hybrid systems. However calculation of the underlying trajectory sensitivities has relied upon particular system structures, see for example [7, 8], or numerical differencing, for example [6]. This paper uses a recent generalization of trajectory sensitivity analysis [9] to efficiently detemine the stability of limit cycles in hybrid systems.A hybrid system model is given in Section 2. Section 3 develops the associated variational equations. This is followed in Section 4 by a review of stability analysis of limit cycles. Conclusions and extensions are presented in Section 5.2 ModelDeterministic hybrid systems can be represented by a model that is adapted from a differential-algebraic (DAE) structure. Events are incorporated via impulsive action and switching of algebraic equations, giving the Impulsive Switched (DAIS) modelwheren x R ∈ are dynamic states and my R ∈ are algebraic states;(.)δ is the Dirac delta;(.)u is the unit-step function;,:n mnj f h RR +→；(0)(),:i n mng gR R ±+→; some elements of each(.)gwill usually be identicallyzero, but no elements of the composite g should be identically zero; the()i g± aredefined with the same form as g in (2), resulting in a recursive structure for g;,dey yare selected elements of y that trigger algebraic switching and state reset(impulsive) events respectively;dyandeymay share common elements.The impulse and unit-step terms of the DAIS model can be expressed in alternative forms:Each impulse term of the summation in (1) can be expressed in the state reset formwhere the notation x+denotes the value of x just after the reset event, whilstx-andy-refer to the values of x and y just prior to the event.The contribution of each()i g± in (2) can be expressed aswith (2) becomingThis form is often more intuitive than (2).It can be convenient to establish the partitionswherex -are the continuous dynamic states, for example generator angles, velocities andfluxes;z are discrete dynamic states, such as transformer tap positions and protection relay logic states;λ are parameters such as generator reactances, controller gains and switching times. The partitioning of the differential equations f ensures that away from events,x -evolves according to .(,)x y f x --=, whilst z and λ remain constant. Similarly,the partitioning of the reset equationsjhensures thatx -and λ remain constantat reset events, but the dynamic states z are reset to new values given by(,)jh y x z--+=-. The model can capture complex behaviour, from hysteresis and non-windup limits through to rule-based systems [l]. A more extensive presentation of this model is given in [9].Away from events, system dynamics evolve smoothly according to the familiardifferential-algebraic modelwhere g is composed of(0)gtogether with appropriate choices of()i g- or()i g+ ,depending on the signs of the corresponding elements of yd. At switching events (2),some component equations of g change. To satisfy the new g = 0 equation, algebraic variables y may undergo a step change. Reset events (3) force a discrete change in elements of x. Algebraic variables may also step at a reset event to ensure g= 0 is satisfied with the altered values of x. The flows of and y are defined respectively aswhere x(t) and y(t) satisfy (l),(2), along with initial conditions,3 'Ikajectory SensitivitiesSensitivity of the flowsxφandyφto initial conditionsxare obtained bylinearizing (8),(9) about the nominal trajectory,The time-varying partial derivative matrices given in (12),(13) are known as trajectory sensitiuities, and can be expressed in the alternative formsThe formxx ,xy provides clearer insights into the development of thevariational equations describing the evolution of the sensitivities. The alternative form 0(,)x t x φ, 0(,)yt x φ highlights the connection between the sensitivities and the associated flows. It is shown in Section 4 that these sensitivities underlie the linearization of the Poincare map, and so play a major role in determining the stability of periodic solutions.Away from events, where system dynamics evolve smoothly, trajectory sensitivities 0xx andxy are obtained by differentiating (6),(7) withrespect to 0x.This giveswhere/xf x f≡∂∂, and likewise for the other Jacobian matrices. Note that,,,xyxyf fg gare evaluated along the trajectory, and hence are time varyingmatrices. It is shown in 19, 101 that the numerical solution of this(potentially high order) DAE system can be obtained as a by-product of numerically integrating the original DAE system (6),(7). The extra computational cost is minimal. Initial conditions forxx are obtained from (10) aswhere I is the identity matrix. Initial conditions for 0zy follow directly from(17),Equations (16),(17) describe the evolution of the sensitivitiesxx andxybetween events. However at an event, the sensitivities are generally discontinuous. It is necessary to calculate jump conditions describing the step change inxx andxy . For clarity, consider a single switching/reset event, so the model (1),(2) reduces(effectively) to the formLet （(),()x y ττ） be the point where the trajectory encounters the triggering hypersurface s(x,y) = 0, i.e., the point where an event is initiated. This point is called the junction point and r is the junction time. It is assumed the encounter is transversal.Just prior to event triggering, at time τ-, we haveSimilarly,,y x++are defined for time τ+, just after the event has occurred. It isshown in [9] that the jump conditions for the sensitivitiesxx are given byThe assumption that the trajectory and triggering hypersurface meet transversally ensures a non-zero denominator for 0x τ The sensitivitiesxy . immediatelyafter the event are given byFollowing the event, i.e., for t τ+>, calculation of the sensitivities proceeds according to (16),(17) until the next event is encountered. The jump conditions provide the initial conditions for the post-event calculations.4 Limit Cycle AnalysisStability of limit cycles can be determined using Poincare maps [11, 12]. This section provides a brief review of these concepts, and establishes the connection with trajectory sensitivities.A Poincark map effectively samples the flow of a periodic system once every period. The concept is illustrated in Figure 1. If the limit cycle is stable, oscillations approach the limit cycle over time. The samples provided by the corresponding Poincare map approach a fixed point. A non-stable limit cycle results in divergent oscillations. For such a case the samples of the Poincare map diverge.To define a Poincare map, consider the limit cycle Γshown in Figure 1. Let ∑ be a hyperplane transversal to Γ at*x. The trajectory emanating from*xwill again encounter ∑ at*xafter T seconds, where T is the minimum period of the limit cycle. Due to the continuity of the flowxφwith respect to initial conditions, trajectories starting on ∑ in a neighbourhood of*x. will, in approximately T seconds, intersect ∑ in the vicinity of*x. Hencexφand ∑define a mappingwhere()kT x ττ≈ is the time taken for the trajectory to return to ∑. Complete details can hefound in [11,12]. Stability of the Paincare map (22) is determined by linearizing P at the fixed point*x, i.e.,From the definition of P(z) given by (22), it follows that DP(*x) is closely related to thetrajectory sensitivities***(,)(,)xxT T x x xφφ∂≡∂. In fact, it is shown in [11] thatwhereσ is a vector normal to ∑.The matrix*(,)xT x φis exactly the trajectory sensitivity matrix after one period of the limitcycle, i.e., starting from*xand returning to*x. This matrix is called the Monodromymatrix .It is shown in [11] that for an autonomous system, one eigenvalue of *(,)xT x φ isalways 1, and the corresponding eigenvector lies along **(,)f y x The remaining eigenvalues*(,)xT x φof coincide with the eigenvalues of DP(*x ), and are known as the characteristicmultipliers mi of the periodic solution. The characteristic multipliers are independent of the choice of cross-section ∑ . Therefore, for hybrid systems, it is often convenient to choose ∑ as a triggering hypersurface corresponding to a switching or reset event that occurs along the periodic solution.Because the characteristic multipliers mi are the eigenvalues of the linear map DP(x*), they determine the stability of the Poincarb map P(kx), and hence the stability of the periodic solution.Three cases are of importance: 1. Alli m lie within the unit circle, i.e., 1im<,i ∀.The map is stable, so the periodicsolution is stable. 2. Allim lie outside the unit circle. The periodic solution is unstable.3. Someim lie outside the unit circle. The periodic solution is non-stable.Interestingly, there exists a particular cross-section*∑, such thatwhere *ς∈∑.This cross-section*∑is the hyperplane spanned by the n - 1 eigenvectors of*(,)xT x φthat are not aligned with **(,)f y x . Therefore the vector *σthat is normal to*∑ is the left eigenvector of *(,)xT x φ corresponding to the eigenvalue 1. The hyperplane*∑is invariant under*(,)xT x φ, i.e., **(,)f y x maps vectors *ς∈∑back into*∑.5 ConclusionsHybrid systems frequently exhibit periodic behaviour. However the non-smooth nature of such systems complicates stability analysis. Those complications have been addressed in this paper throughapplication of a generalization of trajectory sensitivity analysis. Deterministic hybrid systems can be represented by a set ofdifferential-algebraic equations, modified to incorporate impulse (state reset) action and constraint switching. The associated variational equations establish jump conditions that describe the evolution of sensitivities through events. These equations provide insights into expansion/contraction effects at events. This is a focus of future research.Standard Poincar6 map results extend naturally to hybrid systems. The Monodromy matrix is obtained by evaluating trajectory sensitivities over one period of the (possibly non-smooth) cyclical behaviour. One eigenvalue of this matrix is always unity. The remaining eigenvalues are the characteristic multipliers of the periodic solution. Stability is ensured if all multipliers lieReferences[l] LA. Hiskens and M.A. Pai, “Hybrid systems view of power system modelling,” in Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Geneva, Switzerland, May 2000.[2] M.H. Raibert, Legged Robots That Balance, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1986.[3] A. Goswami, B. Thuilot, and B. Espiau, “A study of the passive gait of a compass-like biped ro bot: symmetry and chaos,’’ International Journal of Robotics Research, vol. 17, no. 15, 1998.[4] S. Pettersson, “Analysis and design of hybrid systems,” Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Signals and Systems, Chalmers University of Technology, Goteborg, Sweden, 1999.[5] C. Tomlin, G. Pappas, and S. Sastry, “Conflict resolution for air traffic management:A study in multiagent hybrid systems,” IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 509-521, April 1998.[6] A. Goswami, B. Espiau, and A. Keramane, “Limit cycles in a passive compass gait biped and passivity-mimicking contr ol laws,” Journal of Au tonomous Robots, vol. 4, no. 3, 1997. 171 B.K.H. Wong, H.S.H. Chung, and S.T.S. Lee, ‘Computation of the cycle state-variable sensitivity matrix of PWM DC/DC converters and its applica tion,” IEEE Transactions on Circuit s and Systems I, vol. 47, no. 10, pp. 1542-1548, October 2000.[8] M. Rubensson, B. Lennartsson, and S. Petters son, “Convergence to limit cycles in hybrid systems - an example,” in Prepri nts of 8th International Federation of Automatic Control Symposium on Large Scale Systems: Theo y d Applications, Rio Patras, Greece, 1998, pp. 704-709.[9] I.A. Hiskens and M.A. Pai, “Trajectory sensitivity analysis of hyhrid systems,” IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 204-220, February 2000.[10]D. Chaniotis, M.A. Pai, and LA. Hiskens, “Sen sitivity analysis of differential-algebraic systems using the GMRES method - Ap plication to power systems,” in Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Sydney, Australia, May 2001.[11]T.S Parker and L.O. Chua, Practical Numerical Algorithms for Chaotic Systems, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, 1989.[12]R. Seydel, Practical Bifurcation and Stability Analysis, Springer-Verlag. New York, 2nd edition, 1994.。

中国计量学院毕业设计（论文）外文翻译学生姓名：张玉星学号： 0901002102专业：知识产权班级：09知识产权3班外文文献题目1：Trademark Law and Litigation in China(1)外文文献题目2：Trademark Law and Litigation in China(2) 外文指导教师：王长秋二级学院：法学院2013年5月20日外文文献翻译译稿1：涉外商标在中国的诉讼(1)来源：International Marketing Review, 2000, V ol.17 (3), pp.272-286作者：Zhihong Gao本节报告了在上海试验的涉外商标案件的定性内容分析来推断法院如何解释和执行中国的商标法律。

定性内容分析（霍尔斯蒂，1969）是这个项目的一个合适的工具，因为案情细节比抽象数字能表达更多信息。

内容分析的数据来自中国知识产权的判决和决定（2009年），这是中国政府推出的符合“TRIPS协定”的透明度要求，并且基于网络的知识产权民事案件的数据库。

尽管这个数据库的覆盖面并不全面，但它正在不断地更新壮大，截止2008年已涵盖3000余例案件。

原告决定提交一份商标在中国的诉讼时有三种选择：发生侵权行为的地点，侵权货物的存放地点，或者被告住所地（最高人民法院，2002年，第6）。

上海位于中国长江三角洲产业基地的心脏，是中国最繁华的城市，是全国领先的商业中心，并且是一个重要的港口。

这个城市据说有比较多的权力勾结和侵权（“外国商标”，2004年）。

出于所有这些原因，上海的法院处理涉外商标案件的数量相对较高。

出于同样的原因，在这里报道的内容分析的重点在上海审理的案件。

与此同时，在其他一些地方审理的一些广为人知的案件也被详细分析，以便我们有一个全景透视。

中国知识产权的判断和决策网站记录截止2008年6月在上海结案的涉外商标案件46件（表2）。

在这些案件中的原告大多是来自发达国家的商标持有人，涉及到从消费品到工业产品服务的各种产品。

计算机外⽂翻译（完整）毕业设计(论⽂)外⽂资料翻译专业：计算机科学与技术姓名：王成明学号：06120186外⽂出处：The History of the Internet附件： 1.外⽂原⽂ 2.外⽂资料翻译译⽂；附件1：外⽂原⽂The History of the InternetThe Beginning - ARPAnetThe Internet started as a project by the US government. The object of the project was to create a means of communications between long distance points, in the event of a nation wide emergency or, more specifically, nuclear war. The project was called ARPAnet, and it is what the Internet started as. Funded specifically for military communication, the engineers responsible for ARPANet had no idea of the possibilities of an "Internet."By definition, an 'Internet' is four or more computers connected by a network.ARPAnet achieved its network by using a protocol called TCP/IP. The basics around this protocol was that if information sent over a network failed to get through on one route, it would find another route to work with, as well as establishing a means for one computer to "talk" to another computer, regardless of whether it was a PC or a Macintosh.By the 80's ARPAnet, just years away from becoming the more well known Internet, had 200 computers. The Defense Department, satisfied with ARPAnets results, decided to fully adopt it into service, and connected many military computers and resources into the network. ARPAnet then had 562 computers on its network. By the year 1984, it had over 1000 computers on its network.In 1986 ARPAnet (supposedly) shut down, but only the organization shut down, and the existing networks still existed between the more than 1000 computers. It shut down due to a failied link up with NSF, who wanted to connect its 5 countywide super computers into ARPAnet.With the funding of NSF, new high speed lines were successfully installed at line speeds of 56k (a normal modem nowadays) through telephone lines in 1988. By that time, there were 28,174 computers on the (by then decided) Internet. In 1989 there were 80,000 computers on it. By 1989, there were290,000.Another network was built to support the incredible number of people joining. It was constructed in 1992.Today - The InternetToday, the Internet has become one of the most important technological advancements in the history of humanity. Everyone wants to get 'on line' to experience the wealth of information of the Internet. Millions of people now use the Internet, and it's predicted that by the year 2003 every single person on the planet will have Internet access. The Internet has truly become a way of life in our time and era, and is evolving so quickly its hard to determine where it will go next, as computer and network technology improve every day.HOW IT WORKS:It's a standard thing. People using the Internet. Shopping, playing games,conversing in virtual Internet environments.The Internet is not a 'thing' itself. The Internet cannot just "crash." It functions the same way as the telephone system, only there is no Internet company that runs the Internet.The Internet is a collection of millioins of computers that are all connected to each other, or have the means to connect to each other. The Internet is just like an office network, only it has millions of computers connected to it.The main thing about how the Internet works is communication. How does a computer in Houston know how to access data on a computer in Tokyo to view a webpage?Internet communication, communication among computers connected to the Internet, is based on a language. This language is called TCP/IP. TCP/IP establishes a language for a computer to access and transmit data over the Internet system.But TCP/IP assumes that there is a physical connecetion between onecomputer and another. This is not usually the case. There would have to be a network wire that went to every computer connected to the Internet, but that would make the Internet impossible to access.The physical connection that is requireed is established by way of modems,phonelines, and other modem cable connections (like cable modems or DSL). Modems on computers read and transmit data over established lines,which could be phonelines or data lines. The actual hard core connections are established among computers called routers.A router is a computer that serves as a traffic controller for information.To explain this better, let's look at how a standard computer might viewa webpage.1. The user's computer dials into an Internet Service Provider (ISP). The ISP might in turn be connected to another ISP, or a straight connection into the Internet backbone.2. The user launches a web browser like Netscape or Internet Explorer and types in an internet location to go to.3. Here's where the tricky part comes in. First, the computer sends data about it's data request to a router. A router is a very high speed powerful computer running special software. The collection of routers in the world make what is called a "backbone," on which all the data on the Internet is transferred. The backbone presently operates at a speed of several gigabytes per-second. Such a speed compared to a normal modem is like comparing the heat of the sun to the heat of an ice-cube.Routers handle data that is going back and forth. A router puts small chunks of data into packages called packets, which function similarly to envelopes. So, when the request for the webpage goes through, it uses TCP/IP protocols to tell the router what to do with the data, where it's going, and overall where the user wants to go.4. The router sends these packets to other routers, eventually leadingto the target computer. It's like whisper down the lane (only the information remains intact).5. When the information reaches the target web server, the webserver then begins to send the web page back. A webserver is the computer where the webpage is stored that is running a program that handles requests for the webpage and sends the webpage to whoever wants to see it.6. The webpage is put in packets, sent through routers, and arrive at the users computer where the user can view the webpage once it is assembled.The packets which contain the data also contain special information that lets routers and other computers know how to reassemble the data in the right order.With millions of web pages, and millions of users, using the Internet is not always easy for a beginning user, especially for someone who is not entirely comfortale with using computers. Below you can find tips tricks and help on how to use main services of the Internet.Before you access webpages, you must have a web browser to actually be able to view the webpages. Most Internet Access Providers provide you with a web browser in the software they usually give to customers; you. The fact that you are viewing this page means that you have a web browser. The top two use browsers are Netscape Communicator and Microsoft Internet Explorer. Netscape can be found at /doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html and MSIE can be found at /doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html /ie.The fact that you're reading this right now means that you have a web browser.Next you must be familiar with actually using webpages. A webpage is a collection of hyperlinks, images, text, forms, menus, and multimedia. To "navigate" a webpage, simply click the links it provides or follow it's own instructions (like if it has a form you need to use, it will probably instruct you how to use it). Basically, everything about a webpage is made to be self-explanetory. That is the nature of a webpage, to be easily navigatable."Oh no! a 404 error! 'Cannot find web page?'" is a common remark made by new web-users.Sometimes websites have errors. But an error on a website is not the user's fault, of course.A 404 error means that the page you tried to go to does not exist. This could be because the site is still being constructed and the page hasn't been created yet, or because the site author made a typo in the page. There's nothing much to do about a 404 error except for e-mailing the site administrator (of the page you wanted to go to) an telling him/her about the error.A Javascript error is the result of a programming error in the Javascript code of a website. Not all websites utilize Javascript, but many do. Javascript is different from Java, and most browsers now support Javascript. If you are using an old version of a web browser (Netscape 3.0 for example), you might get Javascript errors because sites utilize Javascript versions that your browser does not support. So, you can try getting a newer version of your web browser.E-mail stands for Electronic Mail, and that's what it is. E-mail enables people to send letters, and even files and pictures to each other.To use e-mail, you must have an e-mail client, which is just like a personal post office, since it retrieves and stores e-mail. Secondly, you must have an e-mail account. Most Internet Service Providers provide free e-mail account(s) for free. Some services offer free e-mail, like Hotmail, and Geocities.After configuring your e-mail client with your POP3 and SMTP server address (your e-mail provider will give you that information), you are ready to receive mail.An attachment is a file sent in a letter. If someone sends you an attachment and you don't know who it is, don't run the file, ever. It could be a virus or some other kind of nasty programs. You can't get a virus justby reading e-mail, you'll have to physically execute some form of program for a virus to strike.A signature is a feature of many e-mail programs. A signature is added to the end of every e-mail you send out. You can put a text graphic, your business information, anything you want.Imagine that a computer on the Internet is an island in the sea. The sea is filled with millions of islands. This is the Internet. Imagine an island communicates with other island by sending ships to other islands and receiving ships. The island has ports to accept and send out ships.A computer on the Internet has access nodes called ports. A port is just a symbolic object that allows the computer to operate on a network (or the Internet). This method is similar to the island/ocean symbolism above.Telnet refers to accessing ports on a server directly with a text connection. Almost every kind of Internet function, like accessing web pages,"chatting," and e-mailing is done over a Telnet connection.Telnetting requires a Telnet client. A telnet program comes with the Windows system, so Windows users can access telnet by typing in "telnet" (without the "'s) in the run dialog. Linux has it built into the command line; telnet. A popular telnet program for Macintosh is NCSA telnet.Any server software (web page daemon, chat daemon) can be accessed via telnet, although they are not usually meant to be accessed in such a manner. For instance, it is possible to connect directly to a mail server and check your mail by interfacing with the e-mail server software, but it's easier to use an e-mail client (of course).There are millions of WebPages that come from all over the world, yet how will you know what the address of a page you want is?Search engines save the day. A search engine is a very large website that allows you to search it's own database of websites. For instance, if you wanted to find a website on dogs, you'd search for "dog" or "dogs" or "dog information." Here are a few search-engines.1. Altavista (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed2. Yahoo (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed Collection3. Excite (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed4. Lycos (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed5. Metasearch (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Multiple searchA web spider is a program used by search engines that goes from page to page, following any link it can possibly find. This means that a search engine can literally map out as much of the Internet as it's own time and speed allows for.An indexed collection uses hand-added links. For instance, on Yahoo's site. You can click on Computers & the Internet. Then you can click on Hardware. Then you can click on Modems, etc., and along the way through sections, there are sites available which relate to what section you're in.Metasearch searches many search engines at the same time, finding the top choices from about 10 search engines, making searching a lot more effective.Once you are able to use search engines, you can effectively find the pages you want.With the arrival of networking and multi user systems, security has always been on the mind of system developers and system operators. Since the dawn of AT&T and its phone network, hackers have been known by many, hackers who find ways all the time of breaking into systems. It used to not be that big of a problem, since networking was limited to big corporate companies or government computers who could afford the necessary computer security.The biggest problem now-a-days is personal information. Why should you be careful while making purchases via a website? Let's look at how the internet works, quickly.The user is transferring credit card information to a webpage. Looks safe, right? Not necessarily. As the user submits the information, it is being streamed through a series of computers that make up the Internet backbone.The information is in little chunks, in packages called packets. Here's the problem: While the information is being transferred through this big backbone, what is preventing a "hacker" from intercepting this data stream at one of the backbone points?Big-brother is not watching you if you access a web site, but users should be aware of potential threats while transmitting private information. There are methods of enforcing security, like password protection, an most importantly, encryption.Encryption means scrambling data into a code that can only be unscrambled on the "other end." Browser's like Netscape Communicator and Internet Explorer feature encryption support for making on-line transfers. Some encryptions work better than others. The most advanced encryption system is called DES (Data Encryption Standard), and it was adopted by the US Defense Department because it was deemed so difficult to 'crack' that they considered it a security risk if it would fall into another countries hands.A DES uses a single key of information to unlock an entire document. The problem is, there are 75 trillion possible keys to use, so it is a highly difficult system to break. One document was cracked and decoded, but it was a combined effort of14,000 computers networked over the Internet that took a while to do it, so most hackers don't have that many resources available.附件2：外⽂资料翻译译⽂Internet的历史起源——ARPAnetInternet是被美国政府作为⼀项⼯程进⾏开发的。

外文原文 1Building Materials Selection and SpecificationFae'q A. A. RadwanFaculty of Engineering, Near East University, KKTC, Lefkosa, Mersin 10, TurkeyAbstract: The limitations in the selection of the building materials and to the sustainability of any building construction materials that can be used are presented. The practices and techniques that can be used in reducing and minimizing the environmental impacts of building are discussed. Recommendations of using secondary and recycled materials in the construction of buildings are given. Framework for methods of assessment of the sustainability in building construction for environmental performance is presented.Key Words: Limitations, sustainability, environmental impacts, framework, climate.1. IntroductionThere is an apparently unbounded range of possibilities for the selection of building materials for the construction of structures of almost any shape or stature. Its quality will affect the structure function and long life, and requirements may differ with climate, soil, site size, and with the experience and knowledge of the designer. The factors that have the most outstanding solutions are impermeability, control of heat, air, and water flow, and the stability of the structure [1-3].Raw materials extraction, manufacturing processes, and the transportation of the materials to the project site have a multitude of impacts on the environment. These include the disruption of habitats and ecological systems, use of water, and, through energy use, the emissions of air pollutants and climate change gases. Building materials also have major impacts on the building occupants manufacture, construction of buildings and the use of building materials make a significant environmental impact internally, locally and globally. But it is not easy to deliver information to make adequate inclusion decisions considering the whole life cycle of a building. Decisions on sustainable building integrate a number of strategies during the design, construction and operation of building projects. Selection of sustainable building materials represents an important strategy in the design of a building.2.SustainabilityIn recent years, the concept of sustainability has been the subject of much disputation by academics and professionals alike. In 1987, the World Conference on Environment and Development defined sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987).Sustainability must address ecological impacts, regardless of conflicting interpretations of the WCED definition.A good sustainable product must give as much satisfaction as possible for the user. If not, it will be unsuccessful on the market and an economic failure.It is also important to inform people as to what basis a certain product is considered to be sustainable or not and why they should buy it [4- 5].When developing a new product, it is illustrative to move between the three corners Ecology, Equity and Economy in order to obtain a suitable balance so that each category can be fulfilled in the best way.·Ecology (environmental protection).·Equity (social equity).·Economy (economic growth).2.1 Materials Selection and SustainabilityAmong the notable technological developments of the 20th century has been the development of tens of thousands of new materials for use in construction and engineering. The construction industry has also grown to the point where it is a very large consumer of energy and materials. Concern for the environment and the impact of human activity on the Earth's ecological systems has now become clear sighted.We are faced with the problems of material selection and the environmental consequences of their use. Environmentalists have proposed various methods for assessing the impact of materials and energy use, these include ecological foot printing, ecological rucksacks, embodied energy and carbon dioxide values, and so on. Engineers have put forward rational selection methods for the choice of materials. These techniques will be reviewed and explored in an attempt to provide an environmentally-aware, materials selection method- logy for use in construction.Strictly, the term sustainable means that something is capable of being sustained not for an hour, or a day, or a week, month or year, but indefinitely.The implication is that if some process which uses materials and energy is described as sustainable, then the materials and energy which are consumed arecapable of being replaced by natural or other processes as fast as they are consumed. In many cases materials and energy appear to be consumed at a faster rate than they are being replaced. However, to make a judgment, we would need to know what the respective supply and consumption rates are in other words we need some quantitative or numerical index to help us [2].2.2 Environmental CriteriaSince construction uses such large quantities of materials, it has a major impact on the environment. In order to assess and evaluate such impact, a number of criteria or indices have been devised by economists, engineers and environmentalists, and the more important of these are the following [2].2.2.1 Embodied EnergyThis is quite simply the amount of energy consumed in manufacturing a unit quantity of a material, and it is usually expressed in kJ/kg. Its value is determined by the efficiency of the manufacturing plant. Values range from 275 GJ/tonne for aluminum (a high value) to 0.1 GJ/tonne for gravel aggregates (a low value) [2].2.2.2 Embodied Carbon DioxideEmbodied C02 is similar to embodied energy. It is the weight of C02 emitted during manufacture of unit weight of the material, and is usually expressed as kg of C02 per ton.Again, the value will depend upon the efficiency of the manufacturing plant [2].2.2.3 Ecological RucksackThe ecological rucksack concept was devised as a way of assessing material efficiency by F. Schmidt一Bleek [6]. He recognized that many tonnes of raw material could be extracted and processed to make just one kilogram of material. For example, the environmental rucksack for the precious metal platinum is 250,000:1.2.3 Rational Selection MethodThere are various approaches to the problem of selecting materials from the huge numbers now available. Designers can have recourse to materials property charts and data books. Alternatively, they can talk to their colleagues, hoping that by widening the knowledge circle, they will not omit a significant group of materials. Another strategy is simply to specify the same or a similar material to those used in previous, similar designs. All these are valid approaches, but they may result in the specification of a less than ideal material and overall, a less than optimal solution to the problem [3-5].The basis of the rational selection methods devised to date is a recognition that the performance of a component, artifact or structure is limited by the properties of the materials from which it is made. It will be rare for the performance of the item to depend solely on one material property; in nearly all cases, it is a combination of properties, which is important. To give an example, in lightweight design, strength to weight ratio of, and stiffness to weight ratio E/pwill be important. Ref. [3] has put forward the idea of plotting material properties against each other to produce material property maps. On these maps, each class of material occupies a field in material property space, and sub-fields map the space occupied by individual materials.These materials property charts are very information-rich they carry a large amount of information in a compact but accessible form. Interestingly, they reveal correlations between material properties, which can help in checking and estimating data, and they can also be used in performance optimization, in a manner such as that set out as follow.If we consider the complete range of materials, it immediately becomes apparent that for each property of an engineering material there is a characteristic range of values, and this range can be very large. For example, consider stiffness (Young's Modulus E). Materials range from jelly (very low stiffness) up to diamond (very high stiffness). The properties can span five decades (orders of magnitude),A number of conclusions can be drawn, including:(1) A rational selection method such the one put forward by Ashby is capable of incorporating environmental parameters such as embodied energy and C02 or the environmental rucksack concepts, thereby making possible rational selections based on environmental considerations.(2) This method is not as simple to use as the environmental preference method or the environmental profiles method. However, this rational method could be used to generate data for the environmental profiles and preference methods.(3) The construction industry needs to take steps to better integrate itself into the materials cycle. The quantity of demolition waste needs to be reduced, and more of it should be recycled. To this end, the building designers need to keep full records of materials of construction, and buildings need to be designed for easy dismantling at the end of their useful lives.2. 4 Ashby's Materials Selection MethodologyMaterials selection charts一Property interaction (not always causal)一First order optimization●Performance indices●Multiple constrains●Multiple design goals●Shape and material interaction一“Enhanced" performance indicesProcess selection [3, 4].3. Foundations and Construction ComponentIn any consideration of which building materials and alternatives can feasibly be integrated into the foundations of a large-scale development there are several limitations that must be considered.In terms of the actual materials that may be used, there are three main limitations. First, because of the large scale and heavy loads that the foundations must support, strength is imperative. Any materials must be consistently strong and able to effectively distribute the weight of the structure. The second major limitation is climate. In areas with sub-zero winter conditions, frost heave is a major consideration. For this reason, foundations must be deep enough to support the structure despite any changes in near-surface volume; shallow foundations will be insufficient unless certain innovative steps are taken. The limitation of climate also influences any decision on insulating foundations. Finally, there is the consideration of cost. This consideration is reliant on material availability, cost per unit, and building techniques and associated labor. For these reasons, the only materials that can feasibly be used are concrete and steel. Therefore, the alternatives for minimizing impact lie more in the methods of construction and any realistic structural changes that can be made.The three main foundation components of concrete, steel, and insulation will be examined as the only reasonable materials for the construction of a building with limitations such as the foundations [1].3.1 ConcreteIt is the fundamental component of the foundation construction, receiving the building loads through walls or posts and distributes them down and outwards through the footings. Concrete and cement have ecological advantages which include durability, long life, heat storage capability, and (in general) chemical inertness [8].The life cycle concerns of concrete are as follows. First, there is land and habitat loss from mining activities. Furthermore, the quality of both air and water quality suffer from the acquisition, transportation, and manufacture. Carbon dioxide emissions are also a negative environmental impact accrued through the production and use of concrete. Similarly, dust and particulate are emitted at most stages of the concrete life-cycle. $oth carbon dioxide and particulate matter have negative impacts on air quality [1]. Water pollution is also another concern associated with the production of concrete at the production phase. Fly ash is by-product of the energy production from coal-fired plants and increasing its proportion in cement is environmentally beneficial in two ways. First, it helps in reducing the amount of solid waste which requires disposal. As well, fly ash in the cement mixture reduced the overall energy use by changing the consistency of the concrete. Fly ash, increases concrete strength, improves sulfate foundation, decreases permeability, reduced the water ratio required, and improves the pump ability and workability of the concrete [9]. Now in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency requires that all buildings that receive federa funding contain fly ash and most concrete producer: have access to this industrial waste [9].There are alternative methods of both making concrete and building foundations with this concrete that have environmental benefits, no matter the structure scale or climate. These include Autoclaved Aerated Concrete, the increased integration of fly ash into the cement mixture, and the use of pre-cast foundation systems to reduce resource use. Through consideration and possible integration of these alternatives, impacts could potentially be reduced.3.2 SteelAs wood resources are becoming limited, steel is increasingly popular with builders. In the case of a large-scale building, steel reinforcement is basically a necessity for overall strength and weight distribution.The initial life cycle impacts of steel use are similar to those of concrete. These include land and habitat loss from mining activities, and air and water quality degradation from materials acquisition and manufacture [1]. However, the largest proportion of steel used nowadays contains a percentage of recycled materials. In terms of improving environmental conditions by reducing impacts, this is the only real recommendation for the use of steel in building foundations; to purchase recycled steel products. Not only would this reduce industrial and commercial solid waste,such a decision would also reward the manufacturers of such products.3. 3 InsulationNew and innovative pre-cast building foundations are becoming increasingly available and feasible for implementation. These new systems can reduce the overall raw material use, as well as conserve energy through the creation of an efficient building envelope. A further used of this rigid insulation as a skirt around the building foundations helps to eliminate any potential frost problems, improve drainage, and help further reduce heat loss. A polyethylene air and water vapor barrier is applied above the insulating layer, as is a three to four inch layer of sand. These shallow foundation systems have excellent insulating properties, decreased use of raw materials for concrete, and comparatively low demands for labor. However, the use of rigid insulation is increased. Also, in soils where frost and drainage is a consideration additional piles in the centre of the foundation may be required to prevent movement. This increases the relative land disturbance, although it remains still much less than that of deep foundation systems. Shallow foundations are structurally sound and are becoming increasingly common in colder climates. There are strength considerations associated with these new techniques which must be addressed by someone with the technical ability to do so, before they can be feasibly recommended for the building of the new residence.As discussed above, there are limitations to the sustainability of any foundation construction materials used. In other words, there are environmental impacts associated with all types of foundations. For these reasons, a primary recommendation is the use of secondary materials (fly ash and recycled steel) in the construction of foundations.4. FrameworkThe material components of the building envelope, that is, the foundation, wall construction, insulation and roof, have been analyzed within a framework of primarily qualitative criteria that aim to evaluate the sustainability of alternate materials relative to the materials cited in the current foundation design. This analytical process has enabled the identification of several construction materials that can be feasibly integrated into current design and construction standards of the building envelope.The tools and strategies described below are useful in analyzing the relative benefits of different materials[9-14].Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA). LCA is a comprehensive analysis that takes intoconsideration all aspects of a material over its entire lifetime: raw materials extraction; manufacturing and processing; transport; use; and post-use recycling, reuse, or disposal. This approach enables a true "apples to apples" comparison between materials.The BEES system (Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability) developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology is the most widely used methodology. BEES provides materials with a score that can be compared to other similar products. At this time, however, a fairly limited number of materials have completed the BEES analysis.Life-Cycle Costing. Life-Cycle Costing is an analysis of the short- and long-term costs associated with a material, from purchase to ultimate recycling or disposal. This includes frequency of replacement, maintenance costs, and costs that are avoided through use of the material (or system). LCC is useful in looking beyond a comparison based solely on first costs. Similar to LCA, this type of analysis is not available for all materials, but a back-of-the-envelope calculation is usually fairly easy to work up.Certification. Many conventional building products are approved or certified by independent third party or government groups. The Forest Stewardship Council certifies the certifiers (Smart Wood and SCS) that assess whether forestry companies are using sustainable management practices to harvest wood. The Carpet and Rug Institute provides a Green Label for carpets that meet certain low-VOC criteria. Green Guard certifies products that meet strict indoor air quality criteria. The Department of Energy's Energy Star label identifies equipment and appliances that meet or exceed standards for energy efficiency. Scientific Certification Systems and Green Seal certify recycled-content claims and other green product claims made by manufacturers.5. ConclusionOver-consumption, resource utilization, pollution and over-population are examples of the perhaps most basic problems for the environment in the future. A more sustainable future can be achieved by producing more sustainable products causing less environmental impact. Materials and design are and will always be very important areas when developing more sustainable products.The Life Cycle Assessment concept might be the most effective way of determining the environmental impacts for all product stages from extract of material to the product disposal stage. A price must be set for restoration on everyenvironmental impact. Information can be received from official authorities pertaining to the environment in different countries. Renewable and easy recyclable materials are preferably used together with a design for easy recycling and repair of the products. Minimization of the energy connected to the product is also important. Full sustainability can never be achieved for products according to thermodynamic laws. However, the attempt to achieve more sustainability is a requisite if we want to preserve the earth for the coming generations. Education, research and spreading of information will be very important for the future in order to receive more sustainable products especially because the market demand is important in order to develop successful sustainable products.References[1] M. Davison, J. Persmann, J. Reid, J. Stange and T. Weins, Green BuildingMaterials Residence, A WATgreen/ERS 285 study.[2] J. L. Sturges, Construction Materials Selection and Sustainability, School of theBuilt Environment, Leeds Metropolitan University, UK.[3] M. F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, Pergamon, Oxford, 1992.[4] M. F. Ashby and K. Johnson, Materials and Design: The Art And Science ofMaterials Selection in Product Design, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002 [5] L. Y. Ljungberg, Materials selection and design for development of sustainableproducts, Materials and Design 28(2007)466-479.[6] F. Berkhout and D. Smith, Products and the environment: an integrated approachto policy, Eur. Environ 9 (1999)174-185.[7] F. Schmidt-Bleek, Carnoules Declaration of the FactorTen Club, WuppertalInstitute, Germany, 1994.[8] A．Wilson，Building green on a budget,Environmental Building News8(5)(1999)．[9] G．E．Dieter，Engineering Design，McGraw-Hill，New York，l991．[10] Sandy Patience (Ed．)，The Role of Evidence in The Selection of BuildingProducts and Materials，Constructing Excellence in The Built Environment．[11] M．D．Bovea and R．Vidal，Increasing product value by integrating environmentalimpacts costs and customer valuation，J Resour Conserv Recycling 41(2004) 133-145．[12] N．S．Ermolaeva,M．B．G．Castro and P．V．Kandachar, Materials selectionfor an automotive structure by integrating structural optimization with environmental impact assessment，Materials and Design 25 (2004) 689．698．[13] M．Goedkoop and R．Spiensma，The Eco-Indicator 99：A Dam age OrientedMethod for Life Cycle Impact Assessment，Amersfooft：PRe consultant B．V．，2000．中文翻译 1建材选择和规格Fae'q A. A. RadwanFaculty of Engineering, Near East University, KKTC, Lefkosa, Mersin 10, Turkey摘要：建材选择的限制和可利用的任何建筑物工程材料的持久性显现出来。

毕业论文的外文翻译是什么在如今全球化的时代，毕业论文的外文翻译变得越来越重要。

由于不同学术领域与研究主题在全球范围内的广泛交流，外文文献往往成为毕业论文写作的重要参考资源。

毕业论文的外文翻译不仅能够扩充研究数据来源，还能加深理解并对比国内外研究现状以提升研究质量。

本文将探讨毕业论文的外文翻译的定义、目的以及相关注意事项。

外文翻译的定义和目的毕业论文的外文翻译是指将英语、法语、德语、俄语或其他外文献的内容翻译成中文的过程。

它的目的是使学术研究者能够更好地理解和应用外文文献，以支撑他们的研究工作。

通过对外文献的翻译，学术界可以顺利进行国际交流与合作，拓宽知识视野。

研究者也能为毕业论文提供全球范围内的最新研究成果，提高论文的学术水平。

注意事项在进行毕业论文的外文翻译时，以下几个注意事项应牢记于心：1.准确性和可信性：翻译的准确性和可信性是首要关注的问题。

翻译者必须确保所翻译的内容与原文的意思保持一致，并尽量使用准确和专业的词汇。

对于生僻词汇或特定领域的术语，可以借助专业工具或咨询相关领域的专家以确保翻译的准确性。

2.语言风格的调整：毕业论文的外文翻译需要根据中文写作的习惯和规范进行语言风格的调整。

例如，外文中可能使用了复杂的句子结构或文化隐喻，翻译时应尽量使用简明清晰的中文表达，以确保读者能够准确理解研究内容。

3.文化背景的融入：语言与文化密不可分。

在外文翻译过程中，翻译者需要了解原文所处的文化背景，并适当融入到翻译中。

这样才能确保翻译的内容在目标文化中具有更好的可读性和可理解性。

4.保护原文作者的权益：毕业论文的外文翻译要尊重并保护原文作者的权益。

在翻译时，应注明原文出处，以遵守学术诚信规范，并尽量避免篡改、删减或误解原文的意思。

如果有需要，可以适度加入个人的理解或注释，但必须清晰标注为个人观点。

5.翻译工具的利用：在进行毕业论文的外文翻译时，可以利用翻译工具辅助翻译。

然而，机器翻译并不能完全取代人工翻译的重要性。

翻译专业中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Translation EquivalenceDespite the fact that the world is becoming a global village, translation remains a major way for languages and cultures to interact and influence each other. And name translation, especially government name translation, occupies a quite significant place in international exchange.Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. While interpreting—the facilitating of oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages—antedates writing, translation began only after the appearance of written literature. There exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (ca. 2000 BCE) into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium BCE. Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the target-language translation. On the other hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated. Due to the demands of business documentation consequent to the Industrial Revolution that began in the mid-18th century, some translation specialties have become formalized, with dedicated schools and professional associations. Because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers havesought to automate translation (machine translation) or to mechanically aid the human translator (computer-assisted translation). The rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated language localizationIt is generally accepted that translation, not as a separate entity, blooms into flower under such circumstances like culture, societal functions, politics and power relations. Nowadays, the field of translation studies is immersed with abundantly diversified translation standards, with no exception that some of them are presented by renowned figures and are rather authoritative. In the translation practice, however, how should we select the so-called translation standards to serve as our guidelines in the translation process and how should we adopt the translation standards to evaluate a translation product?In the macro - context of flourish of linguistic theories, theorists in the translation circle, keep to the golden law of the principle of equivalence. The theory of Translation Equivalence is the central issue in western translation theories. And the presentation of this theory gives great impetus to the development and improvement of translation theory. It‟s not difficult for us to discover that it is the theory of Translation Equivalence that serves as guidelines in government name translation in China. Name translation, as defined, is the replacement of the name in the source language by an equivalent name or other words in the target language. Translating Chinese government names into English, similarly, is replacing the Chinese government name with an equivalentin English.Metaphorically speaking, translation is often described as a moving trajectory going from A to B along a path or a container to carry something across from A to B. This view is commonly held by both translation practitioners and theorists in the West. In this view, they do not expect that this trajectory or something will change its identity as it moves or as it is carried. In China, to translate is also understood by many people normally as “to translate the whole text sentence by sentence and paragraph by paragraph, without any omission, addition, or other changes. In both views, the source text and the target text must be “the same”. This helps explain the etymological source for the term “translation equivalence”. It is in essence a word which describes the relationship between the ST and the TT.Equivalence means the state or fact or property of being equivalent. It is widely used in several scientific fields such as chemistry and mathematics. Therefore, it comes to have a strong scientific meaning that is rather absolute and concise. Influenced by this, translation equivalence also comes to have an absolute denotation though it was first applied in translation study as a general word. From a linguistic point of view, it can be divided into three sub-types, i.e., formal equivalence, semantic equivalence, and pragmatic equivalence. In actual translation, it frequently happens that they cannot be obtained at the same time, thus forming a kind of relative translation equivalence in terms of quality. In terms of quantity, sometimes the ST and TT are not equivalent too. Absolutetranslation equivalence both in quality and quantity, even though obtainable, is limited to a few cases.The following is a brief discussion of translation equivalence study conducted by three influential western scholars, Eugene Nida, Andrew Chesterman and Peter Newmark. It‟s expected that their studies can instruct GNT study in China and provide translators with insightful methods.Nida‟s definition of translation is: “Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” It is a replacement of textual material in one language〔SL〕by equivalent textual material in another language（TL）. The translator must strive for equivalence rather than identity. In a sense, this is just another way of emphasizing the reproducing of the message rather than the conservation of the form of the utterance. The message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language to reproduce as literally and meaningfully as possible the form and content of the original. Translation equivalence is an empirical phenomenon discovered by comparing SL and TL texts and it‟s a useful operational concept like the term “unit of translation”.Nida argues that there are two different types of equivalence, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Formal correspondence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content, whereas dynamic equivalence is based upon “the principle of equivalent effect”.Formal correspondence consists of a TL item which represents the closest equivalent of a ST word or phrase. Nida and Taber make it clear that there are not always formal equivalents between language pairs. Therefore, formal equivalents should be used wherever possible if the translation aims at achieving formal rather than dynamic equivalence. The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the TT since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. According to Nida and Taber, formal correspondence distorts the grammatical and stylistic patterns of the receptor language, and hence distorts the message, so as to cause the receptor to misunderstand or to labor unduly hard.Dynamic equivalence is based on what Nida calls “the principle of equivalent effect” where the relat ionship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message. The message has to be modified to the receptor‟s linguistic needs and cultural expectation and aims at complete naturalness of expression. Naturalness is a key requirement for Nida. He defines the goal of dynamic equivalence as seeking the closest natural equivalent to the SL message. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness; the TL should not show interference from the SL, and the …foreignness …of the ST setting is minimized.Nida is in favor of the application of dynamic equivalence, as a moreeffective translation procedure. Thus, the product of the translation process, that is the text in the TL, must have the same impact on the different readers it was addressing. Only in Nida and Taber's edition is it clearly stated that dynamic equivalence in translation is far more than mere correct communication of information.As Andrew Chesterman points out in his recent book Memes of Translation, equivalence is one of the five element of translation theory, standing shoulder to shoulder with source-target, untranslatability, free-vs-literal, All-writing-is-translating in importance. Pragmatically speaking, observed Chesterman, “the only true examples of equivalence (i.e., absolute equivalence) are those in which an ST item X is invariably translated into a given TL as Y, and vice versa. Typical examples would be words denoting numbers (with the exception of contexts in which they have culture-bound connotations, such as “magic” or “unlucky”), certain technical terms (oxygen, molecule) and the like. From this point of view, the only true test of equivalence would be invariable back-translation. This, of course, is unlikely to occur except in the case of a small set of lexical items, or perhaps simple isolated syntactic structure”.Peter Newmark. Departing from Nida‟s rece ptor-oriented line, Newmark argues that the success of equivalent effect is “illusory “and that the conflict of loyalties and the gap between emphasis on source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation theory and practice. He suggests narrowing the gap by replacing the old terms with those of semanticand communicative translation. The former attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meani ng of the original, while the latter “attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original.” Newmark‟s description of communicative translation resembles Nida‟s dynamic equivalence in the effect it is trying to create on the TT reader, while semantic translation has similarities to Nida‟s formal equivalence.Meanwhile, Newmark points out that only by combining both semantic and communicative translation can we achieve the goal of keeping the …spirit‟ of the original. Semantic translation requires the translator retain the aesthetic value of the original, trying his best to keep the linguistic feature and characteristic style of the author. According to semantic translation, the translator should always retain the semantic and syntactic structures of the original. Deletion and abridgement lead to distortion of the author‟s intention and his writing style.翻译对等尽管全世界正在渐渐成为一个地球村，但翻译仍然是语言和和文化之间的交流互动和相互影响的主要方式之一。

毕业论文外文翻译报告范文AbstractThis report presents a translation of an academic article titled "The Impact of Technology on Education." The article discusses the various ways in which technology has transformed the field of education, particularly in terms of teaching methods, student engagement, and access to educational resources. The translation aims to accurately convey the content and meaning of the original article, while ensuring clarity and coherence for the readers.IntroductionTechnology has revolutionized nearly every aspect of our lives, including the field of education. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the use of technology in classrooms and educational institutions worldwide. This article explores the impact of technology on education, highlighting its benefits and potential challenges.Teaching MethodsOne of the key effects of technology on education is the transformation of traditional teaching methods. With the introduction of interactive whiteboards, online learning platforms, and educational apps, teachers now have access to a wide range of tools and resources to enhance their teaching. These technologies enable teachers to create dynamic and engaging lessons, integrating multimedia content and interactive activities, which enhance student understanding and participation.Student EngagementTechnology has also had a profound impact on student engagement in the learning process. With the use of digital tools, students can now actively participate in their education and take ownership of their learning. Interactive quizzes, online discussions, and collaborative projects allow students to actively engage with the subject matter, promoting critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Moreover, technology enables personalized learning experiences, catering to individual student needs and preferences.Access to Educational ResourcesAnother significant benefit of technology in education is the increased access to educational resources. Online libraries, open educational resources, and digital textbooks provide students with a vast amount of information at their fingertips. This access to a wide range of resources goes beyond what traditional textbooks and classrooms can offer, empowering students to explore and learn at their own pace.Challenges and ConsiderationsWhile the impact of technology on education is largely positive, there are also some challenges and considerations that need to be addressed. One concern is the potential for technology to create a divide between students who have access to technology and those who do not. It is essential to ensure equitable access to technology and training for all students to prevent further disparities in education.Additionally, the integration of technology in the classroom requires teachers to adapt and acquire new technological skills. Adequate training and support must be provided to empower teachers to effectively incorporate technology into their teaching practices.ConclusionIn conclusion, technology has had a transformative impact on education. It has revolutionized teaching methods, enhanced student engagement, and provided increased access to educational resources. However, it is important to address the challenges and considerations that arise with the integration of technology in education. By doing so, we can ensure that technology continues to benefit and enhance the learning experience for all students.References:[Original Article Reference]。