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The attention-guiding effect and cognitive load in the comprehension of animations

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The attention-guiding effect and cognitive load in the comprehension of animationsFranck Amadieu *,Claudette Mariné,Carole LaimayCognition,Tongues,Language,Ergonomics –Work and Cognition Laboratory,University of Toulouse,Francea r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Available online 8June 2010Keywords:Animation Attention CueingComprehension Cognitive loadElement interactivitya b s t r a c tTo be effective,instructional animations should avoid causing high extraneous cognitive load imposed by the high attentional requirements of selecting and processing relevant elements.In accordance with the attention-guiding principle (Bétrancourt,2005),a study was carried out concerning the impact of cueing on cognitive load and comprehension of animations which depicted a dynamic process in a neurobiology domain.Cueing consisted of zooming in important information at each step of the process.Thirty-six undergraduate psychology students were exposed to an animation three times.Half of the participants received an animation without cueing while the other half received the same animation with cueing.Measures of cognitive load and comprehension performance (questions on isolated elements and on high-element interactivity material)were administered twice,after one and three exposures to the ani-mation.The analyses revealed two main results.First,extraneous cognitive load was reduced by cueing after three exposures.Second,retention of the isolated elements was improved in both animation groups,whereas comprehension of high-element interactive material (i.e.,the causal relations between ele-ments)increased only in the cueing condition.Furthermore,a problem solving task showed that cueing supported the development of a more elaborate mental model.Ó2010Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionAnimations take part in multimedia instructions to teach dy-namic systems.In spite of the dynamic information conveyed by animations,these instructional devices still fail to be syste-matically efficient for learning as compared to static graphics (Bétrancourt,2005;Höffler &Leutner,2007;Tversky,Morrison,&Bétrancourt,2002).Designing effective animations for learning re-quires more investigations on the cognitive processing of anima-tions and on the difficulties experienced by learners.Although animations may reduce the cognitive cost of mental simulation of a dynamic system (Kühl,Scheiter,Gerjets,&Edelmann,2011),they also require perceptual and cognitive resources to process their spatial and temporal aspects (Bétrancourt,2005),and there-by,might hamper comprehension and learning processes such as selecting,organizing,and integrating relevant information into existing knowledge (De Koning,Tabbers,Rikers,&Paas,2009).The attention-guiding principle (Ayres &Paas,2007;Bétrancourt,2005),like signalling key information consists in directing learners’attention to specific parts of the learning material in order to support ing Cognitive Load Theory (CLT,Sweller,2003)as theo-retical background,the present study investigates how attentionalguidance (i.e.,cueing)may limit the attentional requirements for processing of animations and supports higher comprehension.1.1.Attentional requirements of learning from animations:Cognitive loadTo reach an effective comprehension of animations,perceptual and cognitive processing may be highly demanding for learners.Pro-cessing dynamic information of animations implies remembering the various steps and their relations (Bétrancourt,Dillenbourg,&Clavien,2008)and the transient nature of information may cause difficulties involving split attention over different elements (De Kon-ing et al.,2009).Therefore,during an animated presentation,learn-ers need to coordinate spatial and temporal aspects of their visual exploration of the relevant contents (Boucheix &Lowe,2010).To do so,attentional processes are crucial.The problem is that learners’attention may be distracted from the relevant information (Hill-strom &Chai,2006)by non-topic elements of animation like seduc-tive details or salient elements (Höffler &Leutner,2007;Lowe,2003)or by irrelevant movements in the animation (Lowe,1999).In order to avoid burdening the capacity of working memory unnecessarily,the animation features have to decrease the atten-tional requirements.CLT offers a relevant conceptual framework to describe and study the processing costs imposed by animations.Searching and extracting relevant elements may be viewed as an additional task (De Koning,Tabbers,Rikers,&Paas,2007).Deep learning occurs only if sufficient cognitive resources are allocated to germane cognitive load (Sweller,Van Merriënboer,&Paas,0747-5632/$-see front matter Ó2010Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.05.009*Corresponding author at:CLLE-LTC,University of Toulouse le Mirail,5allées Antonio Machado,F-31058Toulouse Cedex 9,France.Tel.:+33561503526;fax:+33561503533.E-mail address:amadieu@univ-tlse2.fr (F.Amadieu).1998).Therefore,to be effective,animations for learning should avoid a high extraneous cognitive load imposed by high attentional requirements due to selecting relevant elements and processing their relations.1.2.Attention-guiding principle:Cueing of relevant information‘‘When applied to animations,cueing can be defined as the addi-tion of non-content information that captures attention to those as-pects that are important in an animation...”(De Koning et al.,2007,p. 733).As well as for static illustrations with(spoken)narrations(e.g., Craig,Gholson,&Driscoll,2002;Jamet,Gavota,&Quaireau,2008; Tabbers,Martens,&Van Merriënboer,2004),evidence of positive ef-fects of cueing was obtained recently for animations.De Koning et al. (2007)confirmed that attention cueing for animations supports comprehension and transfer performance.Boucheix and Lowe (2010)also emphasized that cueing supports the construction of a mental model of causal chains.Examination of eye movements dur-ing learning confirmed that cueing(vs.no cueing)directed learners’attention within animations(Boucheix&Lowe,2010).De Koning, Tabbers,Rikers,and Paas(2010)also observed that cueing facilitates learners to look more often and for longer periods of time at cued rather than at non-cued contents.However,cueing does not improve learning performance in a systematic way(e.g.,De Koning,Tabbers, Rikers&Paas,2011;Moreno,2007).Kriz and Hegarty(2007)as well as De Koning et al.(2010)failed to prove an effect of cueing on learn-ing performance,yet eye movement recordings indicated that cue-ing effectively guided attention to the signalled region.Furthermore,cueing is expected to reduce extraneous cognitive load associated with locating relevant information(De Koning et al.,2009).Unfortunately,only a few studies included cognitive load measures in their experimental apparatus and they did not provide clear evidence of a reduction of cognitive load due to cue-ing methods(De Koning et al.,2007;Moreno,2007).Hence,more investigations of the cognitive load experienced by learners pro-cessing animations should be conducted using measurements of cognitive load throughout learning.1.3.HypothesesThe aim of the present study was to determine whether cueing leads to both better comprehension performance and lower cogni-tive load.According to CLT,it was hypothesized that helping learners focus attention to relevant information at the right time would re-duce extraneous cognitive load caused by attentional requirements, and thereby,enhance their comprehension of a causal dynamic sys-tem(elaboration of a functional mental model).Such an effect was expected to occur only for complex information,i.e.,information with the high-element interactivity because its processing is as-sumed to require more working memory resources than the pro-cessing of simple information that contains isolated elements.So, extraneous cognitive load imposed by an animation without cueing should only interfere with comprehension processes for complex information.In other words,an element interactivity effect was ex-pected(Sweller et al.,1998;Hasler,Kersten,&Sweller,2007).2.Method2.1.ParticipantsThirty-six undergraduate psychology students(6males and30 females)studied an animation displaying a dynamic process in a neurobiology domain(Long Term Potentiation–LTP).All partici-pants were volunteers and were unfamiliar with the topic of the LTP.The mean age of the participants was22.6years(SD=5.42).Two independent groups were compared(18participants in each group).One received an animation without cueing while the other one received the same animation with cueing.The level of prior knowledge in the domain of neurobiology was assessed be-fore the experimental session using a template consisting of four questions testing domain principles(i.e.,elements of a neurone, types of neurones,functions of the myelin sheath,consequences of an action potentialÀmaximum score=20).Both experimental groups had equivalent levels of prior knowledge,t(34)=0.20, p=.85.The mean scores of prior knowledge were12.06 (SD=4.05)for the no cueing animation group and11.78 (SD=4.39)for the cueing animation group.3.Material3.1.AnimationsBoth multimedia presentations were developed using power-point and a visual basic program.The animation illustrated the mechanism of Long Term Potentiation which is a chemical and an electrical phenomenon occurring in synapsis.The animation de-picted a synapsis with the neurotransmitters(glutamate),ions(so-dium,calcium,and magnesium)and neurotransmitter receptors located on the surface of the postsynaptic cell.It showed the three main steps of the process:(a)the release of glutamate from the presynaptic neuron after an electrical stimulation,(b)thefixation of glutamate on the AMPA receptors and the entrance of sodium ions in the postsynaptic cell,and(c)the depolarization of the post-synaptic cell triggering the release of the magnesium ionsfixated on the ion channels that allows the entrance of calcium ions in the postsynaptic cell.3.2.CueingThe cueing tested in the present experiment had the function of guiding attention to essential information.In order to avoid learn-ers pay(perceptual)attention to salient but irrelevant features,we strengthened the function of attention-guiding of our cueing meth-od:it consisted of a zoom on each step of the dynamic system which hides peripheral information(irrelevant information at each step).This cueing method was expected to help learners both to se-lect the central elements and to ignore the peripheral elements of the animation.A picture of a stage of the animation is given in Fig.1.At the beginning of each step of the Long Term Potentiation mechanism,a purple square appeared on the relevant region to di-rect attention to it.Next,a zoom was made on the region display-ing only the relevant information(elements)of the step(see Fig.2), i.e.,hiding the peripheral or irrelevant elements.Hiding peripheral elements was expected to avoid distraction to elements not in-volved in the step.On the basis of the recommendations of Bétrancourt(2005),a pause after each main step was inserted in order to help partici-pants conceptualize the functioning of the Long Term Potentiation mechanism(see also Spanjers,Wouters,van Gog,&van Merriënboer,2011).Besides,because the disappearance of a previous step could hamper integration of the information across the steps(Boucheix&Schneider,2009),the zoom disappeared at the end of each step displaying the overall frame.Thus,the partic-ipants could process elements previously processed as well as the structural information on the functioning of a synapse.prehension measuresIn order to study what type of information is dependent on the cueing effect,two types of measures were used(i.e.,multiple choiceF.Amadieu et al./Computers in Human Behavior27(2011)36–4037questions with4or6answering options).First,a measure tested the retention of isolated elements of the animation(e.g.,ions and ion channels).Second,a measure tested the comprehension of the high-element interactive material(i.e.,comprehension of causal relations between elements).The questions dealt with the order of events or the cause of a given event.More than one answering option was correct for each question and each correct answer was scored with2points.Moreover,to encourage the participants to avoid random answers,each wrong answer was scored with 1negative point.Two multiple choice questions were designed for isolated elements(there were5correct answering options; maximum score=10)and three others for the highly interactive ele-ments(there were4correct answering options;maximum score=8).Finally,to assess a deeper level of comprehension,a problem solving task was designed.The participants had to predict events and identify errors from the pictures of a stage in the Long Term Potentiation mechanism.This transfer task required the partici-pants to use their mental model in other situations.It consisted of three multiple choice questions(maximum score=6).3.4.Cognitive load measuresAs argued by Bétrancourt et al.(2008),studies on instructional animations would benefit from morefine-grained measurement instruments of cognitive load like ad hoc questionnaires adapted to multimedia learning situations.According to the learning taskFig.1.Screenshot of a step of the animation without cueing. Fig.2.Screenshot of a step of the animation with cueing(zoom).and the instructional material,assessing different forms of cogni-tive load becomes relevant to understanding what kind of process-ing might consume working memory resources(Amadieu,Van Gog,Paas,Tricot,&Mariné,2009;Amadieu,Tricot,&Mariné, 2009;Ayres,2006;DeLeeuw&Mayer,2008;Gerjets,Scheiter, Opfermann,Hesse,&Eysink,2009).The present study tested the effects of cueing on cognitive load and in particular on extraneous cognitive load,which would depend on attentional requirements.Measurement of cognitive load con-sisted of two types of subjective measures:a mental effort9-point scale(Paas,1992)andfive perceived difficulty9-point scales(all scales ranging from1‘‘very very low”to9‘‘very very high”).These two distinctive measures of cognitive load were considered in order to distinguish the overall cognitive load(i.e.,including intrinsic, extraneous,and germane load)assessed by the mental effort scale and the extraneous cognitive load assessed by the perceived diffi-culty scales.The perceived difficulty was expected to reflect extra-neous cognitive load because difficulty would be caused by demanding attentional processing of animations.However,what perceived difficulty reflects is still fuzzy:intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load(Gerjets et al.,2009),extraneous cognitive load(Ama-dieu,Tricot et al.,2009;Amadieu,Van Gog,et al.,2009;Kühl et al., 2011)or germane cognitive load(DeLeeuw&Mayer,2008).There-fore,the mental effort and the perceived difficulty ratings should be considered in relation to the comprehension outcomes.The statement of the mental effort scale was‘‘please indicate how much mental effort you invested to learn the mechanism of the Long Term Potentiation”.For the perceived difficulty scales, one scale assessed global difficulty(‘‘how difficult was it to learn the mechanism”),another assessed difficulty for processing iso-lated elements(‘‘how difficult was it to memorize the names of the elements”),another difficulty for processing high-element interactivity material(‘‘how difficult was it to understand the cau-sal relations between elements”)and two others attentional diffi-culty(‘‘how difficult was it to understand all elements simultaneously”;‘‘how difficult was it to concentrate your atten-tion on the relevant information”).The set of perceived difficulty scales presented high reliability after one exposure to the anima-tion(Cronbach’s Alpha=0.87)and after three exposures to the ani-mation(Cronbach’s Alpha=0.84).4.ProcedureAfter answering the prior knowledge test,participants were in-structed to memorize and learn the mechanism of Long Term Potentiation from the animation.For both animation conditions, participants had no control over the pace of the presentation. The experimental session took place in two stages in order to take into account the development of performance and cognitive load over repeated exposures to the animation.After afirst exposure to the animation,participants rated their mental effort and per-ceived difficulty and then answered the isolated elements ques-tions followed by the high-element interactive material questions.Afterwards,participants received two more exposures to the same animation and performed the same tasks,except that they additionally performed the problem solving task at the end. Testing cognitive load and performance twice indicated how the mobilized resources and the comprehension advanced during learning.5.ResultsTwo-way mixed-design ANOVAs(type of animation as a be-tween-subject factor and number of exposures as a within-subject factor)was computed for the scores of each dependent variable. Means and standard deviations of cognitive load ratings and per-formance scores are given in Table1.5.1.Mental effort and perceived difficultyThe analyses conducted on the mental effort ratings did not indicate any effect of the cueing,the number of exposures,or any interaction effect(all F s<1).However,the analyses on the mean ratings of perceived difficulty showed significant effects. While there was no effect of the cueing,F<1,the number of expo-sures significantly reduced the perceived difficulty rating,F(1, 34)=8.45,p<.01,x2=.21.After the third exposure of the anima-tion,the perceived difficulty was lower(M=6.06,SD=1.03)than after thefirst exposure(M=5.67,SD=1.06).Nevertheless,this ef-fect must be interpreted in light of a significant interaction,F(1, 34)=8.94,p<.01,x2=.23.Pairwise comparisons revealed that the perceived difficulty decreased with the number of exposures only for the cueing group,F(1,34)=17.38,p<.001,Cohen’s d=.76.prehension outcomesThe analyses conducted on the performance also indicated sig-nificant effects.For the retention of the isolated elements,the scores increased according to the number of exposures in both ani-mation groups,F(1,34)=101.54,p<.001,x2=2.87(M=5.78, SD=2.47after one exposure;M=9.42,SD=1.96after three expo-sures).There was neither a main effect of cueing,F<1,nor interac-tion effect,F<1.Concerning the comprehension of high-element interactive material,it was impacted neither by the cueing,F<1,nor by the number of exposures,F(1,34)=1.15,p>.10,but an interaction effect revealed significant differences,F(1,34)=4.12,p=.05, x2=.09.Pairwise comparisons indicated that the comprehension scores of the high-element interactive material increased with the number of exposures only in the cueing condition,F(1,34)= 4.82,p<.05,Cohen’s d=.50.Table1Means and standard deviations of cognitive load ratings and performance scores according to the type of animation and the number of exposure to the animation.After one exposure to the animation After three exposures to the animationNo cueing M(SD)Cueing M(SD)No cueing M(SD)Cueing M(SD)Cognitive load Mental effort ratings(range:1–9)5.61(1.15) 5.89(1.13) 5.78(0.94)6.06(1.34)Perceived difficulty ratings(range:1–9)5.97(0.79)6.16(1.23) 5.98(0.79) 5.37(1.22)Performance Isolated elements questions(range:0–10)5.39(2.99)6.17(1.82)9.17(2.62)9.67(0.97)High-element interactivity material questions(range:0–8)3.22(3.14) 2.78(2.78) 2.78(2.86)4.22(3.17)Problem solving questions (range:0–6)–– 2.78(2.07) 4.00(1.94)F.Amadieu et al./Computers in Human Behavior27(2011)36–4039Finally,a t-test was computed on the problem solving scores to analyse the differences between both animation groups.The result indicated that the cueing significantly improved the problem solv-ing scores,t(34)=À1.83,p<.05,Cohen’s d=0.63.6.Discussion and conclusionThe results stressed that it is important to investigate the ef-fects of exposure to animation on learning.In accordance with Schneider(2007),our results showed that repeated exposures to the animation were required to reveal significant effects.The attention-guiding by means of cueing reduced extraneous cogni-tive load,as assessed by perceived difficulty ratings,only after sev-eral exposures of the animation.The results on performance seem to indicate that the processing of isolated elements was not ham-pered by extraneous cognitive load imposed by attentional requirements.However,this result should be interpreted cau-tiously,because a ceiling effect for these scores was observed after the third exposure.Nevertheless,there was no effect of cueing after thefirst exposure.In return,processing high-element inter-active material(i.e.,comprehension of causal relations)appeared to be negatively affected by attentional requirements.The com-prehension of the causal relations was improved only with the cued animation.Moreover,providing cueing yielded higher prob-lem solving scores,suggesting the construction of a better mental model of the causal system.Hence,overall results on performance are consistent with the element interactivity effect:only high-ele-ment interactive material is affected by instructional design(Has-ler et al.,2007;Sweller et al.,1998).In sum,the set of results indicates that attentional requirements of animations may be re-duced by visual cueing which helps learners to select relevant information and ignore irrelevant information.The resources freed in working memory made the processing of complex information more effective.The present study also highlighted the fact that subjective measures of perceived difficulty may provide more sensitive mea-sures of extraneous cognitive load than a global cognitive load measure(i.e.,the mental effort scale),replicating previousfindings (Amadieu,Van Gog et al.,2009).Indeed,the patterns of the per-ceived difficulty ratings were consistent with the patterns of the comprehension outcomes.This result might explain the lack of an effect on cognitive load in the study of De Koning et al.(2007) who only used a mental effort scale.Some limitations of ourfindings should be highlighted as well as perspectives for further studies.The current study administered measures only twice during learning(after one and three expo-sures).Because the cueing effects occurred after several exposures to the animation,the observed effects might be stronger with addi-tional exposures.Conducting studies with more intermediate mea-sures would lead to more detailed data about the development of performance and thefluctuation of cognitive load and would also provide additional information about cognitive load management during learning(Tricot,Sweller,Amadieu,Chanquoy,&Mariné, 2008).Finally,on-line data is required to corroborate our interpre-tations on attentional processes during learning tasks.Eye tracking techniques supply a very suitable way of observing attentional processing obviously(Boucheix&Lowe,2010),and they also pro-vide objective measures of cognitive load(Amadieu,Van Gog et al., 2009;Van Gog&Scheiter,2010).ReferencesAmadieu,F.,Tricot,A.,&Mariné,C.(2009).Prior knowledge in learning from a non-linear electronic document:Disorientation and coherence of the reading puters in Human Behavior,25,381–388.Amadieu,F.,Van Gog,T.,Paas,F.,Tricot,A.,&Mariné,C.(2009).Effects of prior knowledge and concept-map structure on disorientation,cognitive 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Ayres,P.,&Paas,F.(2007).Can the cognitive load approach make instructional animations more effective?Applied Cognitive Psychology,21,811–820.Bétrancourt,M.(2005).The animation and interactivity principles in multimedia learning.In R. E.Mayer(Ed.),Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp.287–296).New York:Cambridge University Press.Bétrancourt,M.,Dillenbourg,P.,&Clavien,L.(2008).Display of key pictures from animation:Effects on learning.In J.-F.Rouet,R.Lowe,&W.Schnotz(Eds.), Understanding multimedia documents(pp.61–78).New York:Springer. Boucheix,J.,&Lowe,R.K.(2010).An eye tracking comparison of external pointing cues and internal continuous cues in learning with complex animations.Learning and Instruction,20,123–135.Boucheix,J.,&Schneider,E.(2009).Static and animated presentations in learning dynamic mechanical systems.Learning and Instruction,19,112–127.Craig,S.D.,Gholson,B.,&Driscoll,D.M.(2002).Animated pedagogical agents in multimedia educational environments:Effects of agent properties,picture features and redundancy.Journal of Educational Psychology,94(2),428–434.De Koning,B.B.,Tabbers,H.K.,Rikers,R.M.J.P.,&Paas,F.(2011).Attention cueing in an instructional animation:The role of presentation puters in Human Behavior,27,41–45.De Koning,B.B.,Tabbers,H.K.,Rikers,R.M.J.P.,&Paas,F.(2007).Attention cueing as a means to enhance learning from an animation.Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21,731–746.De Koning,B.B.,Tabbers,H.K.,Rikers,R.M.J.P.,&Paas,F.(2009).Towards a framework for attention cueing in instructional animations:Guidelines for research and cational Psychology Review,21(2),113–140.De Koning,B.B.,Tabbers,H.K.,Rikers,R.M.J.P.,&Paas,F.(2010).Attention guidance in learning from a complex animation:Seeing is understanding?Learning and Instruction,20,111–122.DeLeeuw,K.E.,&Mayer,R.E.(2008).A comparison of three measures of cognitive load:Evidence for separable measures of intrinsic,extraneous,and germane load.Journal of Educational Psychology,100,223–234.Gerjets,P.,Scheiter,K.,Opfermann,M.,Hesse,F.W.,&Eysink,T.H.(2009).Learning with hypermedia:The influence of representational formats and different levels of learner control on performance and learning puters in Human Behavior,25,360–370.Hasler,B.S.,Kersten,B.,&Sweller,J.(2007).Learner control,cognitive load and instructional animation.Applied Cognitive Psychology,21,713–729. Hillstrom,A.P.,&Chai,Y.(2006).Factors that guide or disrupt attentive visual puters in Human Behavior,22,648–656.Höffler,T.N.,&Leutner,D.(2007).Instructional animation versus static pictures:A meta-analysis.Learning and Instruction,17,722–738.Jamet, E.,Gavota,M.,&Quaireau, C.(2008).Attention guiding in multimedia learning.Learning and Instruction,18,135–145.Kriz,S.,&Hegarty,M.(2007).Top-down and bottom-up influences on learning from animations.International Journal of Human-Computer Studies,65,911–930.Kühl,T.,Scheiter,K.,Gerjets,P.,&Edelmann,J.(2011).The influence of text modality on learning with static and dynamic puters in Human Behavior,27,29–35.Lowe,R.K.(1999).Extracting information from an animation during complex visual learning.European Journal of Psychology of Education,14,225–244.Lowe,R.K.(2003).Animation and learning:Selective processing of information in dynamic graphics.Learning and Instruction,13,157–176.Moreno,R.(2007).Optimising learning from animations by minimising cognitive load:Cognitive and affective consequences of signalling and segmentation methods.Applied Cognitive Psychology,21,765–781.Paas,F.(1992).Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistics:A cognitive load approach.Journal of Educational Psychology,84, 429–434.Schneider,E.(2007).Improving comprehension of dynamic processes with interactive animations–Améliorer la compréhension des processus dynamiques avec des animations interactives.Unpublished doctoral dissertation,University of Bourgogne,France.Spanjers,I.A.E.,Wouters,P.,van Gog,T.,&van Merriënboer,J.J.G.(2011).An expertise reversal effect of segmentation in learning from animated worked-out puters in Human Behavior,27,46–52.Sweller,J.,Van Merriënboer,J.J.G.,&Paas,F.(1998).Cognitive architecture and instructional cational Psychology Review,10(3),251–296. 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英语作文段落缩进

英语作文段落缩进

英语作文段落缩进The art of proper paragraph indentation is an essential aspect of effective written communication. In the English language, the convention of indenting the first line of a paragraph serves not only an aesthetic purpose but also a functional one. It helps to create a clear visual structure, guiding the reader through the flow of ideas and enhancing the overall readability of the text.Paragraph indentation is a fundamental typographical convention that has been widely adopted in various forms of written expression, from academic essays and literary works to professional documents and online content. The consistent application of this technique helps to establish a sense of organization and hierarchy within the text, making it easier for the reader to navigate and comprehend the information presented.The primary purpose of paragraph indentation is to signal the beginning of a new idea or topic within the larger context of the written piece. By indenting the first line, the reader is immediately cued that a new paragraph has commenced, and they can anticipatethe introduction of a new concept or a continuation of the previous one. This visual cue helps to create a sense of flow and coherence, guiding the reader through the writer's thought process and the development of the overall argument or narrative.Moreover, the practice of paragraph indentation serves to enhance the readability of the text. When paragraphs are clearly delineated, the reader's eye is naturally drawn to the beginning of each new section, making it easier to follow the progression of ideas and maintain focus. This is particularly important in longer or more complex written works, where the reader may be presented with a substantial amount of information. By utilizing consistent paragraph indentation, the writer can help the reader to navigate the text more effectively, reducing the cognitive load and increasing the likelihood of comprehension.In addition to its practical benefits, paragraph indentation also holds aesthetic value. A well-structured and visually appealing text can have a significant impact on the reader's overall experience and perception of the content. When paragraphs are properly indented, the text appears organized and professional, conveying a sense of care and attention to detail on the part of the writer. This visual presentation can contribute to the credibility and trustworthiness of the written work, making it more engaging and compelling for the reader.The specific guidelines for paragraph indentation can vary depending on the style guide or formatting requirements of a particular institution or publication. In academic writing, for example, the standard practice is to indent the first line of each paragraph by approximately five to seven spaces or one-half inch. This consistent application of indentation helps to maintain a uniform and structured appearance throughout the text, enhancing the overall coherence and readability.It is important to note that the practice of paragraph indentation is not limited to the first line of a paragraph. In some cases, particularly in more formal or academic writing, the subsequent lines within a paragraph may also be indented, creating a more uniform and visually appealing appearance. This technique, known as "hanging indentation," is often used in bibliographies, reference lists, and other specialized formats where the consistent alignment of text is crucial.Furthermore, the strategic use of paragraph indentation can also serve to emphasize the hierarchical structure of a written work. For instance, in some instances, the first line of a new section or chapter may be left flush with the left margin, while the subsequent paragraphs within that section are indented. This visual cue helps to differentiate the main headings or sections from the supportingparagraphs, making it easier for the reader to navigate the text and understand the overall organization.In conclusion, the practice of paragraph indentation is a fundamental and essential aspect of effective written communication in the English language. By consistently applying this technique, writers can create a clear and organized visual structure, guide the reader through the flow of ideas, and enhance the overall readability and aesthetic appeal of their written work. Whether in academic, professional, or creative contexts, the careful consideration of paragraph indentation can contribute significantly to the success and impact of any written piece.。

inout&output

inout&output

4. Cross-cultural studies of interaction with young children have made it clear that styles of CDS found in middle-class societies are far from universal, and that societies can be found where infants are not seen as conversation partners (Lieven,194)
hopeful
8.3 Input and Interaction in SLA
Behaviorist view Corder: a distinction between Input and Intake Krashen: Input Hypothesis Long: Interaction Hypothesis Empirical studies on comprehension and acquisition
3. It is clear that caretakers by any prime language-teaching goal, nor their speech in general specially adapted so as to model the target grammar.
2. There seems to be a relationship between the caretaker’s use of inverted yes-no question and children’s developing control of verbal auxiliaries in English as an L1.
胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章试题

胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章试题

胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章测试题一Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is __________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language? — A n ice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indic ates the design feature of _____A_____.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC. displacementD. duality9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB.Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. F Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.12. F Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.15. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist.18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)21. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of __ verbal________ communication.22. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed_____productivity_____.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. Thisfunction is _____matalingual function___.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavywork has been called the ___yo he ho_______ theory.25. Linguistics is the __________ study of language.26. Modern linguistics is __________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ___speech_______ over writing.28. The description of a language as it changes through time is a __________ study.29. Saussure put forward two important concepts. __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30. Linguistic potential is similar to Saus sure’s langu e and Chomsky’s __________. IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Design feature32. Displacement33. Competence34. Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? （南开大学，2004）36. Why is it difficult to define language? （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific? （青岛海洋大学，1999）Key: Chapter 1[In the reference keys, I won’t give examples or further analysis. That seems too much work for me. Therefore, this key is only for reference. In order to answer this kind of question, you need more examples. So you should read the textbook carefully. – icywarmtea]I. 1~5 BACCC 6~10 BACACII.11~15 FFTFF 16~20 FFFFFIII.21. verbal 22. productivity / creativity23. metalingual function 24. yo-he-ho25. scientific 26. descriptive27. speech 28. diachronic linguistic29. langue 30. competenceIV.31. Design feature: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.32. Displacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.33. Competence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speaker’s knowledge of his or her language; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. Competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious. A transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.34. Synchronic linguistics: It refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.V.35. Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations,36. It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. Thus, definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations.VI.37. It should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis – collect data –check against the observable facts – come to a conclusion.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as ______A____ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as ____A______.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called ___D_______.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10 What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. T Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. F The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either ___voiced__ or __voiceless____, while all vowel sounds are ____voiced______22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __fricition_______.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the _tongue_________ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the _____height____ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. ___ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog.(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(5) voiced interdental fricative答案 Chapter 2I.1~5 ACDAA 6~10 DBABBII.11~15 TTTFF 16~20 TTTFFIII.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction23. tongue 24. height25. obstruction 26. minimal pairs27. diphthongs 28. Co-articulation29. Phonemes 30. air streamIV.31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V.35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When ainstruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36.When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.VI.37.Omit.Chapter 3 LexicoI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1 Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC. back-formationD. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an _______ is pronounced as a word22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with __________.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: _______, _______ and __________24. All words may be said to contain a root __________.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to __________ class.26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a __________, and a word formed by compounding is called a __________.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________. IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending32. Allomorph33. Closed-class word34. Morphological ruleV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? （厦门36. What are the main features of the English compounds?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II （武汉I II(1) acronym a. foe(2) free morpheme b. subconscious(3) derivational morpheme c. UNESCO(4) inflectional morpheme d. overwhelmed(5) prefix e. calculationKey: Chapter 3I.1~5 AACBB 6~10 BCADBII.11~15 FTFTT 16~20 FTFFFIII.21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme25. close, open 26. back-formation27. conversion 28. morpheme29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound rootIV.31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.V.Omit.VI.37.(1) c (2) a (3) e (4) d (5) bChapter 4 SyntaxI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite3. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational4. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati&not;cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical5. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. all of the above.8. The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9. The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is aA. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.12. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.13. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.14. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.15. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.16. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.17. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.18. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.19. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.20. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.22. A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.23. A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.24. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.25. A __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.26. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an __________ clause.27. Major lexical categories are __________ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.28. __________ condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.29. __________ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.30. The theory of __________ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Syntax32. IC analysis33. Hierarchical structure34. Trace theoryV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉大学，2004）36. Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis. （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The student wrote a letter yesterday.Key: Chapter4I.1~5 DCDDD 6~10 ADDBAII.11~15 TTTTF 16~20 FTFTTIII.21. simple 22. sentence23. subject 24. predicate25. complex 26. embedded27. open 28. Adjacency29. Parameters 30. CaseIV.31. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.34. Trace theory: After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. E.g. The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.V.35.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.36.(1) more | beautiful flowers(2) more beautiful | flowersChapter 5 Meaning[Mainly taken from lxm1000w’s exercises. – icywarmtea]I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviorism3. Which of the following is NOT true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.4. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6. “Alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above7. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.。

华师在线2013年春季中学英语教学法在线作业杨

华师在线2013年春季中学英语教学法在线作业杨

1．第1题One of the reasons why the deductive method of teaching grammar is criticized is that ___ in the method.A.grammar is taught in a contextB.little attention is paid to meaningC.the practice is often meaningfulD.not enough examples are provided您的答案：A题目分数：2.0此题得分：0.02．第2题The idea of the audio-lingual method, which was based on the behaviorist theory of language learning, was that language is learned by constant ___, during which mistakes were immediately corrected, ａnd correct utterances were immediately praised.A.cognitive processingB.meaningful practiceC.repetition ａnd reinforcementD.imitation ａnd communication您的答案：C题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.03．第3题When practising stress with students in the classroom,___.A.we can explain the stress to the studentsB.we never make the students know which part is stressedC.students will always know which part is stressedD.we can ｕｓｅ gestures, voice, ａnd theblackboard to show the stress您的答案：D题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.04．第4题When pract ising sounds, the activities “using minimal pairs”, “which ｏrder”, “same ｏr different” ａnd “odd one out” belong to the categｏry of ___.A.perception practiceB.production practiceC.perception ａnd production practicesD.perception ｏr production practice您的答案：A题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.05．第5题According to J. Willis (1996), tasks are activities ｗhere the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve ___.A.linguistic competencemunicative competenceC.an outcomeD.knowledge您的答案：C题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.06．第6题According to littlewood (1981), identifying pictures, discovering sequences ｏr locations, discovering differences ａnd reconstructing st ｏry-sequences are examples of ___.A.mechanical practiceB.drilling languageC.functional communicative activitiesD.social interaction activities您的答案：C题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.07．第7题The ___ view of language considers language to be a communicative tool, whose main ｕｓｅ is to build up ａnd maintain social relations between people.A.structuralB.functionalC.interactionalD.behaviorist您的答案：C题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.08．第8题According to Ur (1996), as for the ｕｓｅ of grammatical terminology, for younger learners, ｕｓｅ of complex terminology ___.A.can be usedB.should be avoidedC.is necessaryD.is helpful您的答案：B题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.09．第9题When teaching grammar, in meaningful practice the focus is on the production, comprehension ｏr exchange of meaning, ___ the way newly learned structures are used in the process.A.though the students “keep an eye on”B.though the students focus onC.ａnd the students pay no attention toD.ａnd the students know nothing about您的答案：A题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.010．第10题Examples of pronunciation perception practice include___.ing pictures ａnd tongue twistersing minimal pairs, ａnd “odd one out”C.brainstorming ａnd discussionD.all of the above您的答案：B题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.011．第11题When teaching pronunciation, great care should be taken to the distinction between ___.A.pronunciation ａnd grammarB.pronunciation ａnd vocabularyC.pronunciation ａnd writingD.pronunciation ａnd phonetics您的答案：D题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.012．第12题Communicative competence consists of knowledge ａnd ability for___.A.rules of rules of pronunciation, vocabulary ａnd grammarB.rules of grammar/form ａnd rules of language ｕｓｅC.pronunciation, words, ａnd grammarD.speaking ａnd writing题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.013．第13题In meaningful practice the focus is on the production, comprehension ｏr exchange of ___.nguagermationC.structuresD.sentences您的答案：B题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.014．第14题As far as learning pronunciation is concerned, the realistic goals for the students are consistency, intelligibility, ａnd ___.municative efficiencyB.accuracyC.correctnessD.fastness您的答案：A题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.015．第15题There is ___ between mechanical practice ａnd meaningful practice. an example given by Wang Qiang is the “chain of events” activity.A.no distinctionB.a clear-cut distinctionC.no clear-cut distinctionD.(None of the above)您的答案：C此题得分：2.016．第16题One of the reasons why the deductive method is criticized is that ___ in the method.nguage is taught in a contextB.much attention is paid to meaningC.the practice is often mechanicalD.not enough explanation is provided您的答案：C题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.017．第17题According to Ur (1996), for ensuring understanding, plenty of contextualized examples of the target structure are necessary, ａnd ___ can aid comprehension.A.visual materialsplex terminologyC.teacher’s grammar analysisD.students’ grammar analysis您的答案：A题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.018．第18题Communicative language teaching (clt) has expanded the areas covered by the previous approaches ｏr methodologies, that is, clt covers language content (to incｏrpｏrate functions), ___ (cognitive style ａnd infｏrmation processing), ａnd product (language skills).A.learning processB.teaching methodsC.conditionsD.messages您的答案：A题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.019．第19题One of the problems in vocabulary learning is that students often ___.A.ｕｓｅ context for their vocabulary learningB.try hard to understand the wordsC.learn new words in isolation of contextD.ｕｓｅ a variety of vocabulary building strategies您的答案：C题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.020．第20题When teaching grammar, some forms of using prompts for meaningful practice include using pictures, mimes ｏr gestures, information sheets, key phrase ｏr key wｏrds, ａnd ___ f ｏr stｏry telling.A.chained phrasesB.real objectsC.picturesD.rules您的答案：A题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.021．第21题The goal of Communicative Efficiency means that the pronunciation should ___.A.be accurateB.be smooth ａnd naturalC.be native-likeD.help convey the meaning intended by the speaker 您的答案：D题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.022．第22题Actually pronunciation is an umbrella term covering many aspects besides sounds ａnd phonetic symbols, such as ___.A.consistency, intelligibility, ａnd communicative efficiencyB.accuracy, fluency ａnd complexityC.stress, intonation, ａnd rhythmD.spelling, pronunciation ａnd lexical meaning 您的答案：C题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.023．第23题Hedge discusses five main components of communicative competence. these components inlude linguistic competence, pragmatic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence, ａnd ___.A.accuracyB.fluencyC.correctnessD.grammaticality您的答案：B题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.024．第24题Vocabulary building strategies include reviewing regularly, ___, organizing vocabulary effectively, ａnd using a dictionary.A.reciting the spellingB.guessing meaning ｆrom the contextC.neglecting the meaningD.remembering the translation您的答案：B题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.025．第25题In the traditional classroom, very often, too much attention has been paid to ___, with little ｏr no attention paid to practising language skills.A.linguistic competenceB.linguistic knowledgenguage ｕｓｅnguage functions您的答案：B题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.026．第26题According to Nation (2001) receptive knowledge of vocabulary involves the following except ___.(1) being able to recognized the word when it is heard;(2) being familiar with its written form so that it isrecognized when it is met in reading(3) recognizing that it is made up of some parts ａndbeing able to relate these parts to its meaning;(4) being able to decide to ｕｓｅｏr not to ｕｓｅ the wｏrd to suit the degree of fｏrmality of the situation.A.(1)B.(2)C.(3)D.(4)您的答案：D题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.027．第27题According to Pennington (2002), useful guidelines for teaching grammar include collocational, constructive, contextual, ａnd ___.municativeplexityC.contrastiveD.confidential您的答案：C题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.028．第28题When practising intonation with students in the classroom, ___.A.we can explain the intonation to the studentsB.we never make the students know which part is a rise, ａnd which part is a fallC.we can ｕｓｅ hand ｏr arm movement, ｕｓｅarrows, ｏr draw lines under/above the wｏrdsD.we just let the intonation take place without our attention您的答案：C题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.029．第29题When practising sounds, the activities “listen ａnd repeat”, “make up sentences”, “using meaningful context”, “using pictures” ａnd “using tongue twisters” belong to the category of ___.A.perception practiceB.production practiceC.perception ａnd production practicesD.perception ｏr production practice您的答案：A题目分数：2.0此题得分：0.030．第30题The ___ theory believes that learning is a process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences ａnd what he/she already knows.A.BehanouristB.CognitiveC.ConstructivistD.Structuralist您的答案：C题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.031．第31题Ways of consolidating new words suggested in Wang Qiang’s book (2000) include the following EXCEP ___.A.describing ａnd drawingB.describing ａnd drawinging word seriesD.dictating the words without any context您的答案：D题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.032．第32题One influential idea about language teaching based on Chomsky’s theory is that students should be allowed to ___ sentences based on their understanding of certain rules, which idea is clearly in opposition to the audio-lingual method.A.imitate other people’sB.explain the grammar rules ofC.ｃreate their ownD.ignore the existence of您的答案：C题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.033．第33题Similar to constructivist theory, ___ emphasizes interaction ａnd engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concepts of ‘zone of proximal development’ (zpd) ａnd scaffolding.A.socio-constructivist theoriesB.structural theoriesC.behaviorist theoriesD.cognitive theories您的答案：A题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.034．第34题If a teacher wants to focus on a sound which the students have difficulty with, it is suggested that the sequence of the teaching steps be ___.a. The teacher says the sound alone.b. The teacher gets the students to repeat the sounds in chorus.c. The teacher gets individual students to repeat the sound.d. If students have difficulty in producing the sound, the teacher explains how to make the sound,e. The teacher gets the students to say the sound in a word.f. The teacher contrasts the sound with other sounds.g. The teacher gets the students to say the sound in meaningful context.A.a-b-c-d-e-f-gB.c-a-b-d-e-f-gC.b-c-a-d-e-f-gD.f-g-c-a-b-d-e您的答案：A题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.035．第35题Words that one is able to recognize ａnd comprehend in reading ａnd listening but unable to ｕｓｅ automatically in writing ｏr speaking are referred to as ___.A.receptive ｏr activeB.productive ｏr passiveC.receptive ｏr passiveD.productive ｏr active您的答案：C题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.036．第36题To help our students pass exams is one of the purposes of our English teaching. Another purpose, which is very important, is to prepare our students to ___.A.ｕｓｅ english in real lifeB.obtain knowledge about languageC.make up sentencesD.get a good job in the future您的答案：A题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.037．第37题According to Nation (2001) productive knowledge of vocabulary involves the following EXCEPT ___.(1) being able to produce the word to express themeaning(2) being able to write it with correct spelling(3) being able to construct it using the rightword parts in their appropriate forms(4) being able to recognize that the word has been used correctly in the sentence in which it occursA.(1)B.(2)C.(3)D.(4)您的答案：D题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.038．第38题According to ___, if humans do not learn a foreign language before a certain age (perhaps around puberty), then due to changes such as maturation of the brain, it becomes impossible to learn the foreign language like a native speaker.A.The Critical Period HypothesisB.Task-Based Language Teachingmunicative competence theoriesD.behaviorist theories您的答案：A题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.039．第39题According to Wang Qiang, some people regard teaching as ____, while others regard it as ____.A.a craft; an applied scienceB.a profession; an interestC.a theory; a practicenguage learning; language training您的答案：A题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.040．第40题Apart ｆrom the learner factors, the ____ isanother factor that determines if the students can acquire native-like english pronunciation.A.amount of exposure to EnglishB.amount of production of EnglishC.learner’s knowledge of English grammarD.learner’s vocabulary size您的答案：A题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.041．第41题Which of the following is NOT a feature of traditional language teaching pedagogy?A.Too often it focuses on forms rather than functions.B.it tends to focus on only one ｏr two language skills.C.it tends to isolate language ｆrom its context.D.It uses authentic language.您的答案：D题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.042．第42题We often learn words that co-occur with high frequency ａnd have been accepted as ways for the ｕｓｅ of words. for instance, in english, the word “see”, “watch”, ａnd “look” are similar in meaning but are often ｕｓｅd with differen t collocations as we say “see a movie”, “watch a play” ａnd “look at a picture.” similarly, we say “heavy traffic”, “heavy smoker”, “heavy rain/snow/fog” but never “heavy accident” ｏr “heavy wind.” these are examples of ___.A.collocationB.denotative meaningC.connotative meaningD.synonyms, antonyms, ａnd hyponyms您的答案：A题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.043．第43题The attitudes ｏr emotion of a language user in choosing a word ａnd the influence of these on the listener ｏr reader’s interpretation of the wｏrd fｏrm ___ of a wｏrd.A.collocationsB.the denotative meaningC.the connotative meaningD.synonyms, antonyms, ａnd hyponyms您的答案：C题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.044．第44题Methods of teaching grammar include the ___ method, the inductive method ａnd the guided discovery method.A.traditionalB.modernC.deductiveD.productive您的答案：C题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.045．第45题According to Ur (1996), if the structure is not easy for the learners to discovery themselves even with a context provided, it is better to teach the rule ___.A.implicitlyB.explicitlyC.in an abstract wayD.in a simple way您的答案：B题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.046．第46题Role-playing through cue dialogues, role-playing through situation ａnd goals, ａnd role-playing through debates ｏr discussion are examples of ___.A.mechanical practiceB.drilling languageC.pre-communicative activit iesD.social interaction activities您的答案：D题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.047．第47题The ultimate goal of foreign language teaching is to enable students to ｕｓｅ the foreign language in work ｏr life when necessary. thus we should teach ___; ａnd we should teach language in the way it is ｕｓｅd in the real wｏrld.A.that part of the language that will be usedB.all parts of the languageC.the language used in works of classical literatureD.spoken language only您的答案：A题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.048．第48题Communicative competence consists of knowledge ａnd ability for___.A.rules of rules of pronunciation, vocabulary ａnd grammarB.rules of grammar/form ａnd rules of language ｕｓｅC.pronunciation, words, ａnd grammarD.speaking ａnd writing您的答案：B题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.049．第49题Ways of presenting new words suggested in Wang Qiang’s book (2005) include the following EXCEPT ___.A.Teach all the new words in a text in an isolated way before reading the text.B.prepare for possible misunderstanding ｏr confusion that students may have.C.ｕｓｅ synonyms ｏr antonyms to explain meanings.D.Provide different contexts for introducing new words.您的答案：A题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.050．第50题Theories concerning language learning include the ____ theories, the ____ theories, the ____ theories, and the ____ theories.A.Process-oriented; Goal-oriented; Behaviourist; CognitiveB.Functional; Interactional; Constructivist; Socio-constructivistC.Structural; Behavioural; Cognitive; ConstructivistD.Behaviourist; Cognitive; Constructivist; Socio-constructivist您的答案：D题目分数：2.0此题得分：2.0作业总得分：96.0。