The Theory of Conversational Implicature会话含义理论

• Focal points:
• Speech Act Theory言语行为理论 • The Theory of Conversational Implicature会话含义
• Teaching difficulties:
• Speech Act Theory • The Cooperative Principle and its four maxim
An Introduction To Pragmatics
• Development
• a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics • Developed in the 1960s and 1970s resulted from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics • Morris first proposed the word ―pragmatics‖ in his ―Foundations of the Theory of Signs ‖ : • the study of semiotics includes three parts: • syntax (sign---sign); semantics (sign---word); pragmatics (sign---its user). • 1977 Journal of Pragmatics published in Holland signified the start of pragmatics
• The scope of pragmatic study includes ―speech act theory‖, ―context‖, ―principle of conversation‖ etc.

Logic and Conversation,pp.45-46
§8.1 “会话含义”理论的提出
为了实现成功的交际，人们总是有意或无意 地遵守着一条基本原则，即“在参与交谈时，根 据你所参与交谈的目的或方向的变化而提供适切 的话语。”这便是“合作原则”。
合作原则是一条普遍原则，为使会话顺利进 行，往往具体体现为几条会话准则或次准则。
§8.1 “会话含义”理论的提出
⑷说话人可能有意地不去遵为他仍然是 合作的；而听话人也知道，说话人并不存心让他 受蒙骗。 这第四类的情况实际上也不应当算作违反合作 原则，因为只要听话人了解话语的含义所在，谈 话就可以继续下去，说话双方就能相互配合，达 到预期的目标。
§8.4.1 古典格赖斯理论的不足
格赖斯的“合作原则”和会话含义理论，为 话语交际现象提供了新的理解思路，给话语交际 研究带来了深远的影响，主要表现在： 一，格赖斯的会话含义理论对“言外之意”现象 给予了科学而合理的解释，使得语法学家和语义 学家一筹莫展的问题有了新的解题思路。 二，使学术界将研究的视角从静态的语形语义分 析转移到动态的语用分析，使得语言学的研究更 接近丰富多样的现实生活。

第一种不合作情况：故意说谎让对方上当。
编造善意的谎言和倾听美丽的假话，少么？


第三、四种不是不合作。
文化背景不同，交际无法继续进行？ 缺乏相应知识，无法回答、沉默、支支吾吾 等。
§8.4.2 新格赖斯理论
针对不足，学术界主要出现了三种匡谬 正误的做法：
一是基本肯定它，对它的准则尤其是量准则做更 具体更精细的形式化分析。
§8.1 “会话含义”理论的提出
A：现在几点了？ B：好象刚放完“每周一歌”。 A：噢，那快10点了。 B似乎没有回答A的问题，而A却领会了他的意思。 我们可以这样设想A的思路： B没有提供准确的信息，但可以设想他是遵守合作原则 的，那他的话语一定包含了A可以从中推出近似时间的 信息。 因此B的意思是：我不知道现在的确切时间，但我能为 你提供一些信息，我相信你可以从中推出近似时间。

articulatory phonetics(发音语音学)--the study of the production of speach sounds.acoustic phonetics:(声学语言学) --the study of physical properties of speech sounds.Allophones(音位变体)--the different phones which cab represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of taht phoneme.consonant(辅音):a major category of sound segments produced by a closure in the vocal tract,or by a narrowing which is so marked that air can not escape without producting audible friction.compositionality(综合性原则):the meaning of a sentence should be viewed from both the grammatical structure and the word meaning.In other words,the meaning of a sentence depend on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.cooperative principle(合作原则):1,Maxim of Quantity.2,maxim ofQuality.3,Maxim of relatiob.4,Maxim of manner.Constatives(叙事句):a constative sentence is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking.It can be said to be ture or false.Endocentric(向心结构):is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents,i,e,a word or a group of words,which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric(离心结构)：it refers to a group of syntactionally related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole,thatis,there is no definable "center" or "head" inside the groupillocutionary act(行事行为):when we speak we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings,but also make clear our purpose in producing them,the way we intend them to be understood,or they also have certain forces.The act performed is known as a...linguistics(语言学):is the the scientific study of languageLanguage:is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.locutionary act(发话行为):when we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds organzined in a certain way and with a certain meaning.The act performed in this sense is called a ...morpheme(语素):is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content,a unit that can not be divided intofuither,smaller,units without destorying or drastically altering the meaning whether it is lexical or grammatical.Morphology(形态学):is a branch of linguistics which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Phonetics(语音学):phonetics studies how speech sounds areproduced,transmitted and perceived.Pragmatics(语用论):is the study of these relations between language and context that are grammaticalized,or encoded in the structure of a language.perlocutionary act(取效行为):whether or not the effects are intended by the speaker,they can be regarded as parts of the act that the speaker performed.this act is called....performatives(施为句):some sentence is the doing of an action.They can not be said to be true or false.these sentences are called....phoneme(音位):is a phonological unit which is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.phonology(音系学):is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages and to explain the variations that occur.sapir-whorf hypotheses(沃尔夫假设):our language helps mould our way of thinking and,consequently,different languages may probably express speakers` unique ways of understanding the world.Semantics(语义学):is the study of meaning,or more specifically,the study of linguistic units,words and sentences in particular.sense relations(涵义关系):the sense of a word may be seen as network of its sense relation with others.Syntax(句法):is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language,or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structure.syntax relations(句法关系):syntax relations can be analysed into three kinds: positional relations,relations of substitutability.and relations if co-occurrencesuprasegmentals(超音段特征):units which extend over more than one sound in an utterance.The principal suprasegmentals are syllable,stress,tone and intonation.theory of conversational implicature(会话含义论):in real communication,the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says.the real intention implied in the words is called....vowel(元音):a major category of sound segments produced without abstruction of the vocal tract so that air eascapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.这个是定义考察下面的是大题Design features of language(语言的结构特征)arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmissionfunctions of language 语言的功能informative,interpersonal function,performative,emotive function,phatic communication,recreational function,metalingual functionImportant distinctions in linguistics语言学重要差别1,descriptive and prescriptive描写和规定区别:the distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.1：the linguistic study aims to describe and analyse the language people actually use.2: the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard "behavior" in using language.2,synchronic and diachronic(共时和历时)1:said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical point in time.2:said of the study of development of language and languages over time.3,language and parol(语言和言语)1,the language system shared by a "speech community".2,the concrete utterances of a speaker.4,competence and performance（语言能力和应用）1,unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language 2,the language actually used by people in speaking and writing.语音学三领域:articulatory phonetics(发音语音学acoustic phonetics:(声学语言学)perceptual or auditory phonetics:感知语音学和听觉语言学theory of the illocutionary Act行事行为论:locutionary act发话行为,illocutionary act行事行为,两种句子:performatives and constatives(施为句和叙事句)cooperative principle合作原则:1,Maxim of Quantity.2,maxim ofQuality.3,Maxim of relatiob.4,Maxim of manner.沃尔夫假设重要理论:on one hand,language may determine our thinking patterns.,on the other hand,similarity between languages is relative.For two different speech communities,the greater there structure differentiation is,the more diverse their conceptualization of the word will be.。

Origin of language
Divine- origin theory 神授说 Bow-wow theory 汪汪理论 摹声说 Pooh-pooh theory 噗噗理论 感叹说 Yo-he-ho theory 呦嘿吼理论 劳动叫喊说

Functions of language
The nose: the nasal cavity(鼻腔)
Table
2.1 A chart of English consonants
English vowels(RP)
Four basic requirements for the description of vowels 1) the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low) 2) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) 3) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) 4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)
The classification of word 词的分类
1 variable and invariable words可变词与不 变词 2 grammatical (functional) and lexical (content) words词汇词和语法词 3 closed-class and open-class words 封闭 类词和开放类词 4 word class词类
Important distinctions in linguistics

华章Magnificent Writing二○一三年第二十八期“会话含意”与“会话含义”论杨晨雨（西华大学外国语学院，四川成都610039）[摘要]Conversational Implicature是格莱斯理论的基本概念，是我们正确理解格莱斯整体理论的核心点。

在众多的中文译本和出版物中，不难发现对此术语的翻译却不尽相同，有的作“会话含意”，也有不少为“会话含义”。

究其本源，“含意”与“含义”在中文里面的意思是大不一样的。

本文立足于对二者进行的分析，并得出结论：“会话含意”才是更符合格莱斯理论的词汇，这对我们更好的学习格莱斯理论有着重大的现实意义。

[关键词]Conversational Implicature；含意；含义作者简介：杨晨雨（1989—），女，西华大学外国语学院，2011级外国语言学及应用语言学专业硕士研究生，研究方向：语用学。

Implicature一词是由牛津哲学家格莱斯提出的。

早在上世纪50年代初期格莱斯就有该理论的初步设想，但直到1967年哈佛大学威廉·詹姆斯讲座的第二讲“逻辑与会话”中才得以面世；在1975年他的《逻辑与会话》一文发表，格赖斯理论正式问世，文中“会话”被重点讨论。

在随后的时间里，众多学者对“合作原则”进行了补充和修正，1991年，列文森提出了“新格赖斯语用学机制”（neo—Gricean pragmatic apparatus），宣告新格赖斯理论的诞生。

迄今为止，格赖斯理论研究仍然具有旺盛的生命力，一直受到学者的持续关注和深入研究，但关键词始终是implicature。

对这一核心词汇的理解也是我们掌握这一理论概念的关键因素。

1、Conversational Implicature在语用学理论系统中，Conversational Implicature是一个相当重要的概念，学说开启了话语理解的语用推理。

因此，被视为推理语用学的开始。

在会话等言语交际中，说话人应该遵守合作原则及其各项次准则，要提供真实，足量，相关，简明的信息，显然这是格莱斯为人类交际所设置的一种理想化路径，日常生活中的对话交际则通常会有违反该合作原则的情况发生。

The logical representation of conjunction: p & q This logical expression stands for: if p is true and q is true, then p & q is true. If either p or q is not true (i.e. false), then the conjunction of p and q is necessarily false. E.g. The duck ran up to Mary (p) and licked her (q). Reasonable?? But this is not always true in real life as in the above example. Whenever p & q is true, it logically follows that q & p is true: The duck licked Mary (q) and ran up to her (p).
批注本地保存成功开通会员云端永久保存去开通
Conversational implicature
Divergence in meaning: Formal devices VS. natural L Formalist VS. informalist Construct an ideal L Inadequte attention to the nature and importance of the conditions governing conversation Implicature
Explanations why

会话含义理论与英语听力教学作者：方芳来源：《文科爱好者·教育教学版》2010年第05期【摘要】格赖斯的会话含义理论是语用学的重要理论之一,其研究成果对英语听力教学起着重要的指导作用。

在听力教学中运用合作原则及会话含义理论的有关知识,有助于学生借助语境透过字面意思去正确理解说话人的言外之意,从而提高学生的听力水平及语用能力。

【关键词】会话含义理论;合作原则;听力教学【中图分类号】G642【文献标识码】 A【文章编号】1671-1270(2010)05-0025-02一、引言会话含义理论是语用学的重要理论之一,由美国哲学家H. P. Grice于1967年提出。

该理论探讨在具体的语境中分析语言,解释话语的言外之意。

听力理解是英语学习和教学的重要内容,听力技能也是语言实用技能一个重要组成部分。

随着英语教学越来越重视应用能力的培养,在听力教学中运用会话含义理论的有关知识,有助于提高学生的听力水平及语用能力。

本文旨在探讨会话含义理论对提高听力理解能力的指导作用,从而提高外语学习者的听力水平。

二、合作原则与会话含义理论(一)合作原则美国语言哲学家H.P.Grice于1967年在哈佛大学William James讲座的系列演讲中提出,在所有的言语交际活动中为了达到特定的目标,说话人和听话人之间存在着一种默契,一种双方都应该遵守的原则,他称这种原则为会话的合作原则(Cooperative Principle,简称CP)。

具体地说,合作原则要求每一个交谈参与者在整个交谈过程中所说的话符合这一次交谈的目标或方向。

正是交谈者的这种合作使得他们能够持续地进行有意义的语言交际。

格莱斯提出的合作原则如下:1.数量准则(Quantity Maxim)(1)使自己所说的话达到(交谈的现时目的)所要求的详尽程度;(2)不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。

2.质量准则(Quality Maxim)(1)不要说自己认为是不真实的话;(2)不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。

5.合作原则的遵守与违反 格赖斯指出四种可能不遵守上述各条准则的 情况： （1）说话人明确指出不遵守合作原则即相关准则 “无可奉告”“我不能再讲太多内容了” （2）说话人可以悄悄地违反一条准则，有些情况 下可能会把听话人引入歧途，使听话人误解或上 当受骗 说谎 骗人 诈骗
（3）说话人在面临不同准则之间冲突的情况下， 可能为了维护一条准则，而不得不违反另一条准则
（2）以上准则可以遵守，也可以违背，而且准则 之间可能互相冲突 （3）违背准则可以产生一定的会话含义 （4）合作原则及其准则是有关人类交际的总原则， 但不同于设计文化特征的礼貌等现象。
（二）会话含义的推导 （）甲：小张家住哪里？ 乙：就在广州。 （）A. Your kid broke my windows. B: Boys are boys. 会话含义是说话人在违背合作原则中某一或某 些准则的基础上产生的，而听话人则需要付出一定 的努力进行推导，因为含义不是话语的字面意义。
()
曹禺《雷雨》
（2）故意违反“方式准则”的第二条次准则“避免 歧义”，而故意使用歧义句来产生会话含义。产生会话 含义的歧义句，是为了某种目的故意惊喜难爬的，其绘 画含义只有了解说话人实际情况的听话人才能准确地推 导出来。 （）A:Name and title, please? B:John Smith , Associate Editor and Professor.
（）X is a fine friend. 字面意义是“X是一个好朋友” X 把Y的商业秘密透漏给另一个商家，在Y和 他的听众都知道这个事情的语境下，Y说出这句话， 真实含义是“X是个背信弃义的坏朋友” () You are the cream in my coffee. （）他是一首诗，一首舒伯特和林黛玉合写的诗。

会话含义理论视角下的唐顿庄园对话分析Analysis of Downton Abbey conversation in Conversational Implicature Perspective摘要Abstract：英国ITV热播的古典剧唐顿庄园-反映了20世纪伯爵一家关于家产继承权而衍生出的勾心斗角、阴谋诡计，阶级斗争等等复杂又诱人的故事。

剧中语言特色非常具有研究价值。

Grice的会话含义理论被认为是语用学的核心内容,极大推进了语用学的研究.文章从会话含义理论的视角去分析唐顿庄园中的对话,旨在为观众更好地理解唐顿庄园提供借鉴，同时也为证明这一理论对分析人物语言的实用性提供了参考。

British ITV hit classical drama Downton Abbey - reflect on a 20th century Earl of family about property and inheritance rights derived out the infighting, intrigue, class struggle, and so complex and compelling story. Language Features of Downton Abbey play high research value. Grice's conversational implicature theory is considered to be the core of pragmatic learning, which greatly promoted the study of pragmatics article. From the perspective of conversational implicature theory, this article analyzes the meaning of Downton Abbey indialogue. In this way not only can audience have a better understanding of Downton Abbey, but also prove this theory can provide a reference for the practicability of analyzing character’s languages.关键词keywords：会话含义唐顿庄园对话分析conversational implicature theory Downton abbey Conversation analysis一．剧情简介Synopsis古装剧唐顿庄园是一部由英国媒体公司为英国独立电视台（ITV）制作的时代迷你剧，讲述了唐顿庄园的Grantbam伯爵一家，由家产继承问题而引发的种种纠葛和摩擦，呈现了英国上层贵族与其仆人们在森严的等级制度下的人间百态。

第8章语言的使用8.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech act theory言语行为理论2. Cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3. Gricean theory of conversational implicature格莱斯会话含义理论4. Politeness principle礼貌原则5. Post-Gricean developments后格莱斯时期的发展常考考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论(发话行为、行事行为和取效行为)；合作原则。

实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。

“话语意义”和“句子意义”的区别。

本章内容索引：I. Pragmatics1. Definition2. Difference between pragmatics and semantics II. Speech Act Theory1. Performatives and Constatives(1) Definition(2) Felicity Conditions2. A Theory of the Illocutionary Act3. Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts(1) Representatives:(2) Directives(3) Commsives(4) Expressives(5) DeclarationsIII. Cooperative Principle (CP)1. Cooperative Principle and Its Maxims2. Violation of the MaximsIV. Conversational Implicature1. Definition2. Characteristics of Conversational Implicature(1) Calculability.(2) Cancellability(3) Non-detachability(4) Non-conventionality.V. Politeness Principle (PP)VI. Post-Gricean Developments1. Relevance Theory2. The Q- and R-principles3. Levinson’s Q-, I-and M-principles▼4. A socio-cognitive approachI. Pragmatics (语用学)【考点：Pragmatics与Semantics的异同】1. Definition (定义)Pragmatics is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning or contextual meaning.语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。

1. Introduction of conversational implicature theoryImplicature is a technical term in the linguistic branch of pragmatics coined by Paul Grice. It refers to what is suggested in an utterance, even though not expressed or strictly implied by utterance. Take the following dialog for example.Sam: Do you think David is a good teacher?Amy: Well, today is a sunny day.From the literal meaning, it seems that Sam does not like David as a teacher but Amy disagree his mind. Conversational implicature are typical examples of more being conveyed than said.2. Application of conversational implicature theory at home:2.1 Application in China Classical literature a dream of red mansions:Concerning the Lin Taiyu’s conversations made just before her death, this tex t explores the application of Grice’s Cooperative Principle and conversational implication theory onconversations of the novel. This analysis can not only help us understand the character’sbehavior, psychological changes and their personality profoundly, but further learn andcomprehend Grice’s theory.2.2 Application in daily conversations between the couple:A wonderful marriage needs a great communication between the couple when they livetogether for a long time they can comprehend another’s intention easily but sometimes actually she or he is smatter. The results cause unnecessary misunderstanding in relationship. This article will take the conversational implicature theory of pragmatics, as the foundation, inconversations between husband and wife, for example to explore the inference of conversational implicature and understanding.2.3 Application in English AdvertisingDavid Ogilvy said that advertising is the career of words. This kind of saying reveals the significance of advertising language to advertising. Similarly, another advertising guru Leo Burnett also said words are the best tool in advertising. Words in expression can inject enthusiasm and soul in our mind. Advertising is something that we are all exposed to everyday. It is also something that is likely to affect us in a number of different spheres of our lives. Advertising takes many forms, in most of which, however, language is of crucial importance. As it is known to all, English advertising is a kind of language. So from the above sentences we can infer that English advertising has close relationship with pragmatics since pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. [1] Therefore we can explain some phenomena in advertisements from the perspective of CP and Conversational Implicature theory in pragmatics.3. ConclusionThe theory of conversational implicature is considered one of the key concepts in pragmatics for its powerful explanatory role in language communication. In communication, the meanings of words or sentences depend on certain contexts specified by implicature. The knowledge and correct application of conversational implicature is of great significance in communication and English learning.4. Reference[1] Conversational Implicature Theory and English Advertising[2] 杨婷. Grice会话理论的语用分析——以《红楼梦》黛玉香消玉殒前夕话语为例[J].江西师范大学外国语学院2013.4[3] 李亚敏.从Grice 会话理论看夫妻间的日常对话[M].延安大学西安创新学院2012。

•Meon and interest among the figures of speech from scholars, since:
1. Its long history;
2. Grice: Metaphor can be treated as a special CI (from pramatics to explain metaphor), which is critisized as over simplify the issue and can only provide partial criterior for the illustration of metaphor;
Conversational Implicature 会话含义
Definition
• In 1967, American philosopher Grice put forward the Cooperative Principle: “Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged” (Hu, 2001, p. 282-283).
3. The speaker confronts a kind of conflict (usually between 2Q), so s/he has to violate one principle in order to obey the other: (He Zhaoxiong, p.157)

Because language is basically culture-specific, conventional implicature of the same expression may vary under different cultural background.
For example, ‘white’ gives the implicature of purity and
B’s implicature:
Sorry, I don’t know the exact time of the present moment, but I can provide some information from which you may be able to deduce the appropriate time, namely ‘the milkman has come’.
Semantic and literal meaning: his answer unrelated to the question.
Intended meaning: the football match will be canceled as the ground is wet and slippery after the rain.
U →由语言符号构成的话语
Z →粗略地代表在听话人那儿产生的信仰或意志力， 或作出的反应。 Grice 的“非自然意义理论”实际上是一种交际理论 （ a theory of communication）。
2.2 Conversational Implicature Unlike conventional implicatures, conversational implicatures are produced by relating to the conversational context. To know what people mean, we have to interpret what they say. But interpretation is a tricky affair, and misunderstandings are always possible. As Leech remarks, ‘interpreting an utterance is ultimately a matter of guesswork’. e.g. A: When is Tom’s birthday? B: It’s sometime in October. B’s implicature: the only thing he remembered about Tom’s birthday was the month in which it occurs, and that he honestly didn’t know whether it was at the beginning, the middle or the end of that month.

?需要上下文才能产生的会话含义specialfeaturesofimplicatures?cancellability可取消性?nondetachability不可分离性?calculability可推导性?nonconventionality非规约性?indeterminacy不确定性cancellability?addmoreclausetocanceltheimplicature
Special features of implicatures
Cancellability 可取消性 Non-detachability 不可分离性 Calculability 可推导性 Non-conventionality 非规约性 Indeterminacy 不确定性
Cancellability
Non-conventionality
The literal meaning remains the same in all contexts, but conversational implicature will vary or be lost as the context changes.
add more clause to cancel the implicature. 1) Bill has four books. (Implicature: Bill has only four books and no more or no less.) Bill has four books, perhaps five or more. 2) A: There is a young lady with him, sir. She is crying. B: Pretty? A: I should say she is pretty, sir, in a quite inoffensive way. You are the cream in my coffee. In fact, I don't like cream.

是“会话含义”还是“会话含意”？许有江【摘要】Conversational Implicature是格赖斯理论中的一个基本概念,对它的理解的正确与否直接关系到能否对该理论本身的准确把握.它的汉语对应语本来应当是“会话含意”,但许多学者却错误地把它译为“会话含义”,这对语言学入门者来说是误导.“含义”和“含意”的意思是大不一样的:前者仅指词语等所包含的意思,后者则是指话语或话语中的词语的暗含意义；前者所表示的内容具有客观性,而后者则是言外之意,具有主观性；前者所包含的内容是内在的、静止的、封闭的,而后者所指的内容则是在受话人理解过程中生成的,是外在的、动态的、可延伸的.因此,implicature与“含意”的含义不谋而合.【期刊名称】《学术界》【年(卷),期】2011(163)012【总页数】5页(P105-109)【关键词】格赖斯理论;Conversational implicature;含意;含义【作者】许有江【作者单位】安徽农业大学外国语学院,安徽合肥230036【正文语种】中文最近20多年来，古典格赖斯理论和新格赖斯理论在我国得到了广泛的传播和深入的研究，从而大大地推动了认知语言学，尤其是语用学在我国的发展。

由于implicature这个词是认知语言学中的基本概念，学界对它的阐释和讨论自然就十分频繁。

简单搜索一下，从上个世纪90年代初至今，涉及implicature这个概念的论文就达数千篇之多。

而在众多的出版物中，将implicature译成“含义”或“含意”的屡见不鲜，其中不乏知名学者也对“含义”和“含意”混淆不清。

以conversational implicature这一概念为例，在全国CSSCI类期刊发表的与之相关的众多论文中，就既有将其译成“会话含义”的，也有将其译成“会话含意”的，似乎让人感觉“含义”与“含意”是绝对的同义词。

〔1〕〔2〕〔3〕〔4〕本文拟对汉语“含义”、“含意”，以及格赖斯理论中的implicature这一概念的本义作些分析，对implicature的汉语对应语作些探讨，以便正本清源，还implicature的本来面目。

Categories of Implicature
examples for implicature
• 1. She is a new hand here; therefore she turns up on time. (conventional) • 2. John often dines out with a woman. (generalized, conversational) • 3. where is the ice-cream? The kids and their pals had a party here last night. (particularized conversational) • 4. Do you want to wash your hands? (nonconversational, non-conventional)
Traugott & Pratt, 1980:237
Four Maxims of Cooperative Principle
• • • • Quantity Maxim Quality Maxim Relation Maxim Manner Maxim
Quantity Maxim
• 1. Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current perpose of the exchange). • 2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. • Michael has four dictionaries. • Michael has five, six or even more dictionaries.

第一部分语音知识1、元音vowel：单元音monophthong、双元音diphthong（1）按舌高部位的位置分：前元音front vowel、中元音central vowel、后元音back vowel （2）按发音的长短分：长元音long vowel、短元音short vowel；（3）按唇的园展分：圆唇元音rounded vowel、非圆唇元音unrounded vowel；（4）按舌抬起的高度分：高元音high vowel、中元音mid vowel、低元音low vowel；（5）按口型大小分：闭元音closed vowel、半闭元音semi-closed vowel、半开元音semi-open vowel、开元音open vowel2、辅音consonant：（1）按发音方式manner of articulation：塞音stop、擦音fricative、塞擦音affricate、鼻音nasal、边音lateral、近音approximant；（2）按发音部位place of articulation：双唇音bilabial、唇齿音labiodental、齿音dental、齿音后音post-alveolar、硬颚音palatal、软腭音velar、声门音glottal；（3）按声带振动vocal cord vibration：清辅音voiceless、浊辅音voiced（备注：两个或以上辅音连在一起的现象称为‘辅音连缀constant cluster’，如/tr/ /dz/）3、音节syllable的类型：单音节monosyllable、双音节disyllable、三音节three-syllable、多音节multisyllable、成音节syllabication（一个辅音加上一个/l/或/m/或/n/）、重读音节stressed syllable4、语音现象phonetic phenomena：连读、重读accent、语调intonation、爆破、同化assimilation、省音elision第五章语言学知识1、语言是言语交际（verbal communication）的一种方式，是人类用于交流的一种任意的声音符号系统（a system of arbitrary vocal symbols）。