城市规划外文文献翻译(适用于毕业论文外文翻译+中英文对照)

中英文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)摘要：自从―一万村‖市场项目开展以来，连锁超市就开始在农村地区发展起来。

物流和分配是连锁超市运作过程中的纽带，在超市的平稳运作中起到重要作用。

本土超市涌现出的很多问题，现在逐渐成为超市发展的瓶颈。

在这篇论文中，作者将会分析现今存在于中国农村超市的物流和分配方面的问题，然后提供一些相应策略解决这个问题。

关键词：农村地区，货品分配，策略规划，物流，连锁超市。

1 介绍自从―一万村‖市场项目开展以来，连锁超市作为一个新的运作系统及销售模式，开始在广阔的农村地区发展。

这些连锁超市带领农民提高消费水平、缩小城乡差异、提升农村地区和农村市场现代流通的发展。

连锁超市在农民中很受欢迎。

然而，物流和分配是连锁超市的核心，却仍非常薄弱。

分配的优势是超市运作成本、利润及相关合伙人附加利润的关键。

在当前经济危机的形势下，解决农村超市物流及分配方面的问题，对农村市场的发展、经济的发展以及建设一个社会主义新农村都非常关键。

1.1农村连锁超市物流及分配的一些概念和特点分配是一个经济活动，是企业家基于消费者需求，用最有效的方式在分配中心或其它地点储存货物，并且把这些货物运送到在合理经济框架内的其他客户。

它包含购买、储存、分类、货物处理、递送及其它活动。

它是一个物流活动的方式，结合了特别的、完整的业务流程。

在农村地区，农民和农产品独特，所以，与城市物流分配相比，有着一些不同的特点。

1.2农村地区的主要物流和分配问题A．低均匀分布率和高运作成本根据商务部调查，自从―一万村‖市场项目开展以来，农村连锁超市的覆盖率已经达到超过60%，但是分配率却只有40%。

这个数字不仅低于国内连锁超市60%的平均运送率，也大大低于国外连锁超市高于80%的运送率。

均匀分配有利于统一采购。

商店不能得益于连锁。

这就会导致高物流成本。

B．不合理的物流和分配模式，导致信息读取效率不高最近，农村连锁超市的物流和分配渠道主要由分配中心、农产品和供应市场合作社、第三方物流和分配系统组成。

建筑设计外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)外文：Structural Design of Reinforced Concrete Sloping Roof Abstract: This paper point out common mistakes and problems in actual engineering design according immediately poured reinforced concrete sloping roof especially common residential structure.It brings out layout and design concept use folded plate and arch shell structure in order to reduction or elimination beam and column Layout to reduce costs and expand use function for user of garret . The paper also discussed the need to open the roof holes, windows, and with other design with complex forms . The corresponding simple approximate calculation method and the structure treatment also described in this paper.Keywords : sloping roof;folded plate; along plane load;vertical plane load1. IntroductionIn recent years, reinforced concrete slope of the roof has been very common seen, the correct method of it’s design need establish urgently It’s target is to abolish or reduce the roof beams and columns, to obtain big room and make the roof plate "clean ". This not only benefits tructure specialty itself but also to the design of the building professionals to develop new field, and ultimately to allow users, property developers benefited,and so it has far-reaching significance.In the common practice engineering practice, a designer in the calculation of the mechanical model often referred sloping roof as vertical sloping roof under the projection plane Beam, or take level ridge, ramps ridge contour as a framework and increase unnecessary beam and tilt column . In fact ,the stress is similar between General square planar housing, double slope, multi-slope roof and arch, shell.Ping and oblique ridge are folded plate like “A”, whether layout beams and columns, its ridge line of the deformation pattern is different from the framework fundamentally. All these method will make the difference between calculation results and real internal structure force. During the construction process, housing backbone, plate bias department template has complex shapes, multi-angle bars overlap, installation and casting is very difficult. These projects are common in construction and is a typical superfluous. Some scholars use the elastic shell theory to analyze folded plate roof、internal force and deformation, reveals the vertical loads law of surrounding the base is neither level rise nor the vertical displacement which to some extent reflects the humps and shell’s features .But assume that boundary conditions which is very different from general engineering actual situation and covered the eaves of a vertical cross-settlement and bottom edge under the fundamental characteristics of rally, so it is not for general engineering design .2. Outlines of MethodsFor most frequently span, the way to cancel the backbone of housing, didn’t add axillary often. But in the periphery under the eaves to the framework need established grid-beam or beams over windows. For long rectangular planar multi-room, multi-column, building professionals in a horizontal layout of the partition wall between each pair of columns and the direction set deep into the same thickness width have possession of a gathering of the rafah beam profiles . Pull beam above has a two-slope roof plate affixed sloping beams expect smaller span. For residential,if it has no needs according construction professional, we will be able to achieve within the household no ceiling beams exposed, see figure 1. Similar lattice theory, this approach emphasizes the use of axial force component effe ct, But is different with the truss because it’s load distribution along the bar not only single but also along the axis of the plate. Generally each plate has force characteristics of folded plate, for bear gravity at the roof, wind, earthquake loads, caused the plate along with the internal force components, each plate is equivalent to strengthen the thin flange beams .Among vertical bearing , it is thin-walled beams anti-edge horizontal component to balance Wang thrust formed by arch shell effect. When plates bear the the vertical component load, each plate is equivalent to a solid edge embedded multilateral bearing plates .The design feature of this method is establish and perfect the sloping roof of the arch, folded plate system Consciously, at top of the roof, using a minimal level of rafah balance beam ramp at the level of thrust.It’s calculation methods can be divided into hand algorithm and computer paper, this paper focus on the hand algorithm.Hand algorithm take the single-slope plate of sloping roof plate as slider , through approximate overall analysis, Simplified boundary conditions of determine plate,solving load effect along level and vertical plane, Internal forces of various linear superposition under the condition of assumption of normal straight, testing stability and integrated reinforcement. The method pursuit of operational, use general engineer familiar calculation steps to address more complex issues.This method is suitable for the framework structure, little modifications also apply to masonrystructure or Frame-wall structure. General arch structure have good anti-seismic performance, if designed properly, the sloping roof will also do so. In this paper the pseudo-static is used to analysis earthquake effects.3. Analysis and Design for Along Plane Effect of LoadsFirst regard to cross profile of figure 1,we analysis equal width rectangular parts of long trapezoidal panels 1、2. as for approximate calculation,it is take plane loads along plane as a constant just like four rectangular plate can be simplified to one-way slab,we take along to long unit width narrow structure as analysis object ,take hinged arch model shown in figure 2.图2a图3a图2b图3b图2c图3cIn Figure 2 the right supports vertical linkage representatives roof beams supporting role, ramps connecting rod on behalf of the board itself thin beam reaction effect which is virtual and approximate equivalent. We would like to calculate two anti-bearing.Because the total pressure of physical project through two plate roof beams and transfer to the ends column, So Anti two numerical difference can be seen as two plates bear along with the plane load and roof beams bear the vertical load pressure. Two Anti power link expressions in Various conditions were given as follows, because the model take units width,so the results is line averageload distribution except it has Focus quality in house.They are bouth represent by N , English leftover subscript s, b, represent the plane along the roof panels and vertical role in the roof beam, g, w, e,represent gravity, air pressure and the level of earthquake separately. d, c, represent distribution of concentrated load or effect separately, In the formula h is thicness of every plate,g is gravitation acceleration, a is roof for the horizontal seismic acceleration value formula, Wk represent the standard value Pressure.m with number footnotesrepresent every numbered ramp the quality distribution per unit area ,m with english footnotes represent quality of per location.as to two symmetrical slopes, the formula can be more concise.Figure 2a represent situation of vertical gravity load ,these formulas as follows:()()'''111100110cos cos 38cos cos cos cos L AL L m L AL N l h l h l m ωαβμααββ-=++ ()()()()'10000000101'100000cos cos 2cos cos 8sin cos 8sin cos cos 8sin cos cos cos l l l l l h m m s h N l l h h l h l μαβωααηαβωμβββαββααβ++-=--++()()()()101101110100001012111cos 2cos cos 2L L L L L L L m LL L L mLL L L L L L N h B hL hL LIμξβαβ⎡⎤⎛⎫⎛⎫⎛⎫--+-+--+⎢⎥ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭⎝⎭⎣⎦=++()()()()()001001110011200101021000110111121cos sin 2sin 2sin cos cos A L h L m LL L L mL L m a L L L L h h L m l m N L L L Ah L L k B h L h L δδββββαβ⎛⎫⎛⎫⎡⎤⎛⎫-+-+--+ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪⎢⎥+⎝⎭⎝⎭⎝⎭⎣⎦=+---++Figure 2b represent situation of bear wind load, these formulas as follows:()()222211122111cos cos cos 8cos cos cos cos wkL h L L S li N a L h h b ωαωββαβα-=++ ()()()()22222001111222212110cos cos cos 11cos cos cos cos sin 5cos sin cos cos sin cos k K L h l w L w w h w h m L N l l AL h L a h L αωαβαβλαβααββββαββ⎡⎤-⎡⎤+⎢⎥=+++-+⎢⎥++⎢⎥⎣⎦⎣⎦Figure 2c represent situation of role of level earthquake, these formulas as follows:()()2222210011022001sin cos sin cos 3sin cos cos cos cos cos a a L h l L L N L h l hl αμβαωαβωβδαβαβδβ+=--+ ()()()()222221011120322222102101sin cos sin cos sin sin sin 3cos 2ln cos 5ln cos cos cos cos a l h m l m L m m m N n s l l l g h l h l δβααβαββββαβαβαβ++=++++ ()()()0010011012110121000111sin cos 2cos 2cos cos cos a a L L m L L L n L L L L L nh L N L l h l h l ββαβαβ⎡⎤⎛⎫⎛⎫-+-+⎢⎥ ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭⎢⎥=+⎢⎥+⎢⎥⎢⎥⎣⎦ ()00000201sin 2cos a a L m L L L h L l θβα⎡⎤⎛⎫-+-⎢⎥ ⎪⎝⎭⎣⎦+()()()2000010121001sin sin cos sin cos sin cos cos 2sin cos a e L m L L L h L m m N l l h βααβαββαβββ⎡⎤⎛⎫-+-⎢⎥ ⎪+⎝⎭⎣⎦=-+ ()()()001001001221111221001sin 1sin cos 2cos 2cos cos cos sin a a L L L L L L m L L L L L h L h l L h l h ωαββαβαββ⎡⎤⎛⎫⎛⎫-+-+⎢⎥ ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭⎢⎥-+⎢⎥+⎢⎥⎢⎥⎣⎦ When vertical seismic calculation required by Seismic Design ParametersIt’s calculate formula generally similar as formula 1 to 4 which only need take gravity g asvertical seismic acceleration a. Above formulas apply to right bearings in figure 2 and also to left when exchange data of two plate.As end triangle of Multi-slope roof ,for simplify and approximate calculation need, we assume two lines distribution load only produced by roof board of several load, effect.now II-II cross-section from figure is took to analysis Long trapezoidal plate two’s end triangle, assuming the structure symmetry approximately, take half of structure to establish model (figure 3). Because linked with the end triangular plate-3 plane has great lateral stiffness ,therefore assume the model leftist stronghold along the central component around which can not be shifted direction. Central Plate vertical stiffness small, in general gravity load of roughly symmetric midpoint only next movement happened possible, Therefore, the model used parallel two-link connection. Wind loading, and the general role of the earthquake in two slope was roughly antisymmetric,so plate model in the central use fixed hinge bearings which allow rotation and transtlateral force to plate 3near the plate beam. Under plate two triangular area is eaves of vertical beams and plates itself along with plane load distribution is functionshown in Figure 1 take the variable x as an argument,assume the distance from position of section II to end part is x 0s so the slope level length is y 0=x 0L 2/L 3,formula 11 to 14 is the value of Vertical triangle of gravity along the x direction arbitrary location of the two load distribution ,where h 3 is Slitting vertical thickness of plate 3.()22001cos 212cos e a a mkxL h x N L sh v l x ββ⎡⎤=-⎢⎥+-⎢⎥⎣⎦ ()211121001sin cos 212cos m kvL h x N l xh x L V βββ⎡⎤=+⎢⎥+-⎢⎥⎣⎦ ()22000002221100max 1123cos L La h L L L L N VL h h l a V L L αγβ⎡⎤⎛⎫=---⎢⎥ ⎪+-⎢⎥⎝⎭⎣⎦ ()22201000112222201001ln 23cos a L L h l L L L n V s xl h v h L x x l L ββ⎡⎤⎛⎫=+-⎢⎥ ⎪+-⎢⎥⎝⎭⎣⎦ As wind load and earthquake effect, sketch could use approximate figure 3b 、3c and use method of structural mechanics to solve But the process is cumbersome and reasonable extent is limited .the wind and earthquake effect is not important compare with the load effect. Moreover,the triangle area is small As approximate calculation, such direct-use rectangular plate slope calculation is more convenient and not obvious waste. The method of solve two load distribution of plate three is same as the solution of Long trapezoidal plate area just make the change of x and y、L2 and L3 in figure 1.The actual profile is part III-III shown in figure 1A B C图4a图4b BDFigure 4 is vertical launch plan and bear load portfolio value of roof ramp shown in Figure 1 to analysis inclined plate and the internal forces of the anti-bearing column . in the figure hypotenuse is oblique roof equal to strengthen frame, Similar wind ramp truss rod and the next edge portfolio, could form the dark truss system ,while long rectangular plate can be seen as part of thin-walled beams, which could also be seen as truss. Therefore, we called roof boarding the plane formed a "thin-walled beam-truss" system, in concrete theory, between the truss and the b eam have no natural divide . it’s no need hand count accurate internal forces and bearing force to such a joint system, Because on the one hand span more, big bending stiffness structure sensitive to the bearing uneven subsidence and have to stay safe reserves; on the other hand it has high cross-section, by increasing reinforced to increase capacity on the cost impact is not significant. Specific algorithm is: Single-ramp calculate by simple cradle, Multi-Span ramp’s bending moment, shear, and supporting anti-edge use the calculate value by the possible maximum numerical control methods, Moment is calculate by simple cradle two sides of supports middle Shear, negative moment and support force calculate according to bearing this continuous, two-hinged, about two span take the largest one. Pin-Pin bearing shear force that is supported by the inter-simple calculate according to simple cradle. But in this method the location of the various internal force’s safety level is uneven expansion, appropriate adjustmen t should be made is late calculation. No mater f the triangular or rectangular part of plate, Thin-plane bending rebar can get by method of moment right boards from the bottom point for the moment distance whichassigned to the eaves or roof. The author believe it has no necessary control number of reinforcement according to smallest beams reinforced rate. On the rim of triangle equivalent to ramp strut can shear entirety. when consider the end is weak can properly reinforced its roof beam below the reinforcement. If shear required stirrup in the rectangular part of thin-walled, should superposition to the beam, generally it’s no need to intentionally imaginary abdominal strengthening reinforcement at rod position.4. Calculation and Design of Pull Beam and Roof BeamsBy column in figure 1 marked calculated value of supporting force and their level of vertical component, horizontal component of the total force multiplied by the cosine of angle. Take column A as example, the first footnotes in R A2 is column number, the first footnotes represent the force generated by the panel two. Their horizontal component balanced by triangle three under the eaves of beams. horizontal component of intermediate support reaction is balanced by the two-level pull beam in deep direction. Then pull beam and above the sloping beams constitutes steel Arch. Because of the existence of antisymmetric load, bilateral role in the anti-power-level components may be inconsistent and pull beam should take the average lag. consider the support impact of uneven settlement, the level pull beam design should take bigger value.Roof beams general under four internal forces: First of the above is levels Rally, The second is axial force generated when oblique roofing in the flange plate plane bending. The third is the vertical load to bear as the roof slab edge beams under bending moment, shear ,like board supported by multi-faceted, Actual force is smaller than bear calculated by one-way plate N b,Fourth is the effect of lateral framework of internal forces .it should linear superposition ,Composite Reinforced, in the situation of weight Load, span and the small dip, checking computations should be took for tension beams cracking, appropriate intensify the section, with fine steel, including the side beams of steel beams rafah terminal should take two meander anchorage,just like letter L With ng as 10d long bends, meander 135 degrees angle and put pull beam intersection with the vertical reinforcement column touting the Meander overcast horn.This paper take model in figure 1 as example, ignore tigers window , 4 sloping roof are 35 o angle, the length of roof slab dimensions are shown in figure 4. Plate unit area quality is 350kg/m2,Overhaul live load is 0.50 kN/m2, Pressure standard of windward side is 0.21 kN/m2, Leeward face is -0.45 kN/m2, Design value of roof horizontal seismic acceleration is 0.1g, Calculate the bearing capacity limit by standardizing, Considered separately with and without seismic load effect of the combination basic design value,we use combination of without earthquake force through compare，Load calculation and analysis results of every position shown in table 1:5. Analysis and Design for Roof of the Vertical Loads Under Sloping RoofSlabs as a Multilateral Support PlateFolded plate structure has character of “unified of borad and frame”: General intersection of each pair of ramps are for mutual support, both sides of the transition line’ plate can be counted dogleg small rotation and transmission, distribution Moment.Under load control which is the role of gravity the two sloping geometry load roughly symmetrical occasions, there is no corner at symmetry capital turning point, Approximate seen as the plate embedded solid edge.if take out a distance by plate of eaves, plate of inside ridge also formation to negative moment,and long roof slabs in the plate sloping beams department and neighbor plate linked together, these all can be approximated as embedded-plate edge to process.For antisymmetric load like horizontal seismic load,the Ping roof should be treated as shear,but it is not control load usually. Plate final design moment value is the status of various unfavorable combination of linear superposition, from the cross-sectional direction plate reinforced by the columns, Reference, balance the require of concrete deep beams of tectonic, upper plate for Moment of negative reinforcement should be reinforced at all or an entire cross-leader, as they also serve as a deep beam distribution lumbartendons or stirrup. plate in the bottom vertical with reinforcement eaves, Negative reinforcementin accordance with their respective calcualte requirements,and it is different after superpositionstirrups requirementBoth sides of "stirrup" in this situation cann’t linked at awnings edge follow shape “U”, can bebent to shape "L" follow upper and down direction,legnth of packs could equal to thickness ofplate.It should enhenced at the node of ramp at the intersection appropriately. It recommended thatuse swagger tectonic shown as in Figure 5 considing simple structure without axillary at thesituation of Cloudy angle without pull. To ensure all reinforced Installing accuracy, Few of therhombus with the supports and rebar stirrups could be added to formed positioning Skeleton atstrengthening reinforced department in the figure, Let two later installed sloping steel plate tie toits lashing,designers should use a three-dimensional geometric method to accurately calculate thediamond stirrups limb edge length and Forming a swagger construction plans6. Calculating and processing of open window and hole in sloping roofAssume the plate in figure 6 has a big hole whose wideth is b ,height is h 0 ,assuming that tungcenter along with the plane bending moment, shear, respectively are M and V through overall calculation, use vierendeel calculation method get about middle cave:1XO MM T τ= 2NR MM T τ=3113312h V V h h =+ 0XO NR M M M V h --= Where I 1、I 2 、I respectively represent upp er and down plate limb’s Section moment of inertia anddouble limbs section moment of inertia.while Edge Moment by hole is:1113I M V b M α=+ 2212I M V b M μ=+not very big by the hole, close to the neutral axis in most cases overall, under the no-hole design of the reinforced the opening hole after the plane can meet the demands by calculation,under the no-hole design of the reinforced the opening hole after the plane can meet the demands by calculation.General tiger win dow’s form prominent roof Facade which a hole had opened up and the other faces a concrete slab closed.when analysis of vertical slab roof slab surface loads ,compare with without windows and roof slabs hole window sheet increased load. profiles of window’s folded plate form make it reduce the bending stiffness compare with without hole roof board, But with the profile hole edge which parallel to the vertical plate is a partial increase in bending stiffness. In the absence of the vertical plate window subordinate legislation should have upturns beam to increase stiffness of the surrounding caves near.in this way i can temporarily ignore the plate stiffness variation acording to the actual load, size and boundary conditions by entities plate to calculate psitive and negative moment and further processing nodes.it should point out that theRoof ramp layout hole edge ideal location is near the plate-bending line, especially in the open side of the window because it was cut down byvertical transmission line of the moment. If the roof slab roof beams department no outward roof then the actual plate-bending force on the line near the roof beam reversed also true, Because of this architects should strive for when determine oosition of tiger position take appropriate care.When pin tung far away from line-bending window wall and roofing in the intersection must bear folded plate and transmission moment, but compare with plate without hole its capacity is weaken surely,and it’s node turn into weak parts. To fill thy judgment and calculation errorstwo panels can be double reinforcement. When the hole is less than line-bending scope should increase negative reinforcement around to keep overall security plate bearing capacity. To ensure steel plate in place accuratly,also should use positioning stirrups and longitudinal reinforcement constitute skeleton similar as figure 5. Hoop end within vertical bars should be strengthen steel and end cave corner should be harvested more than one anchor length to make sure that bottom of the cave 4 tensile stress concentration.7. Stabilize Roof SlopeIn China's V-shaped folded plate structure design norms,the method prevent both sides of theflanges at local instability is limit its generous ratio,This requirement come from the use of isotropic plate buckling theory analysis. In research the flanges outside instability in critical state, the boundary conditions of winglets suppose as freedom outside, fixed interior, pre - and post-hinged on both sides,the situation plates subjected to the bending stress to solve width and height ratio corresponding with the critical pressure compressive stress. When the grade of concreteIs C30,the limit of width and height(b/t)ratio is 47, take 35 as stress non-normative value. Concrete elastic modulus and strength levels is not a linear relationship if use high-strength concrete other study should be taken. In the actual slope roof only a long row to the middle plate bearing plate outside may receive pressure. And here is just the pouringplate affixed roof sloping beams and horizontal pull beam cast together.Have no possible of rollover and foreign rising displacement. norms limited of folded plate span is 21m. roof below and the vertical column spacing generally much smaller it. And the board which into one with roof beams changed boundary conditions of plate, anti-great instability role also very big. For other locations ramp vertical compression edge May also set up the appropriate plate edge beams all these method will receive beyond the norms of redundant safety. Taking into account the plate shear plane, while the vertical direction of the load caused the exit plane effects, Therefore, the grasp of security of caution should cautious. This paper proposed ramp thickness not less than to the short span of 1 / 35 which also conform to design experience of generally confined SLABS, Concrete should graded between C25 and C35 while Steel should I or class II.puter Calculation Method of Local Sloping Roof Structure andOverall ICC of Overall StructureAny calculate software with inclined plate shell modules and the modules bar structural finite element can calculation of competent sloping roof. Shell element of each node have 3 membrane freedom and three panels freedom and can analysis the plane board and internal forces Of out-of-plane effects. However, the current prevalence of certain spatial structure finite element computer program which although have shell model but some are not inclined plate, some not right at the same plane, the stress state and foreign integrated reinforcement are not perfect. Withstructures becoming more diverse, complex and ramp space problems often encountered. Such software should expand its pre - and post-processing functions for conversion of shell element stiffness matrix and loading vector in the direction of freedom and further analysis of ramp space, the space of concrete against stress integrated reinforcement. In a fundamental sense manual method and the finite element method are interchangeable but the result may be very different. As long as layout roof component as this concept,then use the software to calculate can fast, precise, to achieve this goal of this paper.From the eaves to the roof elevation areas, the whole roof of anti-lateral stiffness lower than mutation, quality small than lower,this could not easy to simulate in calculation of whole housing. At the top construction of the seismic as higher-mode response which is also whiplash effect, the earthquake-lateral force may be abnormal and have effect on under layers. Therefore, in the partial hand count roof occasions when take ICC analysis to the overall structure, it proposed roof layer use model of tilt rod ramp support to reduce effect on the overall results distortion.If use software with function of space ramp handling and sloping roof modeling with shell element,all will be wrapped from top to bottom. Top results can be directly used and the distortion of the overall impact would cease to exist.10. Conclusion1）Concrete ramps, side beams in different directions superposition of internal forces, reinforced and ramp stability, the hole limits all to be do in-depth study related this research. Similar typical problems are top floor of structural transformation layer and box-type base box side wall all their research results can be used to adopt.It’s a important method do observation on project; finite element analysis ICC will be more economical, practical and popular. Currently existing completed sloping roof no matter the subjective designers use what kind of assumptions and analysis and whether reinforcement is reasonable as long as the overall structure of the objective reality, create a space folded plate and the arch system that their current work state can be used to summarize and draw upon.2）This structure forms make a new world of design concept of use the top floor and impact on people's living habits.The economic, social benefits it taked will gradually revealed,however it need interaction of architectural and structural professionals and People’s awareness andinformation and even real estate management policies and other support aspects.This method is hard for structure professional,some specific details have no norms to follow at present. This is the challenges sructure staff faced and also the happy exist.references[1]Francis D.K.Ching A Visual Dictionary of Architecture, International Thomson Publishing Inc. 1997.[2]Jiang Fengqing :internal forces of Simply supported two-way pack square plate, Civil Engineering Journal,1982(2)[3]Lai Mingyuan.Zhang Guxin:Deflection and internal forces of Simple peripheral portfolio folded plate roof, Civil Engineering Journal,1992(2)[4] ]Lai Mingyuan: Deflection and internal forces of Simple flattened four folded plate roof slope, Civil Engineering Journal, 1995(1)[5]Li Kaixi.Cui Jia:Local Stability About Yan Beam, Building Structures ,1996(1) [6]user manuals and technical conditions of Multi-storey high-rise building and the space finite element structural analysis and design software SATWE, PKPM CAD department of China Building Research Academy[7]Chen Xinghui.Lin Yuankun: Several calculation problems in the design of V-folded plate roof , Scientific publishing house,1985[8]current building structure norms, China Construction Industry Press,2002译文：钢筋混凝土坡屋顶的结构设计简介：本文对于现浇钢筋混凝土坡屋顶，尤其是常见的住宅结构，指出实际工程中常见的设计错误及问题。

毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译院系：土木工程与建筑系年级专业：土木工程姓名：学号：附件：盾构SHIELDS指导老师评语：指导教师签名：年月日S HIEL D S【Abstr act】A tunnel shield is a structural system, used during the face excavation process. The paper mainly discusses the form and the structure of the shield. Propulsion for the shield is provided by a series of hydraulic jacks installed in the tail of the shield and the shield is widespread used in the underground environment where can not be in long time stable. The main enemy of the shield is ground pressure. Non-uniform ground pressure caused by the steering may act on the skin tends to force the shield off line and grade. And working decks inside the shield enable the miners to excavate the face, drill and load holes.【Keywor ds】shield hydraulic jacks ground pressure steering working decksA tunnel shield is a structural system, normally constructed of steel, used during the face excavation process. The shield has an outside configuration which matches the tunnel. The shield provides protection for the men and equipment and also furnished initial ground support until structural supports can be installed within the tail section of the shield. The shield also provides a reaction base for the breast-board system used to control face movement. The shield may have either an open or closed bottom. In a closed-bottom shield, the shield structure and skin provide 360-degree ground contact and the weight of the shield rests upon the invert section of the shield skin. The open shield has no bottom section and requires some additional provision is a pair of side drifts driven in advance of shield excavation. Rails or skid tracks are installed within these side drifts to provide bearing support for the shield.Shield length generally varies from1/2 to 3/4 of the tunnel diameter. The front of the shield is generally hooded to so that the top of the shield protrudes forward further than the invert portion which provides additional protection for the men working at the face and also ease pressure on the breast-boards. The steel skin of the shield may varyfrom 1.3 to 10 cm in thickness, depending on the expected ground pressures. The type of steel used in the shield is the subject of many arguments within the tunneling fraternity. Some prefer mild steel in the A36 category because of its ductility and case of welding in the underground environment where precision work is difficult. Others prefer a high-strength steel such as T-1 because of its higher strength/w eight ratio. Shield weight may range from 5 to 500 tons. Most of the heaviest shields are found in the former Sovier Union because of their preference for cast-iron in both structural and skin elements.Propulsion for the shield is provided by a series of hydraulic jacks installed in the tail of the shield that thrust against the last steel set that has been installed. The total required thrust will vary with skin area and ground pressure. Several shields have been constructed with total thrust capabilities in excess of 10000 tons. Hydraulic systems are usually self-contained, air-motor powered, and mounted on the shield. Working pressures in the hydraulic system may range from 20-70 Mpa. To resist the thrust of the shield jacks, a horizontal structure member (collar brace) must be installed opposite each jack location and between the flanges of the steel set. In addition, some structural provision must be made for transferring this thrust load into the tunnel walls. Without this provision the thrust will extend through the collar braces to the tunnel portal.An Englishman, Marc Brunel, is credited with inventing the shield. Brunel supposedly got his idea by studying the action of the Teredo navalis, a highly destructive woodworm, when he was working at the Chatham dock yard. In 1818 Brunel obtained an English patent for his rectangular shield which was subsequently uses to construct the first tunnel under the River Thames in London. In 1869 the first circular shield was devised by Barlow and Great Head in London and is referred to as the Great Head-type shield. Later that same year, Beach in New York City produced similar shield. The first use of the circular shield came during 1869 when Barlow and Great Head employed their device in the construction of the 2.1 in diameter Tower Subway under the River Thames. Despite the name of the tunnel, it was used only for pedestrian traffic. Beach also put his circular shield to work in 1869 to construct a demonstration project for a proposed NewYork City subway system. The project consisted of a 2.4 m diameter tunnel, 90 m long, used to experiment with a subway car propelled by air pressure.Here are some tunnels which were built by shield principle.Soft-ground tunneling Some tunnels are driven wholly or mostly through soft material. In very soft ground, little or no blasting is necessary because the material is easily excavated.At first, forepoling was the only method for building tunnels through very soft ground. Forepoles are heavy planks about 1.5 m long and sharpened to a point. They were inserted over the top horizontal bar of the bracing at the face of the tunnel. The forepoles were driven into the ground of the face with an outward inclination. After all the roof poles were driven for about half of their length, a timber was laid across their exposed ends to counter any strain on the outer ends. The forepoles thus provided an extension of the tunnel support, and the face was extended under them. When the ends of the forepoles were reached, new timbering support was added, and the forepoles were driven into the ground for the next advance of the tunneling.The use of compressed air simplified working in soft ground. An airlock was built, though which men and equipment passed, and sufficient air pressure was maintained at the tunnel face to hold the ground firm during excavation until timbering or other support was erected.Another development was the use of hydraulically powered shields behind which cast-iron or steel plates were placed on the circumference of the tunnels. These plates provided sufficient support for the tunnel while the work proceeded, as well as full working space for men in the tunnel.Under water tunneling The most difficult tunneling is that undertaken at considerable depths below a river or other body of water. In such cases, water seeps through porous material or crevices, subjecting the work in progress to the pressure of the water above the tunneling path. When the tunnel is driven through stiff clay, the flow of water may be small enough to be removed by pumping. In more porous ground,compressed air must be used to exclude water. The amount of air pressure that is needed increases as the depth of the tunnel increases below the surface.A circular shield has proved to be most efficient in resisting the pressure of soft ground, so most shield-driven tunnels are circular. The shield once consisted of steel plates and angle supports, with a heavily braced diaphragm across its face. The diaphragm had a number of openings with doors so that workers could excavate material in front of the shield. In a further development, the shield was shoved forward into the silty material of a riverbed, thereby squeezing displaced material through the doors and into the tunnel, from which the muck was removed. The cylindrical shell of the shield may extend several feet in front of the diaphragm to provide a cutting edge. A rear section, called the tail, extends for several feet behind the body of the shield to protect workers. In large shields, an erector arm is used in the rear side of the shield to place the metal support segments along the circumference of the tunnel.The pressure against the forward motion of a shield may exceed 48.8 Mpa. Hydraulic jacks are used to overcome this pressure and advance the shield, producing a pressure of about 245 Mpa on the outside surface of the shield.Shields can be steered by varying the thrust of the jacks from left side to right side or from top to bottom, thus varying the tunnel direction left or right or up or down. The jacks shove against the tunnel lining for each forward shove. The cycle of operation is forward shove, line, muck, and then another forward shove. The shield used about 1955 on the third tube of the Lincoln Tunnel in New York City was 5.5 m long and 9.6 m in diameter. It was moved about 81.2 cm per shove, permitting the fabrication of a 81.2 cm support ring behind it.Cast-iron segments commonly are used in working behind such a shield. They are erected and bolted together in a short time to provide strength and water tightness. In the third tube of the Lincoln Tunnel each segment is 2 m long, 81.2 cm wide, and 35.5 cm thick, and weighs about 1.5 tons. These sections form a ring of 14 segments that are linked together by bolts. The bolts were tightened by hand and then by machine.Immediately after they were in place, the sections were sealed at the joints to ensure permanent water tightness.Shields are most commonly used in ground condition where adequate stand-up time does not exist. The advantage of the shield in this type of ground, in addition to the protection afforded men and equipment , is the time available to install steel ribs, liner plates, or precast concrete segments under the tail segment of the shield before ground pressure and movement become adverse factors.One of the principle problems associated with shield use is steering. Non-uniform ground pressure acting on the skin tends to force the shield off line and grade. This problem is particularly acute with closed bottom shield that do not ride on rails or skid tracks. Steering is accomplished by varying the hydraulic pressure in individual thrust jacks. If the shied is trying to dive, additional pressure on the invert jacks will resist this tendency. It is not unusual to find shield wandering several feet from the required. Although lasers are frequently used to provide continuous line and grade data to operator, once the shield wanders off its course, its sheer bulk resists efforts to bring it back. Heterogeneous ground conditions, such as clay with random boulders, also presents steering problems.One theoretical disadvantage of the shield is the annular space left between the support system and the ground surface. When the support system is installed within the tail section of the shield, the individual support members are separated from the ground surface by the thickness of the tail skin. When steel ribs are used, the annular space is filled with timber blocking as the forward motion of the shield exposes the individual ribs.A continuous support system presents a different problem. In this case, a filler material, such as pea gravel or grout, is pumped behind the support system to fill the void between it and the ground surface.The main enemy of the shield is ground pressure. As ground pressure begins to build, two things happen, more thrust is required for shield propulsion and stress increases in the structural members of the shield. Shields are designed and function undera preselected ground pressure. Designers will select this pressure as a percentage of the maximum ground pressure contemplated by the permanent tunnel design. In some cases, unfortunately, the shield just gets built without specific consideration of the ground pressures it might encounter. When ground pressure exceeds the design limit, the shield gets “stuck”.The friction component of the ground pressure on the skin becomes greater than the thrust capability of the jacks. Several methods, including pumping bentonite slurry into the skin, ground interface, pushing heavy equipment, and bumping with dynamite, have been applied to stuck shields with occasional success.Because ground pressure tends to increase with time, the cardinal rule of operation is “keeping moving”.This accounts for the fracture activity when a shield has suffered a temporary mechanical failure. As ground pressure continues to build on the nonmoving shield , the load finally exceeds its structural limit and bucking begins. An example of shield destruction occurred in California in 1968 when two shields being used to drive the Carly V.Porter Tunnel were caught by excessive ground pressure and deformed beyond repair. One of the Porter Tunnel shields was brought to a halt in reasonably good ground by water bearing ground fault that required full breast-boards. While the contractor was trying to bring the face under control, skin pressure began to increase. While the face condition finally stabilized, the contractor prepared to resume operations and discovered the shield was stuck. No combination of methods was able to move it, and the increasing ground pressure destroyed the shield.To offset the ground pressure effect, a standard provision in design is a cutting edge radius several inches greater than the main body radius. This allows a certain degree o f ground movement before pressure can come to bear on the shield skin. Another approach, considered in theory but not yet put into practice, is the “w atermelon seed”design. The theory calls for a continuous taper in the shield configuration; maximum radius at the cutting edge and the minimum radius at the trailing edge of the tail. With this configuration, any amount of forward movement would create a drop in skin pressure.Working decks, spaced 2.4 to 3.0 m vertically, are provided inside the shield. These working decks enable the miners to excavate the face, drill and load holes, if necessary, and adjust the breast-board system. The hydraulic jacks for the breast-board are mounted on the underside of the work decks. Blast doors are sometimes installed as an integral part of the work decks if a substantial amount of blasting is expected.Some form of mechanical equipment is provided on the rear end of the working decks to assist the miners in handing and placing the element of the support system. In large tunnels, these individual support elements can weigh several tons and mechanical assistance becomes essential. Sufficient vertical clearance must be provided between the invert and the first working deck to permit access to the face by the loading equipment.盾构【摘要】隧道盾构是一结构系统，通常用于洞室开挖。

乡村旅游中英文对照外文翻译文献Assessment of Rural Tourism in Turkey Using SWOT Analysisn:XXX。

located at the crossroads of Asia。

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and Africa。

covers an area of approximately 780,000 square kilometers and has a coastline of 8,000 kilometers。

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the country has a n of 67,803,927.with approximately 35% XXX has nearly 37,000 villages。

with two-thirds of them having pXXX。

one-third of XXX.Body:XXX years。

In order to assess the potential of rural tourism in XXX。

a SWOT (Strengths。

Weaknesses。

Opportunities。

and Threats) analysis was conducted.Strengths:Turkey has a rich cultural heritage。

with many XXX。

as well as natural beauty。

such as mountains。

forests。

XXX。

XXX。

XXX.XXX:One of the main XXX。

many rural areas lack access to basic services such as XXX。

XXX.Opportunities:There is a growing XXX has recognized this trend and has XXX。

- 1 -中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)外文文献外文文献: :Designing Against Fire Of BulidingABSTRACT:This paper considers the design of buildings for fire safety. It is found that fire and the associ- ated effects on buildings is significantly different to other forms of loading such as gravity live loads, wind and earthquakes and their respective effects on the building structure. Fire events are derived from the human activities within buildings or from the malfunction of mechanical and electrical equipment provided within buildings to achieve a serviceable environment. It is therefore possible to directly influence the rate of fire starts within buildings by changing human behaviour, improved maintenance and improved design of mechanical and electricalsystems. Furthermore, should a fire develops, it is possible to directly influence the resulting fire severity by the incorporation of fire safety systems such as sprinklers and to provide measures within the building to enable safer egress from the building. The ability to influence the rate of fire starts and the resulting fire severity is unique to the consideration of fire within buildings since other loads such as wind and earthquakes are directly a function of nature. The possible approaches for designing a building for fire safety are presented using an example of a multi-storey building constructed over a railway line. The design of both the transfer structure supporting the building over the railway and the levels above the transfer structure are consideredin the context of current regulatory requirements. The principles and assumptions associ- ated with various approaches are discussed.1 INTRODUCTIONOther papers presented in this series consider the design of buildings for gravity loads, wind and earthquakes.The design of buildings against such load effects is to a large extent covered by engineering based standards referenced by the building regulations. This is not the case, to nearly the same extent, in the case of fire. Rather, it is building regulations such as the Building Code of Australia (BCA) that directly specify most of the requirements for fire safety of buildings with reference being made to Standards such as AS3600 or AS4100 for methods for determining the fire resistance of structural elements.The purpose of this paper is to consider the design of buildings for fire safety from an engineering perspective (as is currently done for other loads such as wind or earthquakes), whilst at the same time,putting such approaches in the context of the current regulatory requirements.At the outset,it needs to be noted that designing a building for fire safety is far more than simply considering the building structure and whether it has sufficient structural adequacy.This is because fires can have a direct influence on occupants via smoke and heat and can grow in size and severity unlike other effects imposed on the building. Notwithstanding these comments, the focus of this paper will be largely on design issues associated with the building structure.Two situations associated with a building are used for the purpose of discussion. The multi-storey office building shown in Figure 1 is supported by a transfer structure that spans over a set of railway tracks. It is assumed that a wide range of rail traffic utilises these tracks including freight and diesel locomotives. The first situation to be considered from a fire safety perspective is the transfer structure.This is termed Situation 1 and the key questions are: what level of fire resistance is required for this transfer structure and how can this be determined? This situation has been chosen since it clearly falls outside the normal regulatory scope of most build-ing regulations. An engineering solution, rather than a prescriptive one is required. The second fire situation (termed Situation 2) corresponds to a fire within the office levels of the building and is covered by building regulations. This situation is chosen because it will enable a discussion of engineering approaches and how these interface with the building regulations regulations––since both engineering and prescriptive solutions are possible.2 UNIQUENESS OF FIRE2.1 Introduction Wind and earthquakes can be considered to b Wind and earthquakes can be considered to be “natural” phenomena o e “natural” phenomena o e “natural” phenomena over which designers ver which designers have no control except perhaps to choose the location of buildings more carefully on the basis of historical records and to design building to resist sufficiently high loads or accelerations for the particular location. Dead and live loads in buildings are the result of gravity. All of these loads are variable and it is possible (although generally unlikely) that the loads may exceed the resistance of the critical structural members resulting in structural failure.The nature and influence of fires in buildings are quite different to those associated with other“loads” to which a building may be subjected to. The essential differences are described in the following sections.2.2 Origin of FireIn most situations (ignoring bush fires), fire originates from human activities within the building or the malfunction of equipment placed within the building to provide a serviceable environment. It follows therefore that it is possible to influence the rate of fire starts by influencing human behaviour, limiting and monitoring human behaviour and improving the design of equipment and its maintenance. This is not the case for the usual loads applied to a building.2.3 Ability to InfluenceSince wind and earthquake are directly functions of nature, it is not possible to influence such events to any extent. One has to anticipate them and design accordingly. It may be possibleto influence the level of live load in a building by conducting audits and placing restrictions on contents. However, in the case of a fire start, there are many factors that can be brought to bear to influence the ultimate size of the fire and its effect within the building. It is known that occupants within a building will often detect a fire and deal with it before it reaches a sig- nificant size. It is estimated that less than one fire in five (Favre, 1996) results in a call to the fire brigade and for fires reported to the fire brigade, the majority will be limited to the room of fire origin. Inoc- cupied spaces, olfactory cues (smell) provide powerful evidence of the presence of even a small fire. The addition of a functional smoke detection system will further improve the likelihood of detection and of action being taken by the occupants.Fire fighting equipment, such as extinguishers and hose reels, is generally provided within buildings for the use of occupants and many organisations provide training for staff in respect ofthe use of such equipment.The growth of a fire can also be limited by automatic extinguishing systems such as sprinklers, which can be designed to have high levels of effectiveness.Fires can also be limited by the fire brigade depending on the size and location of the fire at the time of arrival.2.4 Effects of FireThe structural elements in the vicinity of the fire will experience the effects of heat. The temperatures within the structural elements will increase with time of exposure to the fire, the rate of temperature rise being dictated by the thermal resistance of the structural element and the severity of the fire. The increase in temperatures within a member will result in both thermal expansion and,eventually,a reduction in the structural resistance of the member. Differential thermal expansion will lead to bowing of a member. Significant axial expansion willbe accommodated in steel members by either overall or local buckling or yielding of local- ised regions. These effects will be detrimental for columns but for beams forming part of a floorsystem may assist in the development of other load resisting mechanisms (see Section 4.3.5).With the exception of the development of forces due to restraint of thermal expansion, fire does not impose loads on the structure but rather reduces stiffness and strength. Such effects are not instantaneous but are a function of time and this is different to the effects of loads such as earthquake and wind that are more or less instantaneous.Heating effects associated with a fire will not be significant or the rate of loss of capacity will be slowed if:(a) the fire is extinguished (e.g. an effective sprinkler system)(b) the fire is of insufficient severity –– insufficient fuel, and/or(b) the fire is of insufficient severity(c)the structural elements have sufficient thermal mass and/or insulation to slow the rise in internal temperatureFire protection measures such as providing sufficient axis distance and dimensions for concrete elements, and sufficient insulation thickness for steel elements are examples of (c). These are illustrated in Figure 2.The two situations described in the introduction are now considered.3 FIRE WITHIN BUILDINGS3.1 Fire Safety ConsiderationsThe implications of fire within the occupied parts of the office building (Figure 1) (Situation 2) are now considered. Fire statistics for office buildings show that about one fatality is expected in an office building for every 1000 fires reported to the fire brigade. This is an orderof magnitude less than the fatality rate associated with apartment buildings. More than two thirdsof fires occur during occupied hours and this is due to the greater human activity and the greater use of services within the building. It is twice as likely that a fire that commences out of normal working hours will extend beyond the enclosure of fire origin.A relatively small fire can generate large quantities of smoke within the floor of fire origin.If the floor is of open-plan construction with few partitions, the presence of a fire during normal occupied hours is almost certain to be detected through the observation of smoke on the floor. The presence of full height partitions across the floor will slow the spread of smoke and possibly also the speed at which the occupants detect the fire. Any measures aimed at improving housekeeping, fire awareness and fire response will be beneficial in reducing the likelihood of major fires during occupied hours.For multi-storey buildings, smoke detection systems and alarms are often provided to give “automatic” detection and warning to the occupants. An alarm signal is also transm itted to the fire brigade.Should the fire not be able to be controlled by the occupants on the fire floor, they will need to leave the floor of fire origin via the stairs. Stair enclosures may be designed to be fire-resistant but this may not be sufficient to keep the smoke out of the stairs. Many buildings incorporate stair pressurisation systems whereby positive airflow is introduced into the stairs upon detection of smoke within the building. However, this increases the forces required to open the stair doors and makes it increasingly difficult to access the stairs. It is quite likely that excessive door opening forces will exist(Fazio et al,2006)From a fire perspective, it is common to consider that a building consists of enclosures formed by the presence of walls and floors.An enclosure that has sufficiently fire-resistant boundaries (i.e. walls and floors) is considered to constitute a fire compartment and to be capableof limiting the spread of fire to an adjacent compartment. However, the ability of such boundariesto restrict the spread of fire can be severely limited by the need to provide natural lighting (windows)and access openings between the adjacent compartments (doors and stairs). Fire spread via the external openings (windows) is a distinct possibility given a fully developed fire. Limit- ing the window sizes and geometry can reduce but not eliminate the possibility of vertical fire spread.By far the most effective measure in limiting fire spread, other than the presence of occupants, is an effective sprinkler system that delivers water to a growing fire rapidly reducing the heat being generated and virtually extinguishing it.3.2 Estimating Fire SeverityIn the absence of measures to extinguish developing fires, or should such systems fail; severe fires can develop within buildings.In fire engineering literature, the term “fire load” refers to the quantity of combustibles within an enclosure and not the loads (forces) applied to the structure during a fire. Similarly, fire load density refers to the quantity of fuel per unit area. It is normally expressed in terms of MJ/m2or kg/m 2of wood equivalent. Surveys of combustibles for various occupancies (i.e offices, retail,hospitals, warehouses, etc)have been undertaken and a good summary of the available data is given in FCRC (1999). As would be expected, the fire load density is highly variable. Publications such as the International Fire Engineering Guidelines (2005) give fire load data in terms of the mean and 80th percentile.The latter level of fire load density is sometimes taken asthe characteristic fire load density and is sometimes taken as being distributed according to a Gumbel distribution (Schleich et al, 1999).The rate at which heat is released within an enclosure is termed the heat release rate (HRR) and normally expressed in megawatts (MW). The application of sufficient heat to a combustible material results in the generation of gases some of which are combustible. This process is called pyrolisation.Upon coming into contact with sufficient oxygen these gases ignite generating heat. The rate of burning(and therefore of heat generation) is therefore dependent on the flow of air to the gases generated by the pyrolising fuel.This flow is influenced by the shape of the enclosure (aspect ratio), and the position and size of any potential openings. It is found from experiments with single openings in approximately cubic enclosures that the rate of burning is directly proportional to A h where A is the area of the opening and h is the opening height. It is known that for deep enclosures with single openings that burning will occur initially closest to the opening moving back into the enclosure once the fuel closest to the opening is consumed (Thomas et al, 2005). Significant temperature variations throughout such enclosures can be expected.The use of the word ‘opening’ in relation to real building enclosures refers to any openings present around the walls including doors that are left open and any windows containing non fire-resistant glass.It is presumed that such glass breaks in the event of development of a significant fire. If the windows could be prevented from breaking and other sources of air to the enclosure limited, then the fire would be prevented from becoming a severe fire.V arious methods have been developed for determining the potential severity of a fire within an enclosure.These are described in SFPE (2004). The predictions of these methods are variable and are mostly based on estimating a representative heat release rate (HRR) and the proportion of total fuel ς likely to be consumed during the primary burning stage (Figure 4). Further studies of enclosure fires are required to assist with the development of improved models,as the behaviour is very complex.3.3 Role of the Building StructureIf the design objectives are to provide an adequate level of safety for the occupants and protection of adjacent properties from damage, then the structural adequacy of the building in fire need only be sufficient to allow the occupants to exit the building and for the building to ultimately deform in a way that does not lead to damage or fire spread to a building located on an adjacent site.These objectives are those associated with most building regulations including the Building Code of Australia (BCA). There could be other objectives including protection of the building against significant damage. In considering these various objectives, the following should be taken into account when considering the fire resistance of the building structure.3.3.1 Non-Structural ConsequencesSince fire can produce smoke and flame, it is important to ask whether these outcomes will threaten life safety within other parts of the building before the building is compromised by a lossof structural adequacy? Is search and rescue by the fire brigade not feasible given the likely extent of smoke? Will the loss of use of the building due to a severe fire result in major property and income loss? If the answer to these questions is in the affirmative, then it may be necessary to minimise the occurrence of a significant fire rather than simply assuming that the building structure needs to be designed for high levels of fire resistance. A low-rise shopping centre with levels interconnected by large voids is an example of such a situation.3.3.2 Other Fire Safety SystemsThe presence of other systems (e.g. sprinklers) within the building to minimise the occurrence of a serious fire can greatly reduce the need for the structural elements to have high levels of fire resistance. In this regard, the uncertainties of all fire-safety systems need to be considered. Irrespective of whether the fire safety system is the sprinkler system, stair pressurisation, compartmentation or the system giving the structure a fire-resistance level (e.g. concrete cover), there is an uncertainty of performance. Uncertainty data is available for sprinkler systems(because it is relatively easy to collect) but is not readily available for the other fire safety systems. This sometimes results in the designers and building regulators considering that only sprinkler systems are subject to uncertainty. In reality, it would appear that sprinklers systems have a high level of performance and can be designed to have very high levels of reliability.3.3.3 Height of BuildingIt takes longer for a tall building to be evacuated than a short building and therefore the structure of a tall building may need to have a higher level of fire resistance. The implications of collapse of tall buildings on adjacent properties are also greater than for buildings of only several storeys.3.3.4 Limited Extent of BurningIf the likely extent of burning is small in comparison with the plan area of the building, then the fire cannot have a significant impact on the overall stability of the building structure. Examples of situations where this is the case are open-deck carparks and very large area building such as shopping complexes where the fire-effected part is likely to be small in relation to area of the building floor plan.3.3.5 Behaviour of Floor ElementsThe effect of real fires on composite and concrete floors continues to be a subject of much research.Experimental testing at Cardington demonstrated that when parts of a composite floor are subject to heating, large displacement behaviour can develop that greatly assists the load carrying capacity of the floor beyond that which would predicted by considering only the behaviour of the beams and slabs in isolation.These situations have been analysed by both yield line methods that take into account the effects of membrane forces (Bailey, 2004) and finite element techniques. In essence, the methods illustrate that it is not necessary to insulate all structural steel elements in a composite floor to achieve high levels of fire resistance.This work also demonstrated that exposure of a composite floor having unprotected steel beams, to a localised fire, will not result in failure of the floor.A similar real fire test on a multistory reinforced concrete building demonstrated that the real structural behaviour in fire was significantly different to that expected using small displacement theory as for normal tempera- ture design (Bailey, 2002) with the performance being superior than that predicted by considering isolated member behaviour.3.4 Prescriptive Approach to DesignThe building regulations of most countries provide prescriptive requirements for the design of buildings for fire.These requirements are generally not subject to interpretation and compliance with them makes for simpler design approvalapproval––although not necessarily the most cost-effective designs.These provisions are often termed deemed-to-satisfy (DTS) provisions. Allcovered––the provision of emergency exits, aspects of designing buildings for fire safety are coveredspacings between buildings, occupant fire fighting measures, detection and alarms, measures for automatic fire suppression, air and smoke handling requirements and last, but not least, requirements for compartmentation and fire resistance levels for structural members. However, there is little evidence that the requirements have been developed from a systematic evaluation of fire safety. Rather it would appear that many of the requirements have been added one to anotherto deal with another fire incident or to incorporate a new form of technology. There does not appear to have been any real attempt to determine which provision have the most significant influence on fire safety and whether some of the former provisions could be modified.The FRL requirements specified in the DTS provisions are traditionally considered to result in member resistances that will only rarely experience failure in the event of a fire.This is why it is acceptable to use the above arbitrary point in time load combination for assessing members in fire. There have been attempts to evaluate the various deemed-to-satisfy provisions (particularly the fire- resistance requirements)from a fire-engineering perspective taking into account the possible variations in enclosure geometry, opening sizes and fire load (see FCRC, 1999).One of the outcomes of this evaluation was the recognition that deemed-to- satisfy provisions necessarily cover the broad range of buildings and thus must, on average, be quite onerous because of the magnitude of the above variations.It should be noted that the DTS provisions assume that compartmentation works and that fire is limited to a single compartment. This means that fire is normally only considered to exist at one level. Thus floors are assumed to be heated from below and columns only over one storey height.3.5 Performance-Based DesignAn approach that offers substantial benefits for individual buildings is the move towards performance-based regulations. This is permitted by regulations such as the BCA which state thata designer must demonstrate that the particular building will achieve the relevant performance requirements. The prescriptive provisions (i.e. the DTS provisions) are presumed to achieve these requirements. It is necessary to show that any building that does not conform to the DTS provisions will achieve the performance requirements.But what are the performance requirements? Most often the specified performance is simplya set of performance statements (such as with the Building Code of Australia)with no quantitative level given. Therefore, although these statements remind the designer of the key elements of design, they do not, in themselves, provide any measure against which to determine whether the design is adequately safe.Possible acceptance criteria are now considered.3.5.1 Acceptance CriteriaSome guidance as to the basis for acceptable designs is given in regulations such as the BCA. These and other possible bases are now considered in principle.(i)compare the levels of safety (with respect to achieving each of the design objectives) of the proposed alternative solution with those asso- ciated with a corresponding DTS solution for the building.This comparison may be done on either a qualitative or qualitative risk basis or perhaps a combination. In this case, the basis for comparison is an acceptable DTS solution. Such an approach requires a “holistic” approach to safety whereby all aspects relevant to safety, including the structure, are considered. This is, by far, the most common basis for acceptance.(ii)undertake a probabilistic risk assessment and show that the risk associated with the proposed design is less than that associated with common societal activities such as using pub lic transport. Undertaking a full probabilistic risk assessment can be very difficult for all but the simplest situations.Assuming that such an assessment is undertaken it will be necessary for the stakeholders to accept the nominated level of acceptable risk. Again, this requires a “holistic” approach to fire safety.(iii) a design is presented where it is demonstrated that all reasonable measures have been adopted to manage the risks and that any possible measures that have not been adopted will have negligible effect on the risk of not achieving the design objectives.(iv) as far as the building structure is concerned,benchmark the acceptable probability of failure in fire against that for normal temperature design. This is similar to the approach used when considering Building Situation 1 but only considers the building structure and not the effects of flame or smoke spread. It is not a holistic approach to fire safety.Finally, the questions of arson and terrorism must be considered. Deliberate acts of fire initiation range from relatively minor incidents to acts of mass destruction.Acts of arson are well within the accepted range of fire events experienced by build- ings(e.g. 8% of fire starts in offices are deemed "suspicious"). The simplest act is to use a small heat source to start a fire. The resulting fire will develop slowly in one location within the building and will most probably be controlled by the various fire- safety systems within the building. The outcome is likely to be the same even if an accelerant is used to assist fire spread.An important illustration of this occurred during the race riots in Los Angeles in 1992 (Hart 1992) when fires were started in many buildings often at multiple locations. In the case of buildings with sprinkler systems,the damage was limited and the fires significantly controlled.Although the intent was to destroy the buildings,the fire-safety systems were able to limit the resulting fires. Security measures are provided with systems such as sprinkler systems and include:- locking of valves- anti-tamper monitoring- location of valves in secure locationsFurthermore, access to significant buildings is often restricted by security measures.The very fact that the above steps have been taken demonstrates that acts of destruction within buildings are considered although most acts of arson do not involve any attempt to disable the fire-safety systems.At the one end of the spectrum is "simple" arson and at the other end, extremely rare acts where attempts are made to destroy the fire-safety systems along with substantial parts of thebuilding.This can be only achieved through massive impact or the use of explosives. The latter may be achieved through explosives being introduced into the building or from outside by missile attack.The former could result from missile attack or from the collision of a large aircraft. The greater the destructiveness of the act,the greater the means and knowledge required. Conversely, the more extreme the act, the less confidence there can be in designing against such an act. This is because the more extreme the event, the harder it is to predict precisely and the less understood will be its effects. The important point to recognise is that if sufficient means can be assembled, then it will always be possible to overcome a particular building design.Thus these acts are completely different to the other loadings to which a building is subjected such as wind,earthquake and gravity loading. This is because such acts of destruction are the work of intelligent beings and take into account the characteristics of the target.Should high-rise buildings be designed for given terrorist activities,then terrorists will simply use greater means to achieve the end result.For example, if buildings were designed to resist the impact effects from a certain size aircraft, then the use of a larger aircraft or more than one aircraft could still achieve destruction of the building. An appropriate strategy is therefore to minimise the likelihood of means of mass destruction getting into the hands of persons intent on such acts. This is not an engineering solution associated with the building structure.It should not be assumed that structural solutions are always the most appropriate, or indeed, possible.In the same way, aircrafts are not designed to survive a major fire or a crash landing but steps are taken to minimise the likelihood of either occurrence.The mobilization of large quantities of fire load (the normal combustibles on the floors) simultaneously on numerous levels throughout a building is well outside fire situations envisaged by current fire test standards and prescriptive regulations. Risk management measures to avoid such a possibility must be considered.4 CONCLUSIONSificantly from other “loads” such as wind, live load and earthquakes in significantlyFire differs signrespect of its origin and its effects.Due to the fact that fire originates from human activities or equipment installed within buildings, it is possible to directly influence the potential effects on the building by reducing the rate of fire starts and providing measures to directly limit fire severity.The design of buildings for fire safety is mostly achieved by following the prescriptive requirements of building codes such as the BCA. For situations that fall outside of the scope of such regulations, or where proposed designs are not in accordance with the prescriptive requirements, it is possible to undertake performance-based fire engineering designs.However,。

澳大利亚规划47卷，2010年第2期，基于Web的知识管理系统：智能电表连接未来城市水计划•简介•智能电表•基于Web的知识管理系统•讨论的好处•进一步发展和实施•结论城市规划和供水规划相互交织。

本文探讨了智能电表的潜在作用，为未来的水在澳大利亚的城市规划和管理。

智能电表，电力正在铺开全国，而水的智能电表尚未在如此大规模的实施，他们有能力提供越来越多的数据规划者和对居民用水模式。

这些数据转换为有用的信息，提出了一个基于Web的知识管理系统（WBKMS），集成了智能电表，最终利用水的消费量数据，无线通信网络和信息管理系统，以提供实时信息如何，何时，何水被消耗，为消费者和公用事业。

从系统的汇总数据，也将是建筑师，开发商和规划者的利益，寻求理解整个城市分层样本的水消费模式。

发展WBKMS和相关的研究议程，以解决目前的知识差距的挑战的概述总结的文件。

繁华的城市，必须能够从人口增长，气候变异和气候变化应对未来的压力，同时保持充足的供水服务，为居民和企业。

比勒尔等人的研究（比勒尔，B，Rapson史密斯2005年，人口结构的变化和城市生活用水合并，墨尔本整合等澳大利亚水务协会的影响。

）在澳大利亚城市生活用水的城市，人口结构的变化和巩固的影响查看所有引用透露，在2001-2031期间，在全国各大城市的水需求，可以预计将增加37％的平均。

水资源管理的基础上逐渐减少供水（由于干旱和降雨模式改变）和预计的需求不断增加，已成为住宅消费者，行业和各级政府的主要关切。

最近接受许多澳大利亚城市的举措相结合，以减少需求（如安装节能电器和事业循环用水），并已开始安装雨水箱和海水淡化厂的建设，通过增加供应来源。

供水水源和需求格局的这种变化意味着需要更聪明的城市供水管理办法，以实现水资源可持续未来的城市供水规划时，只对如何建立和供水重点的时代已经过去了。

这千变万化的供水系统，需要强大的信息喂养的适应性和创新的管理。

目前，政府和公共事业的投资大量资金，在水战略的实施和发展，以确保未来的用水需求得到满足。

xxxxxx 大学本科毕业设计外文翻译Project Cost Control: the Way it Works项目成本控制：它的工作方式学院（系）: xxxxxxxxxxxx专业: xxxxxxxx学生姓名: xxxxx学号： xxxxxxxxxx指导教师： xxxxxx评阅教师：完成日期：xxxx大学项目成本控制：它的工作方式在最近的一次咨询任务中，我们意识到对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的,仍有一些缺乏理解。

所以我们决定描述它是如何工作的.理论上，项目成本控制不是很难跟随。

首先，建立一组参考基线。

然后，随着工作的深入，监控工作,分析研究结果,预测最终结果并比较参考基准。

如果最终的结果不令人满意，那么你要对正在进行的工作进行必要的调整，并在合适的时间间隔重复。

如果最终的结果确实不符合基线计划，你可能不得不改变计划.更有可能的是，会 (或已经) 有范围变更来改变参考基线，这意味着每次出现这种情况你必须改变基线计划。

但在实践中，项目成本控制要困难得多，通过项目数量无法控制成本也证明了这一点。

正如我们将看到的，它还需要大量的工作，我们不妨从一开始启用它。

所以，要跟随项目成本控制在整个项目的生命周期.同时，我们会利用这一机会来指出几个重要文件的适当的地方。

其中包括商业案例，请求（资本)拨款（执行），工作包和工作分解结构，项目章程（或摘要),项目预算或成本计划、挣值和成本基线。

所有这些有助于提高这个组织的有效地控制项目成本的能力。

业务用例和应用程序（执行）的资金重要的是要注意，当负责的管理者对于项目应如何通过项目生命周期展开有很好的理解时,项目成本控制才是最有效的。

这意味着他们在主要阶段的关键决策点之间行使职责。

他们还必须识别项目风险管理的重要性，至少可以确定并计划阻止最明显的潜在风险事件。

在项目的概念阶段•每个项目始于确定的机会或需要的人.通常是有着重要性和影响力的人,如果项目继续,这个人往往成为项目的赞助。

Ultrasonic ranging system designPublication title: Sensor Review. Bradford: 1993.Vol.ABSTRACT: Ultrasonic ranging technology has wide using worth in many fields, such as the industrial locale, vehicle navigation and sonar engineering. Now it has been used in level measurement, self-guided autonomous vehicles, fieldwork robots automotive navigation, air and underwater target detection, identification, location and so on. So there is an important practicing meaning to learn the ranging theory and ways deeply. To improve the precision of the ultrasonic ranging system in hand, satisfy the request of the engineering personnel for the ranging precision, the bound and the usage, a portable ultrasonic ranging system based on the single chip processor was developed.Keywords: Ultrasound, Ranging System, Single Chip Processor1. IntroductiveWith the development of science and technology, the improvement of people’s standard of living, speeding up the development and construction of the city. Urban drainage system have greatly developed their situation is construction improving. However, due to historical reasons many unpredictable factors in the synthesis of her time, the city drainage system. In particular drainage system often lags behind urban construction. Therefore, there are often good building excavation has been building facilities to upgrade the drainage system phenomenon. It brought to the city sewage, and it is clear to the city sewage and drainage culvert in the sewage treatment system.Co mfort is very important to people’s lives. Mobile robots designed to clear the drainage culvert and the automatic control system Free sewage culvert clear guarantee robots, the robot is designed to clear the culvert sewage to the core. Control system is the core component of the development of ultrasonic range finder. Therefore, it is very important to design a good ultrasonic range finder.2. A principle of ultrasonic distance measurementThe application of AT89C51:SCM is a major piece of computer components are integrated into the chip micro-computer. It is a multi-interface and counting on the micro-controller integration, and intelligence products are widely used in industrial automation. and MCS-51 microcontroller is a typical and representative.Microcontrollers are used in a multitude of commercial applications such as modems, motor-control systems, air conditioner control systems, automotive engine and among others. The high processing speed and enhanced peripheral set of these microcontrollers make them suitable for such high-speed event-based applications. However, these critical application domains also require that these microcontrollers are highly reliable. The high reliability and low market risks can be ensured by a robust testing process and a proper tools environment for the validation of these microcontrollers both at the component and at the system level. Intel Plaform Engineering department developed an object-oriented multi-threaded test environment for the validation of its AT89C51 automotive microcontrollers. The goals of this environment was not only to provide a robust testing environment for the AT89C51 automotive microcontrollers, but to develop an environment which can be easily extended and reused for the validation of several other future microcontrollers. The environment was developed in conjunction with Microsoft Foundation Classes(AT89C51).1.1 Features* Compatible with MCS-51 Products* 2Kbytes of Reprogrammable Flash MemoryEndurance: 1,000Write/Erase Cycles* 2.7V to 6V Operating Range* Fully Static operation: 0Hz to 24MHz* Two-level program memory lock* 128x8-bit internal RAM* 15programmable I/O lines* Two 16-bit timer/counters* Six interrupt sources*Programmable serial UART channel* Direct LED drive output* On-chip analog comparator* Low power idle and power down modes1.2 DescriptionThe AT89C2051 is a low-voltage, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 2Kbytes of flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry standard MCS-51 instruction set and pinout. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C2051 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embedded control applications.The AT89C2051 provides the following standard features: 2Kbytes of flash,128bytes of RAM, 15 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, a precision analog comparator, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C2051 is designed with static logicfor operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The power down mode saves the RAM contents but freezer the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.1.3 Pin Configuration1.4 Pin DescriptionVCC Supply voltage.GND Ground.Prot 1Prot 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port. Port pins P1.2 to P1.7 provide internal pullups. P1.0 and P1.1 require external pullups. P1.0 and P1.1 also serve as the positive input (AIN0) and the negative input (AIN1), respectively, of the on-chip precision analog comparator. The port 1 output buffers can sink 20mA and can drive LED displays directly. When 1s are written to port 1 pins, they can be used as inputs. When pins P1.2 to P1.7 are used as input and are externally pulled low, they will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups.Port 3Port 3 pins P3.0 to P3.5, P3.7 are seven bidirectional I/O pins with internal pullups. P3.6 is hard-wired as an input to the output of the on-chip comparator and is not accessible as a general purpose I/O pin. The port 3 output buffers can sink 20mA. When 1s are written to port 3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pullups.Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89C2051 as listed below.1.5 Programming the FlashThe AT89C2051 is shipped with the 2 Kbytes of on-chip PEROM code memory array in the erased state (i.e., contents=FFH) and ready to be programmed. The code memory array is programmed one byte at a time. Once the array is programmed, to re-program any non-blank byte, the entire memory array needs to be erased electrically.Internal address counter: the AT89C2051 contains an internal PEROM address counter which is always reset to 000H on the rising edge of RST and is advanced applying a positive going pulse to pin XTAL1.Programming algorithm: to program the AT89C2051, the following sequence is recommended.1. power-up sequence:Apply power between VCC and GND pins Set RST and XTAL1 to GNDWith all other pins floating , wait for greater than 10 milliseconds2. Set pin RST to ‘H’ set pin P3.2 to ‘H’3. Apply the appropriate combination of ‘H’ or ‘L’ logic to pins P3.3, P3.4, P3.5,P3.7 to select one of the programming operations shown in the PEROM programming modes table.To program and Verify the Array:4. Apply data for code byte at location 000H to P1.0 to P1.7.5.Raise RST to 12V to enable programming.5. Pulse P3.2 once to program a byte in the PEROM array or the lock bits. The byte-write cycle is self-timed and typically takes 1.2ms.6. To verify the programmed data, lower RST from 12V to logic ‘H’ level and set pins P3.3 to P3.7 to the appropriate levels. Output data can be read at the port P1 pins.7. To program a byte at the next address location, pulse XTAL1 pin once to advance the internal address counter. Apply new data to the port P1 pins.8. Repeat steps 5 through 8, changing data and advancing the address counter for the entire 2 Kbytes array or until the end of the object file is reached.9. Power-off sequence: set XTAL1 to ‘L’ set RST to ‘L’Float all other I/O pins Turn VCC power off2.1 The principle of piezoelectric ultrasonic generatorPiezoelectric ultrasonic generator is the use of piezoelectric crystal resonators to work. Ultrasonic generator, the internal structure as shown, it has two piezoelectric chip and a resonance plate. When it’s two plus pulse signal, the frequency equal to the intrinsic piezoelectric oscillation frequency chip, the chip will happen piezoelectric resonance, and promote the development of plate vibration resonance, ultrasound is generated. Conversely, it will be for vibration suppression of piezoelectric chip, the mechanical energy is converted to electrical signals, then it becomes the ultrasonic receiver.The traditional way to determine the moment of the echo’s arrival is based on thresholding the received signal with a fixed reference. The threshold is chosen well above the noise level, whereas the moment of arrival of an echo is defined as the first moment the echo signal surpasses that threshold. The intensity of an echo reflecting from an object strongly depends on the object’s nature, size and distance from the sensor. Further, the time interval from the echo’s starting point to the moment when it surpasses the threshold changes with the intensity of the echo. As a consequence, a considerable error may occur even two echoes with different intensities arriving exactly at the same time will surpass the threshold at different moments. The stronger one will surpass the threshold earlier than the weaker, so it will be considered as belonging to a nearer object.2.2 The principle of ultrasonic distance measurementUltrasonic transmitter in a direction to launch ultrasound, in the moment to launch the beginning of time at the same time, the spread of ultrasound in the air, obstacles on his way to return immediately, the ultrasonic reflected wave received by the receiverimmediately stop the clock. Ultrasound in the air as the propagation velocity of 340m/s, according to the timer records the time t, we can calculate the distance between the launch distance barrier(s), that is: s=340t / 23. Ultrasonic Ranging System for the Second Circuit DesignSystem is characterized by single-chip microcomputer to control the use of ultrasonic transmitter and ultrasonic receiver since the launch from time to time, single-chip selection of 875, economic-to-use, and the chip has 4K of ROM, to facilitate programming.3.1 40 kHz ultrasonic pulse generated with the launchRanging system using the ultrasonic sensor of piezoelectric ceramic sensorsUCM40, its operating voltage of the pulse signal is 40kHz, which by the single-chip implementation of the following procedures to generate.puzel: mov 14h, # 12h; ultrasonic firing continued 200msHere: cpl p1.0; output 40kHz square wavenop;nop;nop;djnz 14h, here;retRanging in front of single-chip termination circuit P1.0 input port, single chip implementation of the above procedure, the P1.0 port in a 40kHz pulse output signal, after amplification transistor T, the drive to launch the first ultrasonic UCM40T, issued 40kHz ultrasonic pulse, and the continued launch of 200ms. Ranging the right and the left side of the circuit, respectively, then input port P1.1 and P1.2, the working principle and circuit in front of the same location.3.2 Reception and processing of ultrasonicUsed to receive the first launch of the first pair UCM40R, the ultrasonic pulse modulation signal into an alternating voltage, the op-amp amplification IC1A and after polarization IC1B to IC2. IC2 is locked loop with audio decoder chip LM567, internal voltage-controlled oscillator center frequency of f0=1/1.1R8C3, capacitor C4 determinetheir target bandwidth. R8-conditioning in the launch of the high jump 8 feet into a low-level, as interrupt request signals to the single-chip processing.Ranging in front of single-chip termination circuit output port INT0 interrupt the highest priority, right or left location of the output circuit with output gate IC3A access INT1 port single-chip, while single-chip P1.3 and P1.4 received input IC3A, interrupted by the process to identify the source of inquiry to deal with, interrupt priority level for the first left right after. Part of the source code is as follows:Receivel: push pswpush accclr ex1; related external interrupt 1jnb p1.1, right; P1.1 pin to 0, ranging from right to interrupt service routine circuitjnb p1.2, left; P1.2 pin to 0, to the left ranging circuit interrupt service routinereturn: SETB EX1; open external interrupt 1pop accpop pswretiright: …; right location entrance circuit interrupt service routineAjmp Returnleft: …; left ranging entrance circuit interrupt service routineAjmp Return3.3 The calculation of ultrasonic propagation timeWhen you start firing at the same time start the single-chip circuitry within the timer T0, the use of timer counting function records the time and the launch of ultrasonic reflected wave received time. When you receive the ultrasonic reflected wave, the receiver circuit output a negative jump in the end of INT0 or INT1 interrupt request generates a signal, single-chip microcomputer in response to external interrupt request, the implementation of the external interrupt service subroutine, read the time difference, calculating the distance. Some of its source code is as follows:RECEIVE0: PUSH PSWPUSH ACCCLR EX0; related external interrupt 0MOV R7, TH0; read the time valueMOV R6, TL0CLR CMOV A, R6SUBB A, #0BBH; calculate the time differenceMOV 31H, A; storage resultsMOV A, R7SUBB A, # 3CHMOV 30H, ASETB EX0; open external interrupt 0\POP ACCPOP PSWRETIFor a flat target, a distance measurement consists of two phases: a coarse measurement and a fine measurement:Step 1: Transmission of one pulse train to produce a simple ultrasonic wave.Step 2: Changing the gain of both echo amplifiers according to equation, until the echo is detected.Step 3: Detection of the amplitudes and zero-crossing times of both echoes.Step 4: Setting the gains of both echo amplifiers to normalize the output at, say 3 volts. Setting the period of the next pulses according to the: period of echoes. Setting the time window according to the data of step 2.Step 5: Sending two pulse trains to produce an interfered wave. Testing the zero-crossing times and amplitudes of the echoes. If phase inversion occurs in the echo, determine to otherwise calculate to by interpolation using the amplitudes near the trough. Derive t sub m1 and t sub m2.Step 6: Calculation of the distance y using equation.4、The ultrasonic ranging system software designSoftware is divided into two parts, the main program and interrupt service routine. Completion of the work of the main program is initialized, each sequence of ultrasonic transmitting and receiving control.Interrupt service routines from time to time to complete three of the rotation direction of ultrasonic launch, the main external interrupt service subroutine to read the value of completion time, distance calculation, the results of the output and so on.5、ConclusionsRequired measuring range of 30cm-200cm objects inside the plane to do a number of measurements found that the maximum error is 0.5cm, and good reproducibility. Single-chip design can be seen on the ultrasonic ranging system has a hardware structure is simple, reliable, small features such as measurement error. Therefore, it can be used not only for mobile robot can be used in other detection system.Thoughts: As for why the receiver do not have the transistor amplifier circuit, because the magnification well, integrated amplifier, but also with automatic gain control level, magnification to 76dB, the center frequency is 38k to 40k, is exactly resonant ultrasonic sensors frequency.6、Parking sensor6.1 Parking sensor introductionReversing radar, full name is "reversing the anti-collision radar, also known as" parking assist device, car parking or reversing the safety of assistive devices, ultrasonic sensors(commonly known as probes), controls and displays (or buzzer)and other components. To inform the driver around the obstacle to the sound or a moreintuitive display to lift the driver parking, reversing and start the vehicle around tovisit the distress caused by, and to help the driver to remove the vision deadends and blurred vision defects and improve driving safety.6.2 Reversing radar detection principleReversing radar, according to high-speed flight of the bats in thenight, not collided with any obstacle principles of design anddevelopment. Probe mounted on the rear bumper, according to different price and brand, the probe only ranging from two, three, four, six, eight,respectively, pipe around. The probe radiation, 45-degree angle up and downabout the search target. The greatest advantage is to explore lower than the bumper of the driver from the rear window is difficult to see obstacles, and the police, suchas flower beds, children playing in the squatting on the car.Display parking sensor installed in the rear view mirror, it constantlyremind drivers to car distance behindthe object distance to the dangerous distance, the buzzer starts singing, allow the driver to stop. When the gear lever linked into reverse gear, reversing radar, auto-start the work, the working range of 0.3 to 2.0 meters, so stop when the driver was very practical. Reversing radar is equivalent to an ultrasound probe for ultrasonic probe can be divided into two categories: First, Electrical, ultrasonic, the second is to use mechanical means to produce ultrasound, in view of the more commonly used piezoelectric ultrasonic generator, it has two power chips and a soundingboard, plus apulse signal when the poles, its frequency equal to the intrinsic oscillation frequency of the piezoelectric pressure chip will be resonant and drivenby the vibration of the sounding board, the mechanical energy into electrical signal, which became the ultrasonic probe works. In order to better study Ultrasonic and use up, people have to design and manufacture of ultrasonic sound, the ultrasonic probe tobe used in the use of car parking sensor. With this principle in a non-contactdetection technology for distance measurement is simple, convenient and rapid, easyto do real-time control, distance accuracy of practical industrial requirements. Parking sensor for ranging send out ultrasonic signal at a givenmoment, and shot in the face of the measured object back to the signal wave, reversing radar receiver to use statistics in the ultrasonic signal from the transmitter to receive echo signals calculate the propagation velocity in the medium, which can calculate the distance of the probe and to detect objects.6.3 Reversing radar functionality and performanceParking sensor can be divided into the LCD distance display, audible alarm, and azimuth directions, voice prompts, automatic probe detection function is complete, reversing radar distance, audible alarm, position-indicating function. A good performance reversing radar, its main properties include: (1) sensitivity, whether theresponse fast enough when there is an obstacle. (2) the existence of blind spots. (3) detection distance range.6.4 Each part of the roleReversing radar has the following effects: (1) ultrasonic sensor: used tolaunch and receive ultrasonic signals, ultrasonic sensors canmeasure distance. (2) host: after the launch of the sine wave pulse to the ultrasonic sensors, and process the received signal, to calculate the distance value, the data and monitor communication. (3) display or abuzzer: the receivinghost from the data, and display the distance value and provide differentlevels according to the distance from the alarm sound.6.5 Cautions1, the installation height: general ground: car before the installation of 45 ~55: 50 ~ 65cmcar after installation. 2, regular cleaningof the probe to prevent the fill. 3, do not use the hardstuff the probe surface cover will produce false positives or ranging allowed toprobe surface coverage, such as mud. 4, winter to avoid freezing. 5, 6 / 8 probe reversing radar before and after the probe is not free to swap may cause the ChangMing false positive problem. 6, note that the probe mounting orientation, in accordance with UP installation upward. 7, the probe is not recommended to install sheetmetal, sheet metal vibration will cause the probe resonance, resulting in false positives.超声测距系统设计原文出处：传感器文摘布拉福德：1993年超声测距技术在工业现场、车辆导航、水声工程等领域具有广泛的应用价值，目前已应用于物位测量、机器人自动导航以及空气中与水下的目标探测、识别、定位等场合。

广东工业大学华立学院本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文系部经济学部专业经济学年级 2007级班级名称 07经济学6班学号 16020706001学生姓名张瑜琴指导教师陈锶2011 年05月目录1挑战：小额贷款中的进入和商业银行的长期承诺 (1)2什么商业银行带给小额贷款和什么把他们留在外 (2)3 商业银行的四个模型进入小额贷款之内 (4)3.1内在的单位 (4)3.2财务子公司 (5)3.3策略的同盟 (5)3.4服务公司模型 (6)4 合法的形式和操作的结构比较 (8)5 服务的个案研究公司模型：厄瓜多尔和Haiti5 (9)1 挑战：小额贷款中的进入和商业银行的长期承诺商业银行已经是逐渐重要的运动员在拉丁美洲中的小额贷款服务的发展2到小额贷款市场是小额贷款的好消息客户因为银行能提供他们一完整类型的财务的服务，包括信用，储蓄和以费用为基础的服务。

整体而言，它也对小额贷款重要，因为与他们广泛的身体、财务的和人类。

如果商业银行变成重的运动员在小额贷款，他们能提供非常强烈的竞争到传统的小额贷款机构。

资源，银行能廉宜地发射而且扩张小额贷款服务rela tively。

如果商业广告银行在小额贷款中成为严重的运动员，他们能提出非常强烈的竞争给传统的小额贷款机构。

然而，小额贷款社区里面有知觉哪一商业银行进入进入小额贷款将会是短命或浅的。

举例来说，有知觉哪一商业银行首先可能不搬进小额贷款因为时候建立小额贷款操作到一个有利润的水平超过银行的标准投资时间地平线。

或，在进入小额贷款，银行之后可能移动在－上面藉由增加贷款数量销售取利润最大值－或者更坏的事，退出如果他们是不满意与小额贷款的收益性的水平。

这些知觉已经被特性加燃料商业银行的情形进入小额贷款和后来的出口之内。

在最极端的，一些开业者已经甚至宣布，”降低尺度死！”而且抛弃了与主意合作的商业银行。

在最 signific 看得到的地方，蚂蚁利益商业银行可能带给小额贷款，国际的ACCION 发展发射而且扩张的和一些商业银行的关系小额贷款操作。

中文2715字本科毕业设计（论文）外文翻译原文：I’m OK –you’re not OKDrivers’ attitudes toward police officers enforcing traffic laws Police officers have a major role in the success of traffic law enforcement (Shinar and McKnight, 1986). Yet, as Radelet and Carter (1994) argue, “by far, the biggest conflict between the police and the public occurs in the enforcement of traffic laws” (p. 207). The present paper explores the attitudes of drivers toward police officers’ enforcing traffic laws as well as the relationship of these and general attitudes toward police authority.The deterring effect of an encounter with police officers Encounters between police officers and citizens in traffic situations provide a major source of citizens’ hostility toward the police (Wilson, 1964). Kirkham and Wollan (1980) argue that for most citizens, traffic incidents represent their only encounter with the police. Regardless of how skilled in interpersonal relations an officer may be when apprehending a driver, there are inherently negative features in such encounters. The reasons for the public’s resentment of traffic law enforcement are complex.Kirkham and Wollan (1980) suggest several explanations for the unpleasant emotions drivers experience if apprehended. First, the police officer is a salient symbol of governmental authority. Thus, an apprehension represents an instance of interference with the driver’s freedom of action. Furthermore, apprehension imparts to the driver the status of a child who has been caught in some wrongdoing and is therefore about to be punished. Although drivers admit to having violated a traffic law, there is a often a feeling of having been unjustly singled out for punishment because motorists witness many instances in which violations go undetected (Kirkham and Wollan, 1980). Radelet and Carter (1994) also argue that when a driver is asked to stop and pull over to the side of the road, the driver feels singled out, suspecting that the only reason for the police officer’s behavior is the need to fill a quota. Furthermore, the apprehension causes feelings of guilt, which the driver transfers to the police officer as a defense mechanism. Other emotionscaused by apprehension are embarrassment and worry about financial consequences. Finally, these negative feelings often lead to the development of negative attitudes toward the police.On the other hand, when a police officer does not punish a driver for the commission of a violation, the latter experiences extremefeelings of gratitude (Bonifacio, 1991). Nevertheless, the very act of being stopped in public by a police officer is in itself an unpleasant experience. Kirkham and Wollan (1980) maintain that “the police car’s rotating emergency lights seem to the distraught motorist to serve as a beacon which draws the ent ire community’s attention to the mistake he has made. The minutes of such encounters seem like agonizing hours to the helpless driver”De-Waard and Rooijers (1994) compared the influence of direct police enforcement and enforcement with radar followed by fines sent to the offending drivers by mail. “Personal” enforcement by the police was found to be more effective in reducing speeding. The authors concluded that the advantages of enforcement by the police are the immediate feedback that the driver receives and the deterring effect on other drivers who witness the scene. It is likely that the unpleasantness of the situation itself, especially the negative emotions related to an encounter with a police officer, also serves as punishment. For example, Deffenbacher et al. (1994) found that the presence of the police constituted a potentially angering driving-related situation, particularly for men.Drivers’ perceptions of police officersKirkham and Wollan (1980) state that the variety of explanations that drivers offer for being stopped by a police officer, refermainly to police officers’ personal motives and improper conduct. For example, drivers assume that the officer is behind in his daily “quota” of traffic citations, “has it in” for sport cars or is prejudiced against blacks or whites, young drivers or old ones. Indeed, a survey asking respondents about the purpose of traffic citations for moving violations revealed that drivers do not consider accident prevention to be a major motive behind police officer s’ actions: 48 percent of the respondents believed that the purpose was to raise revenue for law enforcement, 17 percent thought it was to raise revenue for the city, and only 6 percent attributed it to the attempt to prevent accidents (Waters and Mcgrath, 1974). Sweeney (1982) maintains that drivers often regard traffic law enforcement as a form of sporting competition between the pursuers and the pursued. For example, drivers invest large sums of money in radar detectors. At the same time, the public sometimes resents what it considers “unfair” tactics on the part of police; enforcement techniques that make use of concealed observations may leave a bad taste in the public’s mouth.Police officers’ role and the perceived risk of apprehension Shinar and McKnight (1986), adopting a utility model of human behavior, suggested that the effectiveness of traffic law enforcement is strongly related to the perceived risk ofapprehension, which depends on the salience of the police force, its perceived preparedness to apprehend, and the density (either actual or perceived) of police units per road section. The authors argue, however, that a major problem is inherent in the contradiction between the two purposes of enforcement: apprehending those who violate the law and increasing long-termobedience. Whereas a low visibility for police units is necessary to achieve the first purpose, high visibility would heighten the perception of the risk of apprehension and thereby increase obedience in the long run. The authors contend that enforcement units should be visible and perceived as threatening which means that police officers should spend minimal time in apprehending drivers, since during this time they are perceived as incapable of apprehending other violators.It could be further argued that the perceived risk of apprehension and, consequently, the effectiveness of police enforcement depend not only on the objective characteristics of the police but also on a driver’s perception of police officers’ attributes. The perception of police officers as competent and effective, for example, is likely to increase the perception of risk of apprehension. Furthermore, the image of traffic police may well affect drivers’ expectations of the consequences of theirapprehension; that is, the likelihood of punishment for a violation and its severity.Aims of studyThe present study examines empirically various aspects of drivers’ attitudes toward police officers’ enforcing traffic laws. Specifically, the study explores drivers’ perceptions of police officers’ attributes, drivers’ evaluation of the conduct of traffic police, and the emotions that drivers experience during apprehension for committing an offense. Attitudes toward police are affected by such demographic variables as age, gender, and race (Preiss and Ehrlich, 1966; Tuohy and Wrennal, 1995; Zamble and Annesley, 1987). This study examines differences between younger and older drivers, as age is strongly related to the commission of driving violations with younger drivers committing more violations than do older drivers (Arnett, 1990; Levy, 1990). Furthermore, younger and older drivers have different motives for obeying traffic laws: whereas younger drivers are more strongly influenced by the perceived fairness of punishment for a violation and a sense of obligation to obey the law, older drivers are more strongly motivated by the perceived danger in consequence of traffic violations (Yagil, 1998).For most citizens, police officers represent the institution of authority. Since the encounter with police officers who enforce traffic laws constitute the only contact that most citizens have with the police (Kirkham and Wollan, 1980), drivers’ attitudes toward “traffic cops” are likely to be related to a general disposition toward the police authority. Tyler (1990) suggests that compliance with the law might result from the support given to a specific authority group, and consequently, a belief that the legal authorities have a legitimate right todictate behavior. The present study, accordingly, examines the relationship between drivers’ perceptions of police officers and their attitude toward the traffic law enforcement function of the police.MethodThe study was carried out in the Israeli army as a part of a comprehensive research program examining various aspects of driving behavior. Attitudes toward military police officers were examined. The military police, that operates only within the army, is composed of regular soldiers as well as noncommissioned officers and officers. Ordinarily, it handles disciplinary offenses such as traffic violations or improper appearance; more severe offenses are treated by a special unit.A questionnaire was administered to 693 male respondents who had a driver’s license. The respondents are similar to the general male population in Israel, since almost the entire population performs military service. However, only male respondents were included in the study, since the rate of accidents and traffic violations are much higher among male drivers than among female drivers (Evans, 1991; Maycock et al., 1991; Storie, 1977).Of the respondents, 22 percent were officers, 36 percentnon-commissioned officers, and 42 percent regular soldiers; 89 percent of the respondents served in non-combat units, and 11 percent in combat units. Twenty-three percent had their driving license for a year or less, 28 percent for two to four years, 19 percent for five to ten years, and 30 percent for 11 years or more. Twenty-four percent drove fewer than 1,000km per month, 35 percent from 1,000-1,500km, 28 percent from 1,500-2,000km, and 13 percent more than 2,000km.The age range was 18-45 years (M = 27.35, SD = 7.8). The age group of 18-24 years was defined as younger drivers (N = 336) and 25-45 years as older drivers (N = 298); 59 respondents who did not report their age were not included in the analyses. Results The results are presented in three parts. The first part regarding drivers’ perceptions of police officers’ enforcingtraffic laws, was analyzed with two-way repeated measures analyses of variance, with age being the between-subjects variable. The second part examined differences between younger and older drivers in the emotions experienced during apprehension through a discriminant analysis. The third part employed multivariate regressionanalyses to predict the perceived importance of police in enforcing traffic laws as well as the perceived deterring effect of the police. The variables were composed according to the factor-analyses results.Limitations of the studySeveral variables examined in the study may be affected by social desirability. For example, drivers might have been reluctant to report experiencing stress and fear during apprehension. Thus the results might be biased in the direction of under-reporting.The age differences examined in the study are naturally accompanied by differences in variables such as education, marital status and driving experience. Thus the interpretation of these results is somewhat limited. It would be desirable to compare younger and older drivers while controlling other differences between the groups.Since the organizational context of the study, the army, is highly specific, an argument might be made against generalizing the results. The respondents, however, do not represent a unique population in any way, except for the gender variable. In Israel, almost the entire male population performs military service. Thus, the respondents are similar to the general male population in the country. Since, of course, only male respondents were included in the study, the results cannot be generalized to female drivers.Additionally, as the military organizational setting is likely to accentuate the harsh aspects of the image of police officers, the results should be compared with those gathered in a civilian context.Author(s): Dana YagilSource: Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management Volume: 21 Issue: 2 1998译文：“我很好，你不好”——驾驶员对交警交通执法的态度交警在交通执法成功上扮演着主要角色(雪拿和麦克奈特， 1986)。