英语专业语言学(词汇学)课程笔记汇总

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules ofword-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）: al most arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语）(7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc. （2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ：e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)2).Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning”(“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.[4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative（4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at thecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning.In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer, idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter) Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs ofintensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms（关系反义词）：this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It isa process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. Inother words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的）sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic andextra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context（语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2.Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy（上下义关系）7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms （俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）：words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom. The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literalmeaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms（习语的使用）1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：1）colloquialisms（俗语）2）slang （俚语）3）literary expressions（书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举[scream and shout] （2）repetition 重复[out and out]（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread（5）Personification拟人法（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die)（7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：1.addition增加2.deletion删除3.replacement替换4.position-shifting位置转移5.dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, AChinese-English D)2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典) （1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization,。

English Lexicology 英语词汇学Fall 2012Irene FlorenteHow do we communicate?Making soundsGesturesWritingWordsAnything else?Write down 10 English words you like on a piece of paperDo you know where these words came from (what languages)?Can they be spelled differently?What part of speech are they? (Noun, verb, adverb, etc)Do these words have more than one meaning or have different meanings when used in idioms?Where do words come from?How are they created?How do they change as history changes?How do they change as people speaking other languages invade or immigrate to their countries?What are the different types of words?Is language alive?(these questions are just for discussion and reflection)Some new words you will learn in this class morphemes, affix, polysemy, vocabulary, characteristics of words, collocations, neologisms, archaisms, characteristics of native words, types of borrowed wordsWhat does lexicology mean?What words do you see in the word?Lexicon/Lexis-ologyAnyone want to take a guess?1. What is lexicology (词汇学)?The literal meaningof lexicology is the “science of the word” It is a branch of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of a given language. Why is it important to study lexicology? lexicologyLexis/lexicalology (Greek for“of words”) (science of)Topics to be discussed this semesterWhat is a word? How are words created?Where do English words come from?How do languages acquire vocabulary?Different types of vocabulary and word meaningChanges in word structure and word meaning Sense relationsEnglish IdiomsEmail to find class ppts, textbookand notesLogin: lexlinglot@Password: 800morphemesLogin: lexlinglot@Password: 800morphemesSo there’s no need to come and copy the ppts at the end of each class since it will be late when class ends. ☺(the class textbook is already there)What’s in a word?A minimal free form of a languageA sound unityA unit of meaningA form that can function alone in a sentence The term word refers to the fundamental unitof a given language, with sound and meaning (lexical and grammatical), capable of performing a given syntactic function.What’s in a word?Sound and Meaning: A word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world. represents a concept which can be communicated with meaning.A word consists of one or more morphemes Each culture has come to agree that a certain sound represents a certain meaning and there is no “logical relationship”How to say “dog” in differentlanguagesArabic = calbChinese = gouDanish = hundFrench = chienGreek = skylosItalian = caneJapanese = InuSpanish = perroMy point is that these sounds have no logical relation to the actual animal and yet they are all words that mean “dog!”But Chinese characters aredifferent!VocabularyThe term vocabulary refers to all the words of a given languageAll the words in a language make up what is generally known as its vocabularyReviewWhat is a root word?What is a prefix?What is a suffix?These are all examples of affixes.Example of a root word with affixesAffix：A word element, such as a prefix or suffix, that can only occur attached to a base, stem, or root.Root word: “foot”What are some words we can make with “foot?”“Foot” with affixes: Football, footpath, footprint, footageRoot word: “dog”What are some words we can make with “dog?”“Dog” with affixes: doghole, doghouse, dogpaddle, doglikeHow many English words can you make with the letters below? Ekamon (You don’t have to use all letters)MONK MAKE AMOK KENONAME OMEN MANE AMENMOAN MEAN NOM MANMEN AEON EM OM MA MEAM ONE EONON NO ANWhat is a morpheme(形态素,词素)?Definition:A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in the grammar of a language.It is the smallest part of a word that still contains meaning.(a morpheme is not the same as a syllable)UnladylikeHow many morphemes are in the word, unladylike?The word un ladyl ike consists of three morphemes and four syllables.Morpheme breaks:un- 'not'lady '(well behaved) female adult human'-like 'having the characteristics of'None of these morphemes can be broken up any more without losing all sense of meaning.Lady cannot be broken up into "la" and "dy," even though "la" and "dy"are separate syllables. Note that each syllable has no meaning on its own.We will learn more about morphemes in Chapter 3.Classification of Morphemes Morphemes can be classified in various ways.Free (word)or bound (cannot be a word by itself)root (basic meaning of word) or affix (prefix or suffix added to root word) Inflectional(word meaning stays the same when affix is added to word) orderivational (word meaning changes when affix is added to word)Example: the words footprint and doghouse are examples of “free”morphemes.Why?They can stand alone as two different words that contains meaning. Don’t worry, we will talk more about these in Chapter 3. ☺Morpheme classification (just for reference)Organizing wordsIf you had to remember a list of 100 words, how would you memorize them?If you had to create a dictionary for these 100 words, how would you organize your dictionary? How would you order the words? What would you write for each word?How are words classified?How often are they used? Or not at all? Are they native or foreign?Are they modern or archaic?Are they simple or complicated?What do they denote or represent?What is the usage of these words?Do these words have meaning or just function words?4 groups of word classification 1.The basic word stock (存货) and non basicvocabulary by use frequency2.Content words and functional words by notion3.Native words and borrowed words by notion4.Simple words, (compounds (复合字) and derived(vt. 得自vi. 起源 ) words by morphology*(I will discuss content, function and borrowedwords in more detail towards the end of the ppt)Basic Word StockWords of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us.Natural phenomena: rain, snow, fire, water, sun, moon, spring, wind, hillHuman body and relations: hand, head, mother Names of plants and animals: oak, chicken, dog Numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions: one, you, but, till, whoPolysemy (意义的分岐 )Polysemy: words belonging to the basic word stock often possess plurality of meaningsReason: because most of them have undergonetransformations in semantic structure in the course ofuse and become polysemousPoly = a prefix, often meaning more than one or many (eg, polyvalent - capable of many valences) Semy (archaic word) = changes in meaningWhat is the meaning of the word “trip”in this sentence #1?1. She took a trip to Florida.A. Be careful, or you will trip!B. We planned our trip together.C. Don’t trip, Man! Its no big deal!2. I turned on the light so I could see better.A. The feather was very light.B. She wore light colors because it was going to be a hot day.C. There is only one light in the living room.What is the meaning of the word“light” in this sentence #2?Do you know what these American slang words mean? They allmean veryinteresting,very great!CollocationsWhat does the word “colloquial” mean?Is it easy to understand the local slang or vocabulary of different cities or even countries?Why does slang exist? Where do they come from? How do they develop?Do people in certain professions have their own specialized vocabulary that are related to their field or study, such as medicine or technology?Collocation:Collocation (n. 排列,安排,布置) This is when basic words become set expressions, idioms or proverbsare usually only understood among people of a common workplace, field of study, residence, location, culture, etc. (Colloquialism)A lot of these expressions, idioms, proverbs and slang cannot be defined literally word by word and must therefore be learned/memorized as a whole expression or idiom.They are often difficult for non-native speakers of that language to understand.The next slides are examples of collocations.Types of collocationsTerminology-technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areasJargon (n. 专门术语,行话,梦话,土语 ) –specialized vocabulary by which members of the particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselvesTypes of collocations Continued Slang- informal words related to a particular segment of a population or informal use of an actual wordFor example, “dough” is what you use to make bread but it is also a slang word for “money”Argot (n. 隐语,暗语,暗号): This is the combined cant (a characteristic or secret language used only by members ofa group, often used to conceal the meaning from thoseoutside the group.) and jargon of criminalsDialectal words – the same word in the same language spoken with phonetic and pronunciation differences inrelation to the speakers of a certain region and/or country.Archaisms and NeologismsArchaisms (n. 古语,古体,拟古主义)– Words or forms that were once in use but are now restricted only to specialized of limited use. Mainly found today in older poems, legal documents and religious writing or speech. Such as thou, thee, wilt. Shakespeare used a lot of archaic words!Neologisms (n. 新语,使用新语,创造新语) –Newly-created words or expressions or words that takeon new meanings. Such as Aids, internetContent WordsContent words denote clear notions (n. 概念,观念,主张,打算,想法)and thus are known as notional words. Notions are a mental image or representation; an idea or conception, a belief or opinion.They are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which denote notions of objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity, slowly etc.Examples: run, people, books, never, eightContent words constitutes the main body of the English vocabularyFunction WordsFunctional words do not have notions (n. 概念,观念,主张,打算,想法)of their own. They are often called empty words.Their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as betweensentences, they are known as form words.Prepositions (upon, on), conjunctions (connects a sentence: but, and or, yet, so), auxiliary verbs (be, do, have, am) and articles (the, a) belong to this category.Native wordsNeutral in style– they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions and at all times, Therefore not stylistically specific.Frequent in use-native ones are most frequently use in everyday speech and writing.Borrowed WordsWords taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words, loan words or borrowings.English is a heavy borrower and has adopted words from all other major languages of the word.It is estimated that English borrowings constitutes 80% of the modern English vocabulary.There are 4 types of borrowed words.Types of borrowed wordsDenizens– words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language.Examples, port from the latin Portus, pork from the French porc and so on. (n. 居民,外籍居民,外来语vt. 给...居住权,移植)Types of borrowed wordsAliens– borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. They are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin.Examples are: kowtow (Chinese), bazaar (Persian), Kimono (Japanese) and mosquito Spanish)Types of borrowed wordsTranslation loans– are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.Example: mother tongue directly translated from the Latin lingua materna, ketchup from the Chinese Dialect “fanqiejiang”Types of borrowed wordsSemantic Loans: Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form but to the meaning. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language.Example: The word “dream” originally meant “joy” and “ music” but its modern meaning was taken from the Norse.Chinese words borrowed from otherlanguages 中文外来词拜拜 bye-bye、可口可乐 Coca-cola、咖啡coffee、巧克力 chocolate、汉堡包hamburger、巴士 bus 、卡通 cartoon、台风typhoon、黑客 hacker、因特网 Internet.高尔夫 golf/?p=1259Do you know which Englishwords come from Arabic?bedouin, emir, jakir, gazelle, giraffe, harem, hashish, lute, minaret, mosque, myrrh, salaam, sirocco, sultan, vizier, bazaar, caravanWords from European languages V. Modern English (1650-present)Borrowed words from FrenchFrench continues to be the largest single source of new words outside of very specialized vocabulary domains (scientific/technical vocabulary, still dominated by classical borrowings).High culture —ballet, bouillabaise, cabernet, cachet, chaise longue, champagne, chic, cognac, corsage, faux pas, nom de plume, quiche, rouge, roulet, sachet, salon, saloon, sang froid, savoir faireWar and Military —bastion, brigade, battalion, cavalry, grenade, infantry, pallisade, rebuff, bayonetOther—bigot, chassis, clique, denim, garage, grotesque, jean(s), niche, shockFrench Canadian—chowderLouisiana French (Cajun)—jambalayaBorrowed words from Spanish andItalianSpanisharmada, adobe, alligator, alpaca, armadillo, barricade, bravado, cannibal, canyon, coyote, desperado, embargo, enchilada, guitar,marijuana, mesa, mosquito, mustang, ranch, taco, tornado, tortilla,vigilanteItalianalto, arsenal, balcony, broccoli, cameo, casino, cupola, duo, fresco, fugue, gazette (via French), ghetto, gondola, grotto, macaroni, madrigal, motto, piano, opera, pantaloons, prima donna, regatta, sequin, soprano, opera, stanza, stucco, studio, tempo, torso, umbrella, viola, violinfrom Italian American immigrants—cappuccino, espresso, linguini, mafioso, pasta, pizza, ravioli, spaghetti, spumante, zabaglione,zucchiniBorrowed words from Dutch andGermanDutch, FlemishShipping, naval terms—avast, boom, bow, bowsprit, buoy, commodore, cruise, dock, freight, keel, keelhaul, leak, pump, reef, scoop, scour, skipper, sloop, smuggle, splice, tackle, yawl, yachtCloth industry—bale, cambric, duck (fabric), fuller's earth, mart, nap (of cloth), selvage, spool, stripeArt—easel, etching, landscape, sketchWar—beleaguer, holster, freebooter, furlough, onslaughtFood and drink—booze, brandy(wine), coleslaw, cookie, cranberry, crullers, gin, hops, stockfish, waffleOther—bugger (orig. French), crap, curl, dollar, scum, split (orig. nautical term), uproar Germanbum, dunk, feldspar, quartz, hex, lager, knackwurst, liverwurst, loafer, noodle, poodle, dachshund, pretzel, pinochle, pumpernickel, sauerkraut, schnitzel, zwieback, (beer)stein, lederhosen, dirndl20th century German loanwords—blitzkrieg, zeppelin, strafe, U-boat, delicatessen, hamburger, frankfurter, wiener, hausfrau, kindergarten, Oktoberfest, schuss, wunderkind, bundt (cake), spritz (cookies), (apple) strudelBorrowed words from Yiddish, Scandinavianlanguages and RussianYiddish (most are 20th century borrowings – traditional language spoken mainly among Jewish people)bagel, Chanukkah (Hanukkah), chutzpah, dreidel, kibbitzer, kosher, lox, pastrami (orig. from Romanian), schlep, spiel, schlepp, schlemiel, schlimazel, gefilte fish, goy, klutz, knish, matzoh, oy vey, schmuck, schnook,Scandinavian languagesfjord, maelstrom, ombudsman, ski, slalom, smorgasbordRussianapparatchik, borscht, czar/tsar, glasnost, icon, perestroika, vodka。

English Lexicology( 英语词汇学)Lexicology （词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology ：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures ofEnglish words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to ：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology( 形态学), semantics( 语义学), etymology( 词源学),stylistics （文体论）and lexicography( 词典学)The reason for a student to study English lexicology ：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students ofEnglish.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules ofword-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciouslyincrease their word power. The information of the historical development and theprinciples of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning andenable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding andtheir sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enablethem use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionarieswill improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord （词的界说） : A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity(3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning （声响与含义） : almost arbitrary, “ no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself ”Sound and form （读音和办法） :不共同的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years （3）some ofthe difference were creates by the early scribes （4）the borrowings is an importantchannel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary （词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words ：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock （根本词汇） : is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a smallpercentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock( 基本词汇的特征) :1)All-National character （全民通用性most important ）2)Stability （相对稳定性）3)Productivity （多产性）4)Polysemy （多义性）5)Collocability （可搭配性）没有上述特征的words: (1)Terminology( 术语) (2)Jargon （行话）(3)slang （俚语）(4)Argot （暗语）（5）Dialectal words( 方言) (6) Archaisms （古语）(7) Neologisms （新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have takenon new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words 实词( cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently ) andfunctional words/empty words 虚词( on, of, and, be, but )Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words （本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are wordsbrought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basicword-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words （外来语词）: words taken over from foreignlanguages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens( 同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens （非同化词/ 外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH) 磕头)3) translation loans( 译借词): 按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans （借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family( 印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages （8 大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group （波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc. （2）The Indo-Iranian Group （印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group （亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group （阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group （古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group （意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group （凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group （日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words comealmost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost withjust a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to thepresent analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development( 词汇的发展模式):1)creation 创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namelytoots,affixes and other elements.( 最重要方式)2)semantic change 旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but createmany more new useages of the words.3) borrowing 借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabularythough quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme( 词素) :the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph( 词素变体) : is a different variant form of a morpheme ，differ in phonologicaland spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme( 词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes （自在词素） : have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself.(independent).（2）Bound Morpheme( 粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root( 粘附词根) (2)Affix( 词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes ( 屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicategrammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes( 派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:Anadjective suffix （描述词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , theresult will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root （自在词根）Morpheme( 词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem （词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss ofidentity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word withinflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II( 构词法)1.Affixation 词缀法（Derivation 派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation( 前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes( 否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes （逆反前缀）: un-,de- ，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis （贬义前缀）：mis- ，mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size( 程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect.overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude （倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro-etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes （方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order （时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes （数字前缀）:uni- ，mono-, bi- ，di-, tri-,multi- ，poly- ，semi- ，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes （混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation （后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding 复合法（also called composition ）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid 连写(airmail) ，hyphenated 带连字符(air-conditioning)and open 分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds （复合词的办法）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ：e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion 转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to anotherclass. （功用转化，又名零派生 .functional shift/zero-derivation ）4.Blending 拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus apart of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula +translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping 截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using whatremains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种办法：1).Front clippings 删节前面(phone from telephone)2).Back clippings 删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy 首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names ofsocial and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism （首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.:BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym （首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters butpronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation （逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It?s the method ofcreating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name( 专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens( 人名) -- watt （瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning( “意”义”的意义)Reference (所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitraryand conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer tosomething specific.Concept （概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition( 认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（含义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ,The sense of an expressionis its place in a system of semantic relat ionships with other expressions in the language.?Motivation (理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and itsmeaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation （拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, forthese words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds ofthe words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of manyare the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt . 破例： black market,ect.3)Semantic motivation （词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by theconceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense andfigurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of theword. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning( 词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning （语法含义） :indicates the grammatical concept or relationships(becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇含义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components 内容: Conceptual meaning( 概念意义) and associativemeaning( 关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning( 概念意义): also known as denotative meaning( 外延意义) is themeaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning( 关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to theconceptual meaning.[4types:（1） Connotative （内在意义）： the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.( 例如“母亲”经常与“爱”关“心”温“柔”联系起来)（2） Stylistic （文体含义）： many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker?s attitude towards the person or thingin question. 这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative（4） Collocative （调配含义）： is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field （语义联系和语义场）Polysemy （多义联系）Two approached to polysemy （多义联系的两种研讨办法） :1.diachronic approach( 历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumedto be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and sameword. First meaning is theprimary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach ( 共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistenceof various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time. 根本含义是central meaning , 非必须含义是 derived meaning.Two processes of development （词义的两种开展类型） :1. radiation （辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at thecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g:face, neck)2. concatenation （连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign ofconnection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had atthe beginning.(e.g:treacle)3. In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning.In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one likechains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no directconnection in between.4. They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the twoprocesses work together, complementing each other.Homonymy （同形同音异义联系） :words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms( 同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms （彻底同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs （同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.( 最多最常见)3）Homophones （同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms ( 同形同音异义词的来源)1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening( 缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes （同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen toshare the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology( 词源)：Homonymys are from differentsources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness( 语义关联): The variousmeanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meaningsof different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, apolysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms( 同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identicalin sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns fordesired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have thesame or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy( 同义词的类别) :(1) Absolute synonyms （完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexicalmeaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms arerestricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2) relative synonyms （相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of agiven quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms( 同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing （借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart,wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort offact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions （与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand,decide- make up one?s mind, finish -get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one ahand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1) difference in denotation 外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2) difference in connotation 内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylisticappropriateness. ( 借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual,unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal. 中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger,bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough,save-expect, mere-lake )(3) difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentencepatterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can bedefined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms ( 矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness ofmeaning. 特色：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms arenon-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very ”to qua(liefy.gt:hseimng.le/married)2)contrary terms （对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scalerunning between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The twoopposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms （关系反义词）：this type consists of relational opposites. （parent/child,husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give ）Some of the characteristics of antonyms( 反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition( 语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion （语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms ，differing in degree of intensity, so each has itsown corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms （反义词的运用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake ofcontrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe 敌友，weal and woe 哀乐)3）To form antithesis( 对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together.(proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy (上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Forexample, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate ( 上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which areconcrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinateswhich convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field( 语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of,fruits?)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in differentlanguage.e.g.(aunt in English, may means 父亲的姐姐“，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子”inChinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning 词义的演化Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constantchanges both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable thanthe form.Types of Changes ( 词义变化的种类)1.Extension /generalization( 词义的扩大) : is the name given to the widening ofmeaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now becomegeneralized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal,bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization( 词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It isa process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. Inother words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in itsapplication and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage,liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into aproper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration( 词义的升华) :refers to the process by which words rise fromhumble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel,knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration( 词义的降格) :A process whereby words of good origin fallinto ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory （贬损的）sense.[boor,churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer( 词义的转移) : Words which were used to designate 指明one thing but laterchanged to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Causes of Semantic Change( 词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors( 词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason( 历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects,institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason( 阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexicalmeaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason( 心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemisticuse of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despisedoccupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors （言语内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internalfactors with in the language system.1)shorting 缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing 借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy 类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a givenword. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic andextra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context （语境的品种）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation （非言语语境）：In a broad sense,context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place,and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context (语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers tothe words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a wholechapter and even the entire book. 分为两类：1) Lexical context （词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word inquestion. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context （语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a wordmay be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context( 语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity( 消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity怎么消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little 2.Indication of referents( 限定所指)怎么限制所指？——①with clear context ②with ad equate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning ( 提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy （上下义关系）7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms （习语的界说） : are expressions that are not readily understandable from theirliteral meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗话） , Catchphrases （标语） ,slang expressions （俚语） ,proverbs （谚语） ,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms （英语习语的特色）1.Semantic unity （语意的全体性）： words in the idiom they have lost their individualidentity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literalmeaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability( 结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extentun changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity. 习语性表达习气Classification of Idioms （英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant 累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature 描述词性习语（as poor as a church mouse ）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into ）4 .idioms adverbial in nature 副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves ）Use of idioms （习语的运用）1.Stylistic features （文体颜色）：1） colloquialisms （俗话）2）slang （俚语）3）literary expressions （书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned （指使） different meanings.2.Rhetorical features( 修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration 头韵法（2）rhyme 尾韵法2）lexical manipulation （词法处理）（1）reiteration （duplication of synonyms ）同义词并举[scream and shout] （2）repetition 重复[out and out]（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech （修辞格）（1）simile 明喻（2）metaphor 暗喻（3）metonymy 换喻/ 以名词代动作：live by one?s pen（4）synecdoche 提喻/以部分代整体：earn one?s bread（5）Personification 拟人法（6）Euphemism 委婉语：kick the bucket(die)（7）hyperbole 夸大： a world of troubleVariations of idioms( 习语的变异形式) ：1.addition 添加2.deletion 删去3.replacement 替换4.position-shifting 方位搬运5.dismembering 分化Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary : presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as totheir spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, theiretymology （语源）.Types of dictionaries( 词典的种类):1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries （单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword orentries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, AChinese-English D)2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries （语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in thelanguage (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymologyetc.) 可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1）encyclopedia ( 百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se （本身）but providesencyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, orusages) but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia(<Chamber?s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries( 大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)（1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word ——its origin, meaning, pronunciation,cognates( 同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization,。

Chapter II word-formationI. Morphological structure of wordsA word is a minimum free form. Then work and worker are both words,do you think they bothshare the same morphological structre?II. The definition of morpheme:the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. (Boulder)III. Types of morpheme.1. free and bound morphemea: free morpheme---morphemes that can occur as separate words.b: bound morphemes---morphemes that can not stand alone as words, they are mainly affixes. Questions for discussion:1).Try to analyze the following English words and tell what morphemesthey are:unfaithful, friendship, contain, perceive, homework, sleptQuestions for consideration2).Do you think ―berry‖ is meaningful in isolation in the following words?cranberry, huckleberry, boysenberry etc.3). Do you think the meaning of the morpheme ―-ceive‖ is easy to define ?perceive, conceive, receive, etc.4).Do you think the forms as ―fl-‖, ―gl-‖, ―-ounce‖ are morphemic in the following words?flash, flame, flicker; glow, glisten, gliter; bounce, pounce.2. Lexical and gramatical morphemes▪a). Lexical morphemes---morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compoundwords(e.g.blackbird)and affixes such as –ship,-ize, etc.▪b). Grammatical morpheme---morphemes used to express grammatical relationships between a word and its context, such as plurality or past tense.⏹morphs---discrete units used to realize a morpheme in speech.⏹Allomorph---the total number of morphs, as in books,legs,boxes representedby/s/,/z/and /iz/.3. Root, Stem, Affix▪a) root ---the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.(Crystal 1985); it is that part of the word that remains when all affixes have been removed.(Bauer 1983:20); A root can be free or bound. Questions for discussion:1). Identify the following Latin roots:acu-(acr-)---sharp e.g acute---working very well, sharp. Dogs have an acute sense of smell.ag- (act-) ---to do, to drive,e.g. agent---a person who does something.am- ---to love. e.g. amateur---a person who does something for the loveof it rather than for money.anim- ----life or mind e.g. animal---a living creatureannu-(ennu-)---year e.g. annual—of one yearaud-(audit) ---to hear e.g. audience,auditory,audible,etc.bene-(benign-) ----well, good e.g. benefit---good effectcad-(cid-cas-) ---to fall, to happen by chance e.g. accident---something that happens by chance.cap-(capt-)--- to take e.g. capture---something that has been taken, caught or won by force.ced-(cede-)---to go e.g. antecedent---a thing, an event, etc. coming or being before another.cent- --- one hundred e.g. century---a period of 100 yearscern-(cret-) --- to separate e.g. secret---something separated or apart from others, something kept hidden or known only to a few.clam-(claim-)---to cry out e.g. declaim---to say something loud and clear, usu.with hand movement.clud-(clus-) ---to shut, to close e.g. conclude---to come to an end.cord---heart e.g. cordial---warm and hearty.cre-(cresc-)---to grow e.g. increase---to become larger in amount or number. cred- ---to believe e.g. discredit---to stop people believingcur-(curs-,cours-) to run or to go e.g. current---a continously moving mass of liquid or gas, esp. one flowing through slower-moving liquid or gas.de-(div-)--- a god e.g. divine– of, related to, or being Goddict- --- to say or to speak e.g. dictate---to say for someone else to write down. doc-(doct-)---to teach e.g. doctor---originally ―a teacher‖, and now ―a person holding one of the highest degree‖duc-(duct-)--- to lead e.g. introduce---to make known to each other.fac-(fic-, fact-) ---to do or to make e.g. manufacture---to make or produce by machinery▪fer- ---to carry,to bring e.g. confer---to give (a gift, title, honor,favor, etc)▪firm- ---firm, strong e.g. confirm---to support, make certain, give proof to▪flect-(flex-) ----to bend e.g. flexible---that can bend or be bent easily▪flu-(flux-) ---a flow or to flow e.g fluent ---speaking, writing, playing a musical instrument in an easily smooth manner.▪fus-(fund-)---to pour, to melt e.g. confuse---to mix up, to make less clear▪gam- ---marriage e.g. bigamy---the state of being married to two people at the same time▪gen-(gent-)---to produce, to give birth to e.g. genesis---the beginning or origin▪ger-(gest-)---to carry e.g. digest---to change or to be changed into a form that the body can use▪grad-(gress-) ---a step or to step or go e.g. gradual happening slowly▪grat- ---pleasing e.g. congratulate---to speak to a person with praise and admiration▪grav- ---heavy e.g. gravity---attractive force by which bodies tend to go to the center of earth, etc.▪her-(hes-)---to stick e.g. adhere---to stick firmly▪jac-(ject-)--- to throw e.g. project---to cause (heat, sound, light)to be directed into space or onto a surface▪junct-(join(t)-) ---to join e.g. conjunction---the act or result of joining together▪lect-(leg-,lig-)--- to choose e.g. collect---to gather together▪loqu-(lacut-) --- to speak e.g. colloquial---related to ordinary, informal.▪mit-(miss-)---to send, to let go e.g. admit --- to permit to enter▪mon-(monit-)--- to warn, to advise e.g. monitor---a pupil chosen to help a teacher▪nasc-(nat-)---to be born e.g. nation--- the place of one’s birth▪pel-(pell-) --- to drive e.g. compel--- to make (a person or thing) do something by or as if by force▪pend-(pens-)--- to hang e.g. depend----to rely on▪pet-(petit-)---- to seek, to strive e.g. competition--- a test of strength, skill, ability, etc.▪plex-(plic-, plicit-) ---to twist, to connecte.g. complex---consisting of many closely related or connected parts▪pound-(pond—pose-,posit-) --- to put e.g. compose—to make or form by putting parts together▪port---to carry e.g. export--- to send out of a country▪quir-(quisit-) ---to seek or ask e.g. inquire---to ask▪rupt- ---to break or to burst e.g interrupt---to break▪scrib-(script-)---to write e.g. describe---to give a picture in words▪sed-(sid-)---to sit or to settle e.g. preside---to be in charge of▪spect-(spec-, spic-)---to look, to look at e.g. inspect---to examine(the details ofsomething) ▪tact-(tang-,ting-)---to touch e.g. contact---to get in touch with▪ten-(tin-, tain-)--- to hold e.g. continent---mainly unbroken masses of land on the earth▪tract- ---to drag or to pull e.g. contract---a formal agreement, having the force of law.▪ven-(vent-)---to move toward, to come e.g. event---a happening, usu.an important one▪vert-(vers-)---to turn e.g. reverse---to turn something over▪Vid-(vis-)---to see e.g. vision---the ability to see▪Voc-(vok-)---voice or to call e.g. provoke---to make (a person or animal) angry2) Identify the following Greek roots▪Anthrop- ---man or humam e.g anthropology---the science of man▪Archeo-(archi-)--- ancient e.g. archeolgy---the study of the burried remains of ancient times.▪Aut-(auto-)---self e.g. automatic---able to work or move by itself。

英语语言学笔记Chapter one 学点语言学语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言。

The Goals for this CourseTo get a scientific view on language;To understand some basic theories on linguistics;To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;To prepare for the future research work.The Requirements for this courseClass attendanceClassroom discussionFulfillment of the assignmentExaminationReference Books戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。

胡壮麟，(2001)，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。

胡壮麟，李战子，《语言学简明教程》，北京大学出版社刘润清，(1995)，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。

Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), An Introduction to Language the sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguisticsWhy do we study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanityIf we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.What can language mean?Language can meanwhat a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions)the way of speaking or writi ng (e.g. Shakespeare‘s language, Luxun‘s language)a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language)the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g.Chinese language, first language)the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language)a tool for human communication. (social function)a set of rules. (rule-governed)The origins of language---the myth of languageThe Biblical accountLan guage was God‘s gift to human beings.The bow-wow theoryLanguage was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo. The pooh-pooh theory Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.The yo-he-ho theoryLanguage arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort –lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.The evolution theoryLanguage originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.Functions of language – three meta-functions by HallidayThe ideational functionTo identify things, to think, or to record information.The interpersonal functionTo get along in a community.The textual functionTo form a text.Functions of languagePhatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact.Directive: get the hearer to do something.Informative: give information about facts.Interrogative: get information from others.Expressive: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.Evocative: create certain feelings in the hearer (amuse, startle, soothe, worry or please) Performative: language is used to do things, to perform actions.What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used forhuman communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).A system----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention. V ocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed theirwriting systems are.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device‖(LAD)Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.a. arbitrariness----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.b. duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.Dog: woof (but not ―w-oo-f ‖ )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economyc. Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.)non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the location is really ?new‘. In one exper iment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sentoff to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. Theyflow around in all directions, but couldn‘t locate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizontal distance. The bee cann ot create a ?new ‘ message indicating vertical distance.d. Displacement----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.Bee communication:When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source.e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmissionYou acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission.f. interchangeability: it means that individuals who use a language can both send and receive any permissible message within that communication system. Human beings can be a producer as well as receiver of messages.What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Process of linguistic study:①Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;②Hypotheses are formulated;③Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④A linguistic theory is cons tructed.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theoryPerson who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions (micro-linguistics)Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studiesthe characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. Pragmatics(语用学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language in use.External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions (macro-linguistics)Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man. Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.Features of linguisticsDescriptiveDealing with spoken languageSynchronicSome Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics1. Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.2. Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3. Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.4. Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.5. Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).6. Potential and Behavior: English linguist Halliday makes another similar distinction in the 1960s, namely the distinction between linguistic potential and linguistic behavior. He approaches language from a functional view and concentratesprimarily on what speakers do with languagewhich led to the distinction between linguistic potential (what speakers can do with language) and behavior (what speakers actually do with language). In H alliday‘s distinction between potential and behavior, potential is similar to Saussure‘s ―langue‖ and Chomsky‘s competence, and behavior is similar to Saussure‘s ―parole‖ and Chomsky‘s performance.7. Modern linguistics started with the publication of F. d e Saussure‘ s book ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in the early 20th century. So Saussure is often described as ―father of modern linguistics‖.The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as ―traditional grammar.‖ They differ in several basic ways:Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of ―correctness‖.Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines ― competence‖ as the ideal user's k__________ of the rules of his language./doc/4215996376.html,ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units./doc/4215996376.html,nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics./doc/4215996376.html,nguage is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondary34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BChapter 2 PhonologyLanguage is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication.Phonetics----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.Three branches of phoneticsArticulatory phonetics----from the speakers‘ point of view, ―how speakers produce speech sounds‖the production of speech sounds. It is of our major concernAuditory phonetics----from the hearers‘ point ofview, ―how sounds are perceived‖the perceptive mechanism of speech soundsAcoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.the physical properties of speech soundsThe speech organsWhere does the air stream come from?From the lungWhat is the function of vocal cords?Controlling the air streamWhat are the three cavities?Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat;The oral cavity ---- the mouth;Nasal cavity ---- the nose.Transcription of speech soundsA standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. ], [ pit ] ?clear [ Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ]Some major articulatory variables ---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary:V oicing---- voiced & voiceless (Two consonants sharing the same place and manner of articulation become a pair, which is distinguished by voiceless or voiced. )Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasalAspiration ----- aspirated & unaspiratedClassification of English speech sounds---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: Vowels and ConsonantsNote: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the airstream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.Classification of consonants---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions:The manner of articulationThe place of articulationThe manner of articulationstops/plosives: [p],? , [t], [d], [k], [g];],?], [v], [s], [z], [? fricatives: [? ], [h];?], [?], [?[];??], [?? affricates: [?liquids:? ];?[l](lateral), [];?], [?], [? nasals: [?].?glides/semivowels: [w], [The place of articulationbilabial: [p], ], [w];?, [], [v];?? labiodental: [ ?];?], [? dental: [alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l],? [r];];??], [ ??], [??], [?], [? palatal: [?velar: [k],? ?];?[g], [glottal: [h].?The place of articulation1. Bilabial;2. Labiodental;3. Dental or interdental;4. Alveolar;5. Palatoalveolar;6. Palatal;7. Velar;8. Uvular;9. Glottal.The description of English consonants Page 20 (textbook)Classification of vowelsDifferent vowels are determined by the position of the tongue and the relative opening of the lips.The criteria of vowel description1. the part of the tongue that is raised---front, center or back2. the opening of the mouth----close, semi-close, semi-open, open3. the shape of the lips---rounded, unrounded4. the length of the sound---tense, lax (紧，松)Monophthongs or pure/single vowels?Diphthongs or gliding vowelsMonophthongs or pure/single vowels----According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as: front? ?]?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [??vowels: [],?], [?? central vowels: [? ];?[].??], [?], [??], [?], [?? back vowels: [?According to the openness of the mouth].?], [??], [?], [?? Close: [?];??], [?Semi-close: [];?], [? Semi-open: [?],? Open: [? ];?], [??], [?], [?[According to the shape of the lips or the degree of lip rounding ];?], [??], [?], [?? rounded: [?].??], [?], [?], [??], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [??unrounded: [According to the length of the vowels],??], [?? long: [? ]??], [??], [??[],?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [? short: [? ].?[Diphthongs/gliding vowels?],??], [??], [?? [? ].??], [??], [??], [??], [??[Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound as required.A bilabial consonant: mad sad bad cad pad? had ladA velar consonant: nod god cod pod rod?Labiodental consonant: rat fat sat mat chat vat patAn alveolar? consonant: nick lick sick tick kick quickA palato-alveolar? consonant: sip ship tip chip lip zipA dental consonant: lie buy? thigh thy tie ryeA glide: one war yolk rush?Underline the words that end with a sound as required:A fricative?pay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave messageA nasal?train bang leaf limbA stop?drill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through tipAn affricate: rack such ridge booze?Underline the words that contain the sound as required:A central vowel:?mad lot but boot wordA front vowel:?reed pad load fate bit bed cookA rounded vowel:?who he bus her hit true boss bar walkA back vowel:?paid reap fool top good fatherDescribe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions:vd/vl place mannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobberEitherPhonologyPhonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.Phonology and phonetics are two studies different inperspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context?What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?Phonetics & phonologyBoth are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone, phoneme, allophonePhone: the different versions of the abstract unit – phoneme Phoneme: the mean-distinguishing sound in a language, placed in slash marksAllophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phonemePhoneA phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The? speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don‘t, e.g. t ]??[ b & t]?t ], [sp?[ b & t].?[spPhonemeA? phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently t].?p] and [sp?t], [t?in [pAllophoneAllophones ---- the phones? that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.Phonemic? contrast----different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g. t].?t ] and [p? /b/ and /p/ in [ b Complementary? distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g.dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].Minimal pairMinimal pair----when two different forms? are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g.beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.Some rules of phonologySequential rules?Assimilation ruleDeletion rule?Sequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sound s in a particular language, e.g. in English, ―k b i I‖ might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.。

Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and LexicologyI.Linguistics1.DefinitionLinguistics is the scientific study of language.2.Scientific study method①observe②hypothesis③classify④test & conclude3.Features of scientific study①exhaustiveness②consistency③economy④objectivitynguage1.DefinitionLanguage is a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols by means of which the members of a speech community communicate, interact and transmit their culture.2.Functions·interrogative·expressive·informative·evocative·directive·performative·phaticrmation transmissionSemantic encoding↓Grammatical encoding↓Phonetic & phonological encoding (pitch, loudness, length, quality)↓Sending↓Transmission4.Origins of the calendarBabylonian→Egyptian→Greek→(750 BC)Old Roman1)Months·750 BCMarch MarsApril Goddess of love May Goddess of spring June God of marriage ※Quintillis Five※Sextillis Six September SevenOctober Eight November Nine December Ten·500 BCJanuary ‘door’February ‘festival’·46 BCQuintillis→July Julius Caesar Sextillis→August Augustus Caesar 2)DaysSunday God of Sun (Babylonian) Monday God of Moon (Norse) Tuesday Chief of all gods (Nor.) Wednesday God of commerce (Nor.)Thursday God of Thunder (Nor.) Friday God of Love (Nor.) Saturday God of Harvest (Bab.)III.Lexicology1.Basic terms and definitionsword (OE): talk, speakvocabulary (MLat): ①all words in a certain realm②words in specific context lexicon (lexis): words in a special language lexicology: origins + development + meanings of words 2.English Lexicology·morphonological structures·formation·semantic structure relations·usages·lexicography3.A poem~Spring, the sweetest spring, is the year’s pleasant King Then blooms each thing, then the maids dance in a ring Cold doth not sting, the pretty birds do singKoo-koo, juck-juck, puwe, to-witta-wooThe palm and may make country houses gay Lambs frisk and play, the shepherds pipe all day And we hear aye birds tune this merry layKoo-koo, juck-juck, puwe, to-witta-wooThe fields breeze sweet, the daisies kiss our feet Young lovers meet, old wives a-sunning sitIn every street, these tunes our ears do greet Koo-koo, juck-juck, puwe, to-witta-woo。

英语词汇的课堂笔记
英语词汇的课堂笔记
第4课
主谓一致：指的就是给出主语，要求判断谓语动词是用单数还是复数的`问题。

一、就近原则：
指句子的主语由两部分单词或短语构成时，由离谓语动词近的那部分主语来决定谓语动词的单复数。

只有当以下单词或短语连接主句的两部分时就近原则才适用：
1. or 或者;
2. either or 不是就是，或
3. neither nor 既不也不
4. not only but also 不但而且
5. not but 不是而是
例如：主语1 or 主语2 谓语动词。

此时由主语2决定谓语动词。

10. _C_ either he or his accountants going to claim for the loss?
A Are
B Where
C Is
D Does
如果题目改变为：Either he or his accountants ___ going 则应选A
二、句子谓语动词一定用复数的两种情况：
1. 集合名词做主语，集合名词没有复数形式，因为他本身就代表一个复数概念。

常见的几个复合名词： people 人民，人们; police 警察; cattle 牛; poultry 家禽。

2. 表示数量的复数名词 + 不可数名词，整体做主语时
例如：去年出口了八百万顿煤。

Eight million tons of coal were exported last year.。

本文部分内容来自网络整理，本司不为其真实性负责，如有异议或侵权请及时联系，本司将立即删除！== 本文为word格式，下载后可方便编辑和修改！ ==词汇学笔记(名词解释为主篇一：英语词汇学笔记--名词解释篇英语词汇学笔记之“名词解释篇” 201X.1.11济南1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion.2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words.3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemesthat must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound orfree : Catts, walk+ing.5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" asa Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion.7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixesattaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationshipsare inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes.There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks.8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war.10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y. Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word.Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base)Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective)11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove.13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.16. Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation.17. Prefixation--Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.19. Compounding（Compositon）--Compounding is a process of word-formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. E.g. hen-packed; short-sighted.20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)-->to dry.21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a wordis created by the deletion of a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by which the syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II.Initialisms III. Acronyms IV. Blends.I. Clipped words--are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. E.g. telephone-->phone, professional-->pro.II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words. E.g. smoke+fog=smog.24. Polysemy--The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as "polysemy". The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.*Two approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and SynchronicDiachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic structure of a word , or how the semantic structure of a word has developed from primary meaning to the present polysemic state .Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of individual meanings and the interrelation between the central meaning and the secondary meanings.*Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and concatenationRadiation : Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays.Concatenation : is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, untill there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.25. Homonyms--are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同一的，完全相同的』 only in sound or spelling.26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound andspelling,but different in meaning。

现代英语词汇学（课后总结中文）第一篇：现代英语词汇学(课后总结中文)第一章一个词可以被定义为一个基本单位的言论和作为一个最低的自由形式。

它是一个统一的声音和意义，帽子能够执行一个给定的句法功能，所有的话在一个语言的共同组成的词汇。

英语的历史发展表明，英语是一个沉重的借用者，它采用了几乎所有已知语言的词汇，尤其是拉丁语、法语和希腊语。

第一次世界大战的英语词汇¬拉里扩大的速度比以前快后渣土。

对了一天英语词汇快速增长的根本原因是科学技术进步的标志，社会经济、政治和文化的变化¬宝在英语母语国家的发生，和其他国家的语言和文化的强烈影响，由于在历史发展过程中出现大规模借贷，英语词汇极其丰富和异质。

词汇量从旧英语的50000个增加到了60000个，增加到了世界上最大的一百万个单词。

尽管外来词在本土词汇上占优势，但后者却是英语词汇中最熟悉、最有用的部分。

前者增加了灵活性和语言资源¬丰满。

英语词汇包含不同种类的词汇。

可根据不同的¬租金标准分类。

词汇可以根据其来源分类为母语反借词。

通过使用水平，词可以分为普通（或流行〉词文学的话口语词、俚语和术语。

一个词的状态不是固定不变的，而是不断变化的。

技术术语可能会很流行，而流行词可以用作专门术语。

一些俚语也成为常用词或俗语词可以分为实词和虚词前有独立的词汇意义，后者，在大多数情况下，没有词汇本身的含义，作为语法信号显示内容之间的连接词。

虚词比内容词少得多，但使用频率更高。

第二章词是由语素构成的，语素是英语最有意义的单位，既有音也有义。

一位是任何一个рЬешеMOR的变体形式。

语素111ay被归类为自由或束缚，自由语素是一个可以成为一个独立的COM¬完整的话语，而粘着语素不能单独存在；它必须出现至少一个其他语素自由或束缚。

语素可以分为根和根进行affixies，在аіягогсІ意义的重要组成部分，根可以免费或黏着语素自由根可以独立成为单词，并为语言的形成提供基础。