内部控制毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Internal auditing's role in ERMAs organizations lay their enterprise risk groundwork, many auditors are taking on management's oversight responsibilities, new research finds.Internal audit departments have played a variety of roles in their organization's enterprise risk management (ERM) activities since The Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Tread way Commission (COSO) released its Enterprise Risk Management-Integrated Framework in September 2004. An IIA position paper issued in the wake of COSO ERM, "The Role of Internal Auditing in Enterprise-wide Risk Management," indicates the roles that the internal audit function should and should not play throughout the ERM process, ranging from full involvement to no involvement. According to the paper, internal auditors should have a core role in five ERM-related assurance activities: giving assurance on risk management processes, giving assurance that risks are evaluated correctly, evaluating risk managementprocesses, evaluating the reporting of key risks, and reviewing the management of key risks.A recent IIA Research Foundation study examined the extent to which internal audit functions adhere to the ERM roles recommended in the IIA paper. During October 2005, researchers disseminated an online survey to 7,200 IIA members through The Institute's Global Auditing Information Network. The survey generated 361 responses from a mix of large, mid-sized, and small organizations in a variety of industries, including businesses, government agencies, and not for profit organizations. Nearly 60 percent of respondents identified themselves as a chief audit executive or audit director, 23 percent were audit managers, and 7.8 percent were staff or senior auditors. Approximately 90 percent were from the United States and Canada.Respondents' organizations are at different stages of implementing ERM, as defined by COSO. More than 11 percent say their organization's ERM infrastructure is mature or relatively mature, and 37 percent have recently adopted or are in the process of implementing ERM. Among all organizations surveyed, the internal audit function is primarily responsible for ERM-related activities in 36 percent of respondents' organizations, while 27 percent say the primary responsibility belongs to a chief risk officer (CRO) who is not part of the audit function. Nearly one-third of respondents say another executive or function oversees ERM..The hours and dollars internal audit functions spend on ERM-related activities are minimal for many respondents. Nearly half say their audit department spent 10 percent or less of its hourly and financial budgets on ERM-related activities during fiscal year 2004. More than one-third of audit departments spent II percent to 50 percent of their time on ERM, and 28 percent spent n percent to 50 percent of their financial budgets, while less than 10 percent of departments Spent more than 50 percent of their time and money.The IIA position paper categorizes 18 ERM-related activities according to the appropriate level of responsibility for the internal audit function. Survey respondents reported their current and ideal level of responsibility for these activities: no responsibility, limited responsibility, moderate responsibility, substantialresponsibility, and total responsibility.CORE ACTIVITIESDifferences between respondents' current and ideal responsibilities are greatest for the five core ERM assurance activities identified In the IIA paper. Respondents Indicated that their current responsibility for each of the core ERM related activities is moderate, but they say they should have a substantial level of responsibility. These views agree with the IIA guidance. Additionally, roughly half of internal audit functions surveyed currently have substantial or full responsibility for at least one core activity, and more than two-thirds say they should have till or substantial responsibility for at least one core activity.Within the core category, the audit function's two highest levels of current responsibility involve reviewing management of key risks and evaluating the risk management process. Evaluating the risk management process and giving assurance on risk management processes are the highest-rated ideal responsibilities. Conversely, giving assurance that risks are evaluated correctly is the lowest-rated current and ideal responsibility.The following respondent comments offer some insight into why audit departments are not currently involved in core ERM-related activities at the level they deem appropriate;"We have just recently begun implementing ERM activities in our company. We do not yet have complete understanding of the process and buy-in from management.""The audit committee and management are not aware of what ERM is.""The internal audit function has just initiated an awareness campaign among the audit committee members."These comments suggest that educating management and the audit committee on ERM issues can be critical to ensuring that the audit function takes on an appropriate level of responsibility for ERM.LEGITIMATE ACTIVITIESThe IIA paper prescribes seven legitimate ERM-related activities for which internal committee audit functions may be responsible as long as safeguards are inplace: facilitating the identification and evaluation of risks, coaching management in responding to risks, coordinating ERM-related activities, consolidating the reporting on risks, maintaining and developing the ERM framework, championing establishment of ERM, and developing risk management strategy for board approval. These activities are described as "consulting" activities. Although respondents' current responsibility for each of these legitimate activities ranges from limited to moderate, they say their ideal level should be moderate, which is consistent with the guidance.Within the legitimate category, the highest level of current internal audit responsibility involves facilitating the identification and evaluation of risks —the top-rated ERM-related activity, including core activities. This activity is also the highest-rated ideal activity among legitimate activities, suggesting that auditors consider it a core responsibility. This finding is not surprising. because risk detection and evaluation are traditional considerations in developing annual audit plans. The lowest-rated current and ideal activity is developing a risk management strategy for board approval, which is an activity that might best be handled by management.The IIA guidance cautions that when internal auditors undertake these legitimate consulting activities, safeguards should be in place to ensure that they do not take on management responsibility for actually managing risks. One possible preventive measure would include documenting the auditors' ERM responsibilities in an audit committee-approved audit charter. Further, if auditors take on any ERM-related activities that fall within this consulting role, they should treat these engagements as consulting engagements and apply the relevant IIA standards to help ensure their independence and objectivity.INAPPROPRIATE ACTIVITIESAccording to the IIA position paper. It is inappropriate for internal auditors to be responsible for six ERM-related activities: setting the risk appetite, imposing risk management processes, providing management assurance on risks, making decisions on risk responses, implementing risk responses on management's behalf, and having accountability for risk management. Overall, audit functions in the survey have greater responsibility for these activities than the IIA paper recommends. However,auditors say they should have some limited responsibility for the inappropriate activities.Within the inappropriate category, internal auditors' highest level of current and ideal responsibility is providing management assurance on risks, while their lowest level of responsibility is for setting the risk appetite. Respondents' comments suggest that auditors currently have greater responsibilities in these areas because the audit function is playing a leading role during the early stages of ERM development.ORGANIZATIONAL CHARACTERISTICSThe perceived current and ideal FRM roles for the internal audit function may vary across organizations, depending on the organization's industry, size, and audit department size, as well as the firm's need to comply with the U.S. Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002.INDUSTRY Respondents work in a variety of sectors, including financial services, manufacturing, transportation, communications, utilities, health care, retail and wholesale, government, and education. Researchers compared responses from the two largest industry groups: financial services and manufacturing. On average, financial service industry audit departments have greater current responsibility for core activities than those from manufacturing. With respect to inappropriate activities, manufacturing audit departments tend to say their ideal involvement should be higher than their current responsibility, while financial service industry audit departments rate their current and ideal responsibilities at the same level.ORGANIZATION SIZE Approximately half of respondents work in organizations that had 2004 revenues between US $500 million and US $5 billion. Nearly 25 percent of respondents work in organizations that had revenues under US $500 million in 2004, while a similar number of respondents work in organizations that had more than US $5 billion in revenue that year. Researchers compared responses from organizations with revenues of less than US $1 billion with organizations with revenues greater than US $1 billion. On average, auditors from both types of organizations have relatively equal levels of responsibility for current core activities. However, smaller organizations rated their ideal involvement for thesecore activities higher than large organizations. Smaller organizations have a slightly higher current level of responsibility for inappropriate activities than larger organizations and say their ideal involvement in these areas should be higher.AUDIT STAFF SIZE More than half of respondents work in audit departments with 10 or fewer auditors, slightly more than one-quarter work in departments with between 11 and 50 auditors, and approximately one-tenth of respondents work in departments with more than 50 auditors. Internal audit functions with more than 10 auditors currently have somewhat more responsibility for core activities than audit departments with 10 or fewer auditors. Both large and small audit functions have roughly equal levels of responsibility for all other ERM-related activities. However, unlike large audit organizations, respondents from small audit departments want to have more responsibility for activities in the inappropriate category.SARBANES-OXLEY Most respondents' organizations are required to comply with Sarbanes-Oxley Section 404. Researchers found few differences between those organizations and respondents from organizations that do not have to comply with the act. The primary difference related to core activities, where compliers report a higher level of current responsibility than non-compliers.Although the IIA guidance is equally applicable to all organizations, the research indicates that smaller internal audit departments and those from smaller organizations tend to take on ERM responsibilities that would be more appropriate for management. In these cases, internal auditing should work to develop an ERM implementation and maintenance plan that includes a stratcgy and timeline for migrating responsibilities for these activities to managementTHE AUDITOR'S ROLEAlthough the survey results suggest that the current levels of responsibility audit departments have may differ somewhat from that levels recommended by The IIA'S position paper, the respondents' comments offer some evidence that auditors understand the underlying concepts of the guidance:"There needs to be a shift in the 'doing' of the ERM to being an internal audit function that relies on and evaluates the ERM process. ERM should be in sync withthe audit universe and plan,""In the past i8 months, the corporation has appointed a CRO to provide oversight and guidance to evolving ERM processes. During this period, much of internal auditing's previous ERM roles have migrated to this officer." More importantly, respondents identified significant barriers in their organizations to following the guidance:"These ERM responsibilities and processes are not well defined in many organizations and should be more clearly articulated by senior management."'There is not enough emphasis from the top that risk management is important and must be done effectively. Management is still trying to hide things from internal auditing. It's not them against us, we're all in it together.""Most auditors and enterprise managers lack clarity on the distinction between responsibility for risk assurance implementation versus responsibility for risk assurance compliance and monitoring."These comments stress that a key element to establishing a successful ERM program is education on the importance of ERM and the appropriate roles management and internal auditing have in the process. Internal auditors can play a key role in providing this education. The audit department, management, hoard of directors, and audit committee need to be clear about which ERM related activities internal auditors should perform and which activities should always be performed by management. Relevant training should highlight that internal auditing could serve in a monitoring or consulting role throughout much of the ERM process, but the formal decision-making authority must reside with management if the audit department is to maintain its independence and objectivity.Auditors should take steps to ensure that the board and audit committee are aware of the COSO ERM framework and are actively engaged in overseeing the ERM process. Additionally, auditors should consider training senior management, the board, and others throughout their organization on COSO ERM and related guidance.Responses to the survey provide useful insights into additional steps that the internal audit profession should take. Auditors whose organizations are in the earlystages of adopting ERM or will be implementing ERM in the future have many opportunities to ensure that the process is effective and efficient. For example, audit departments that currendy perform ERM-related activities that should be management's responsibility can take proactive steps to open up the lines of communication between internal auditing and management, the board and audit committee, and external auditors about the risks of this situation. Such communication should encourage management to take on appropriate ERM responsibilities. One approach audit departments could take is to develop a business plan describing how management can assume responsibility for ERM related activities for which they should be accountable. However, internal auditors should recognize that completing this plan and convincing management to accept these ERM responsibilities might not occur quickly.With appropriate planning, communication, and education, internal auditors, management, the board, and external auditors should be ready to work together to achieve the many benefits of ERM. Ideally, this coordination will result in performing ERM-related activities at appropriate places within the organization, management accepting its responsibility for ERM, and that audit function playing a role that is consistent with appropriate professional guidance.译文：内部审计在企业风险管理中的作用新的研究发现：随着企业以组织风险为基础，许多审计人员对管理层采取职责监督措施。

基于ARM与线性CCD的高速数据采集系统毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述High–Speed Data Acquisition System Based on ARM &Linear-CCDAbstract :This paper presents a high speed acquisition system of linear-CCD based on ARM, high-speed linear-CCD and high-speed ADC are selected. As the sampling speed of A/D is slower than the working clock frequency of ARM, CPLD and FIFO are used as I/O between A/D and ARM. It makes the circuit works harmonious, simple and easy controlling, and also increases the efficiency of ARM. In order to increase the communication speed, the Universal Serial Bus (USB) technology is adopted to communicate with the PC. ARM is the key processor utilized to control the data sampling, data compute and data transfer. As a result, the whole system works effective. The system can be applied to the high speed data acquisition and operation situations from multi-channel analog signals.Key Words : ARM; Linear CCD; Contact-line; Pantograph; Stagger –valueI. IntroductionIn electrification railways, in order to extend the life of the pantograph on electric locomotives, so that the slider of pantograph wear evenly, the contact-line (electrified railway power feed line) in straight-line segments is arranged as zigzag route (curve section arranged in the form of polyline). The distance between the contact-line of positioning point and the pantograph centerline track is called out stagger-value, which is a key indicator of contact-line .Stagger-value can not be ignored, the value too small will affect the slider of pantograph wear evenly and the purpose of extending using life; otherwise, in some cases (such as caught in a stiff winds), cause a large range of lateral movement of the roof (and the higher the speed, the greater pantograph swing around), some parts of contact-line will be in excess of the effective work length of pantograph, so that the stagger-value of contact-line beyond the standard range, leading to deterioration of the current collection, and even cause incorrect running of the pantograph accident. Pantograph-catenary malfunction will result in interruption of train operation, which impact on rail transport seriously. In order to avoid these phenomena, the stagger-value and its changes should be tested regularly.Therefore, a locomotive contact-line monitoring system and its mating data acquisition system were developed, which calculate the instant stagger-value quickly.II. System ComponentsSystem hardware components are shown in figure 1.The system consists of the following components: (1) using TOSHIBA Com pany’s high-speed linear array CCD to achieve the digitization of contact-line images (CCD output the signal of corresponding time sequence of position); (2) using Atmel Company’s AT91RM9200 processor of ARM9 series to realize digital signal acquisition and processing; (3) using PDIUSBD12 USB interface device to complete the data communications between measurement system and the PC.Due to the characteristics of its improved Harvard structure, special instructions and quick to realize a variety of signal processing, ARM processor is widely used in image processing, communications, radar, sonar, precision machinery fields, etc. ARM processor is adopted for its arithmetic speed and bus width. As the real-time signal analysis and calculation require a high sp eed of computing, Atmel Company’s ARM chip—AT91RM9200 is selected. The chip is ARM920T based, high-performance, low power consumption 16/32-bit RISC(reduced instruction set computer) microcontroller, which incorporates a rich set of application peripheralsand provide a single-chip solution for industrial control applications that require a wide range of peripherals at low power consumption and strictly stable working.Fig 1 System block diagramIII. Real-time processing and transmission of CCD digital image In order to achieve real-time digital imagetransmission, several major factors which affect real-time transmission should be necessary to solve: First, the speed of linear array CCD data acquisition; Second, the transmission speed between linear array CCD and ARM processor; the third is the data transmission speed between ARM processor and computer. The following will be described in detail.A. Linear array CCD acquisition speedAcquisition speed is a critical performance indicator for image sensor, TOSHIBA Company’s TCD1209D linear array CCD is used to meet the targets. Its clock pulse frequency can operate as high as 20MHz, especially suitable for high-speed conditions of size measurement and dynamic analysis.Fig 2 Linear CCD TCD1209D and its time sequence diagram Linear array CCD TCD1209D and its time sequence diagram are shown in figure2.B.Transmission speed between CCD and ARM processorIn order to improve the speed of CCD data acquisition and reduce conversion time, adopting high speed A/D converter can make it exchange data with ARM processor at high-speed. ADC08200, Analog Company's nanosecond conversion device is adopted. It’s a single-channel, 8-bit A/D converter, which operates over a wide range of temperature, converts fast, operates at conversion rates up to 230 MSPS, thus achieving entire signal acquisition of linear array CCD. ADC08200 is shown in figure 3.Fig 3 High-speed A/D converter ADC080200FIFO is used as a data buffer to co-ordinate the rate of ARM processor and ADC. It is a two-port (input and output port) memory for temporary storage of first in first out data. Due to the time to write data to FIFO is far less than the A/D conversion time, therefore, the acquisition speed depends on the A/D conversion speed.In order to improve the speed of the entire measurement system, the time sequence of entire circuit is precisely controlled by the CPLD to make the circuit works harmonious. CCD driving signal, integration time control, address decoding, A/D conversion control, data buffer and data acquisition logic functions integrate in the CPLD, so that the entire circuit structure is simple and reliable.In order to further enhance the system speed, when the system starts, system programs are transferred to high-speed SRAM for running and SDRAM for data storage; SRAM, SDRAM should be placed as close as possible to ARM processors, and the signal lines the shortest possible.ARM processor (AT91RM9200), the signal processing core of the entire hardware system, read the CCD light intensity signal from FIFO, calculate the distribution of contact-line image in the CCD with corresponding algorithm, and transfer the result to the slave computer through USB.C. Transmission speed between ARM processor and computerIn order to increase the speed of data transmission and reduce transmission delay, USB interface is used for data transmission. USB1.1 interface support low-speed and full-speed transmission, data transfer rates has reached 1.5Mbps in low-speed mode, the transmission speed up to 12Mbps in full speed mode. Philips Company’s PDIUSBD12 is adopted.When a USB device inserted into the PC, PC enumerates USB device automatically. When detecting equipment to insert, PC send query request. USB devices respond to the request and send equipment Vendor ID and Product ID; PC loads the corresponding device driver with these two ID to complete the enumeration process.PC-side USB device driver is completed by WinDriver. Data communication between PC and USB equipment mainly includes two aspects: first, read the sample data; second, send control commands to the acquisition system.IV. CCD image recognition algorithmARM processor is mainly responsible for the solution of stagger-value; it’s the process of image identification, including background separation and feature extraction of the image data. Identification of the image is for image gray only; the standard deviation threshold tracking method is adopted. The image is composed of black-and-white texture, and gray-scale varies greatly, with a larger standard deviation; and background gray distribution is relatively flat, with small standard deviation. Therefore, the standard deviation of each point as the center of a group of pixels is calculated, the value greater than a certain threshold determine the point in the foreground, or as the background.This system not only measures the contact-line instant position, but also calculates the abrasion state of the contact-line to evaluate its life span. System support by associated PC software, through subsequent playback of the data collected, to check the situation of stagger-value, as well as the abrasion of contact-line, and decide whether to adjust and replace or notV. Measures of improving system reliabilityHigh-speed data acquisition system is inevitably affected by interference from the external environment. As the complex environment around the measurement system, many factors interfere with the system. Electromagnetic interference around 27.5KV high-voltage catenary affects great; the pantograph detaching will be accompanied by the emergence of arc sparks, this phenomenon interfere with communication line along the lines, accompanied by high-frequency electromagnetic waves, therefore, necessary anti-interference measures should be taken.In order to improve the ability of anti-interference, anti-jamming measures taken are as follows: takeanti-interference design of PCB circuit to reduce the external interference on system; all cables adopt shielded cable with wave-proof sleeve; equipment shell adopts shielding material and detection window of the shell use gauze to isolate the interference.VI. ResultsWe have used this high–speed data acquisition system in Wuhan south locomotive-depot to measure the contact-line instant position, and the test result shows that the whole system works effective, fast and high degree of accuracy; exclude the vibration of the train and the contact-line, it reach the accuracy of 0.1mm. This design is flexible and corresponds with the actual needs.REFERENCES[1] Yu Wanju. Design and the Measurement Theory of Contact-line [M], Beijing, China Railway Publishing House, 1991.[2] Zhu Feixiong. Detection of Stitched catenary suspension [J], Electric Railway, 2003,(1):15-17[3] Li Weimin, Xing Xiaozheng. Application of DSP in the Linear CCD measuring system [J], Chinese Journal of Scientific Instrument, 2003,(2):183-185[4] Huang Zhengjin, Xu Jian. Introduction to CPLD system design and application technology [M], Beijing, Publishing House of Electronics Industry, 2002.[5] Cao Xiaowei. The principle and application of high-speed high-precision linear array CCD-TCD141C [J], International Electronic Elements, 1997,(8):26-29[6] Bi Youming, Yang Tiemei. High-speed data acquisition and processing system for linear CCD [J], Journal of Taiyuan University of Science and Technology, 2000, (1): 31-33[7] Wang Ning, Shan Shengxiong. Analysis of the contact force between pantograph and catenary [J], Electric Railway, 2000, (2): 22-24[8] Bai Dongliang. A new structure of the pantograph——Self-detaching pantograph [J], Electric Drive for Locomotives, 1999, (6): 42-43[9] He Duyang, Huang Xiaodong, He Kui. The Width Measuring Instrument for Steel Plate by Linear CCD Technology. Technology and Test. 2007, 5:64-66.[10] Wang Qingyou, Zhang Kexin, Jin Gui, Liu Haijun. Design of linear CCD real-time test system based on DSP. Electronic Measurement Technology, 2007, 30(7): 85-86.[11] Zhong Hongtao, Duan Fajie, Wang Xueying, YE Shenghua. Design of CCD Driver on Auto-adjust Exposure Time. Chinese Journal of Sensors and Actuators.2006, 19(6):2256-2259.Dong JianJun, Master, Lector，The First Aeronautical Technical College of the Air Force. Xinyang 464000. China. Email: dbrother@Zhao Xiaojin, Master, College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Xi’an University of Architecture & Technology, Xi’an 710055.China. Email: zhaoxiaojin@基于ARM与线性CCD的高速数据采集系统摘要本文介绍了一个基于ARM的线性CCD高速采集系统，系统中选择了高速线性CCD和高速ADC。

毕业论文文献内容编排中文与英文对照在毕业论文的写作过程中，文献内容的编排是非常重要的一环。

其中，中文与英文对照是必不可少的部分。

在撰写毕业论文时，如何合理地安排中文和英文文献内容，是需要认真考虑的问题。

下面将从文献引用、文献列表和文献翻译等方面进行详细介绍。

一、文献引用在毕业论文中，引用文献是非常常见的做法。

当引用中文文献时，应在引用的文献后标注中文作者姓名和出版年份，如“张三，2000”。

而引用英文文献时，则需要标注英文作者姓名和出版年份，如“Smith, 2010”。

在引用文献时，要注意中英文对照的一致性，确保中英文作者姓名和出版年份的对应准确无误。

二、文献列表在毕业论文的文献部分，通常会列出所有引用过的文献。

在文献列表中，中文文献和英文文献的排列顺序可以根据引用的先后顺序或按照作者姓氏的字母顺序排列。

对于中文文献，应按照作者姓名的汉语拼音首字母顺序排列；对于英文文献，则按照作者姓氏的字母顺序排列。

在文献列表中，中文文献和英文文献之间可以用空行或其他方式进行区分，以便读者清晰地识别。

三、文献翻译在撰写毕业论文时，有时会需要引用外文文献。

对于外文文献的引用，需要进行准确的翻译。

在翻译文献时，要确保翻译的准确性和流畅性。

对于中文文献，如果需要引用英文文献的内容，可以在引用的内容后附上英文原文，以便读者查阅。

同样，对于英文文献，如果需要引用中文文献的内容，也可以在引用的内容后附上中文原文。

这样做不仅可以提高文献内容的可读性，还可以确保翻译的准确性。

总之，在毕业论文的文献内容编排中，中文与英文对照是非常重要的一环。

合理地安排中英文文献内容，不仅可以提高论文的质量，还可以让读者更好地理解论文的内容。

希望以上介绍对你在撰写毕业论文时有所帮助。

毕业设计（论文）外文翻译题目: 基于51单片机温度报警器的设计英文题目: 51 MCU-based design of a temperature alarm 系别: 信息工程系专业: ____ _测控技术与仪器_______班级: ___ _ ______学号: ____ _姓名: __ ______ __ ___________指导老师:填表日期: _______________ _单片机单片机是指一个集成在一块芯片上的完整计算机系统。

尽管他的大部分功能集成在一块小芯片上，但是它具有一个完整计算机所需要的大部分部件：CPU、内存、内部和外部总线系统，目前大部分还会具有外存。

同时集成诸如通讯接口、定时器，实时时钟等外围设备。

而现在最强大的单片机系统甚至可以将声音、图像、网络、复杂的输入输出系统集成在一块芯片上。

单片机也被称为微控制器（Microcontroller），是因为它最早被用在工业控制领域。

单片机由芯片内仅有CPU的专用处理器发展而来。

最早的设计理念是通过将大量外围设备和CPU集成在一个芯片中，使计算机系统更小，更容易集成进复杂的而对提及要求严格的控制设备当中。

INTEL的Z80是最早按照这种思想设计出的处理器，从此以后，单片机和专用处理器的发展便分道扬镳。

早期的单片机都是8位或4位的。

其中最成功的是INTEL的8031，因为简单可靠而性能不错获得了很大的好评。

此后在8031上发展出了MCS51系列单片机系统。

基于这一系统的单片机系统直到现在还在广泛使用。

随着工业控制领域要求的提高，开始出现了16位单片机，但因为性价比不理想并未得到很广泛的应用。

90年代后随着消费电子产品大发展，单片机技术得到了巨大的提高。

随着INTEL i960系列特别是后来的ARM系列的广泛应用，32位单片机迅速取代16位单片机的高端地位，并且进入主流市场。

而传统的8位单片机的性能也得到了飞速提高，处理能力比起80年代提高了数百倍。

外文资料与翻译PID Contro l6.1 IntroductionThe PID controller is the most common form of feedback. It was an essential element of early governors and it became the standard tool when process control emerged in the 1940s. In process control today, more than 95% of the control loops are of PID type, most loops are actually PI control. PID controllers are today found in all areas where control is used. The controllers come in many different forms. There are standalone systems in boxes for one or a few loops, which are manufactured by the hundred thousands yearly. PID control is an important ingredient of a distributed control system. The controllers are also embedded in many special purpose control systems. PID control is often combined with logic, sequential functions, selectors, and simple function blocks to build the complicated automation systems used for energy production, transportation, and manufacturing. Many sophisticated control strategies, such as model predictive control, are also organized hierarchically. PID control is used at the lowest level; the multivariable controller gives the set points to the controllers at the lower level. The PID controller can thus be said to be the “bread and butter of control engineering. It is an important component in every control engineer’s tool box.PID controllers have survived many changes in technology, from mechanics and pneumatics to microprocessors via electronic tubes, transistors, integrated circuits. The microprocessor has had a dramatic influence the PID controller. Practically all PID controllers made today are based on microprocessors. This has given opportunities to provide additional features like automatic tuning, gain scheduling, and continuous adaptation.6.2 AlgorithmWe will start by summarizing the key features of the PID controller. The “textbook” version of the PID algorithm is described by:()()()()⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛++=⎰dt t de d e t e K t u T T d t i 01ττ 6.1 where y is the measured process variable, r the reference variable, u is the control signal and e is the control error （e =sp y − y ）. The reference variable is often calledthe set point. The control signal is thus a sum of three terms: the P-term （which is proportional to the error）, the I-term （which is proportional to the integral of the error）, and the D-term （which is proportional to the derivative of the error）. The controller parameters are proportional gain K, integral time T i, and derivative time T d. The integral, proportional and derivative part can be interpreted as control actions based on the past, the present and the future as is illustrated in Figure 2.2. The derivative part can also be interpreted as prediction by linear extrapolation as is illustrated in Figure 2.2. The action of the different terms can be illustrated by the following figures which show the response to step changes in the reference value in a typical case.Effects of Proportional, Integral and Derivative ActionProportional control is illustrated in Figure 6.1. The controller is given by D6.1E with T i= and T d=0. The figure shows that there is always a steady state error in proportional control. The error will decrease with increasing gain, but the tendency towards oscillation will also increase.Figure 6.2 illustrates the effects of adding integral. It follows from D6.1E that the strength of integral action increases with decreasing integral time T i. The figure shows that the steady state error disappears when integral action is used. Compare with the discussion of the “magic of integral action” in Section 2.2. The tendency for oscillation also increases with decreasing T i. The properties of derivative action are illustrated in Figure 6.3.Figure 6.3 illustrates the effects of adding derivative action. The parameters K and T i are chosen so that the closed loop system is oscillatory. Damping increases with increasing derivative time, but decreases again when derivative time becomes too large. Recall that derivative action can be interpreted as providing prediction by linear extrapolation over the time T d. Using this interpretation it is easy to understand that derivative action does not help if the prediction time T d is too large. In Figure 6.3 the period of oscillation is about 6 s for the system without derivative Chapter 6. PID ControlFigure 6.1Figure 6.2Derivative actions cease to be effective when T d is larger than a 1 s (one sixth of the period). Also notice that the period of oscillation increases when derivative time is increased.A PerspectiveThere is much more to PID than is revealed by （6.1）. A faithful implementation of the equation will actually not result in a good controller. To obtain a good PID controller it is also necessary to consider。

中英文资料对照外文翻译基于单片机的智能住宅安防报警和远程控制系统摘要：为了对偷盗，抢劫和意外事故进行有效的监控和警告，统一使用单片机AT89C51的控制技术和红外探测技术，设计了一种无线防盗报警器，它包括硬件和软件两部分;硬件部分是由红外线感应器，发送和接收模块，单片机，声光报警等组成；软件部分是由主程序和音乐子程序组成。

采用C或汇编语言编写的源程序，在Keilc51平台上进行翻译和调试后，下载到单片机AT89C51芯片，并根据焊接在PCB板上的此单片机和其他主要设备设计一个电路。

对于电源，闭路循环控制开关，当有人入侵红外线发射区，产生声光报警，表示已经达到设计要求，这个项目展示了智能化住宅防盗报警，紧急报警，火灾报警器，有毒气体泄漏远程自动声音报警及远程控制系统，它是基于89C51单片机。

该系统可自动报警，自动致电警方热线电话号码。

它可用于语音报警，并显示发生报警的地址。

它可以设置和修改用户的密码。

它可以进行录制和语音提示。

它可用于电话远程控制电源。

该报警系统设计创新，具有多功能，成本低，可靠性高等诸多特点。

随着时代的不断进步，人们对自己的居住环境安全提出了更高的要求，不仅在生活，特别是在安全方面，一定要注意这些频繁发生的意外。

现在，许多区域已安装了智能报警系统，从而大大提高居住区的安全率，因为红外线是一种黑色的光，使用无线发射和接收，无需独立的布线，它具有很强的保密性和保密性，从而在安全，安保部分等安全领域的应用应该有很大的优势。

关键词：红外传感；发射；接收；单片机；警告一、简介随着计算机技术和控制技术及通信技术的发展，人民生活水平日益改善。

人民的生活条件已经发生了变化，例如产生了居住环境的安全和如何使他们生活得更加舒适等问题。

因此，智能化的住宅建筑的自动控制的出现顺应了时代的要求。

智能化小区必须有安全防范，防盗报警，火灾报警器，有毒气体泄漏自动报警和紧急呼叫等功能。

关键设备电源的远程控制是能够实现的。

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)英文：Programmable designed for electro-pneumatic systemscontrollerThis project deals with the study of electro-pneumatic systems and the programmable controller that provides an effective and easy way to control the sequence of the pneumatic actuators movement and the states of pneumatic system. The project of a specific controller for pneumatic applications join the study of automation design and the control processing of pneumatic systems with the electronic design based on microcontrollers to implement the resources of the controller.1. IntroductionThe automation systems that use electro-pneumatic technology are formed mainly by three kinds of elements: actuators or motors, sensors or buttons and control elements like valves. Nowadays, most of the control elements used to execute the logic of the system were substituted by the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). Sensors and switches are plugged as inputs and the direct control valves for theactuators are plugged as outputs. An internal program executes all the logic necessary to the sequence of the movements, simulates other components like counter, timer and control the status of the system.With the use of the PLC, the project wins agility, because it is possible to create and simulate the system as many times as needed. Therefore, time can be saved, risk of mistakes reduced and complexity can be increased using the same elements.A conventional PLC, that is possible to find on the market from many companies, offers many resources to control not only pneumatic systems, but all kinds of system that uses electrical components. The PLC can be very versatile and robust to be applied in many kinds of application in the industry or even security system and automation of buildings.Because of those characteristics, in some applications the PLC offers to much resources that are not even used to control the system, electro-pneumatic system is one of this kind of application. The use of PLC, especially for small size systems, can be very expensive for the automation project.An alternative in this case is to create a specific controller that can offer the exactly size and resources that the project needs [3, 4]. This can be made using microcontrollers as the base of this controller.The controller, based on microcontroller, can be very specific and adapted to only one kind of machine or it can work as a generic controller that can be programmed as a usual PLC and work with logic that can be changed. All these characteristics depend on what is needed and how much experience the designer has with developing an electronic circuit and firmware for microcontroller. But the main advantage of design the controller with the microcontroller is that the designer has the total knowledge of his controller, which makes it possible to control the size of the controller, change the complexity and the application of it. It means that the project gets more independence from other companies, but at the same time the responsibility of the control of the system stays at the designer hands2. Electro-pneumatic systemOn automation system one can find three basic components mentioned before, plus a logic circuit that controls the system. An adequate technique is needed to project the logic circuit and integrate all the necessary components to execute the sequence of movements properly.For a simple direct sequence of movement an intuitive method can be used [1, 5], but for indirect or more complex sequences the intuition can generate a verycomplicated circuit and signal mistakes. It is necessary to use another method that can save time of the project, make a clean circuit, can eliminate occasional signal overlapping and redundant circuits. The presented method is called step-by-step or algorithmic [1, 5], it is valid for pneumatic and electro-pneumatic systems and it was used as a base in this work.The method consists of designing the systems based on standard circuits made for each change on the state of the actuators, these changes are called steps.The first part is to design those kinds of standard circuits for each step, the nexttask is to link the standard circuits and the last part is to connect the control elements that receive signals from sensors, switches and the previous movements, and give the air or electricity to the supply lines of each step. In Figs. 1 and 2 the standard circuits are drawn for pneumatic and electro-pneumatic system [8]. It is possible to see the relations with the previous and the next steps.3. The method applied inside the controllerThe result of the method presented before is a sequence of movements of the actuator that is well defined by steps. It means that each change on the position of the actuators is a new state of the system and the transition between states is called step.The standard circuit described before helps the designer to define the states of the systems and to define the condition to each change between the states. In the end of the design, the system is defined by a sequence that never chances and states that have the inputs and the outputs well defined. The inputs are the condition for the transition and the outputs are the result of the transition.All the configuration of those steps stays inside of the microcontroller and is executed the same way it was designed. The sequences of strings are programmed inside the controller with 5 bytes; each string has the configuration of one step of the process. There are two bytes for the inputs, one byte for the outputs and two more for the other configurations and auxiliary functions of the step. After programming, this sequence of strings is saved inside of a non-volatile memory of the microcontroller, so they can be read and executed.The controller task is not to work in the same way as a conventional PLC, but the purpose of it is to be an example of a versatile controller that is design for an specific area. A conventional PLC process the control of the system using a cycle where it makes an image of the inputs, execute all the conditions defined by the configuration programmed inside, and then update the state of the outputs. This controller works in a different way, where it read the configuration of the step, wait the condition of inputs to be satisfied, then update the state or the outputs and after that jump to the next step and start the process again.It can generate some limitations, as the fact that this controller cannot execute, inside the program, movements that must be repeated for some time, but this problem can be solved with some external logic components. Another limitation is that the controller cannot be applied on systems that have no sequence. These limitations are a characteristic of the system that must be analyzed for each application.4. Characteristics of the controllerThe controller is based on the MICROCHIP microcontroller PIC16F877 [6,7] with 40 pins, and it has all the resources needed for this project .It has enough pins for all the components, serial communication implemented in circuit, EEPROM memory to save all the configuration of the system and the sequence of steps. For the execution of the main program, it offers complete resources as timers and interruptions.The list of resources of the controller was created to explore all the capacity of the microcontroller to make it as complete as possible. During the step, the program chooses how to use the resources reading the configuration string of the step. This string has two bytes for digital inputs, one used as a mask and the other one used as a value expected. One byte is used to configure the outputs value. One bytes more is used for the internal timer , the analog input or time-out. The EEPROM memory inside is 256 bytes length that is enough to save the string of the steps, with this characteristic it is possible to save between 48 steps （Table 1）.The controller (Fig.3) has also a display and some buttons that are used with an interactive menu to program the sequence of steps and other configurations.4.1. Interaction componentsFor the real application the controller must have some elements to interact with the final user and to offer a complete monitoring of the system resources that are available to the designer while creating the logic control of the pneumatic system (Fig.3):•Interactive mode of wor k; function available on the main program for didactic purposes, the user gives the signal to execute the step.•LCD display, which shows the status of the system, values of inputs, outputs, timer and statistics of the sequence execution.•Beep to give imp ortant alerts, stop, start and emergency.• Leds to show power on and others to show the state of inputs and outputs.4.2. SecurityTo make the final application works property, a correct configuration to execute the steps in the right way is needed, but more then that it must offer solutions in case of bad functioning or problems in the execution of the sequence. The controller offers the possibility to configure two internal virtual circuits that work in parallel to the principal. These two circuits can be used as emergency or reset buttons and can return the system to a certain state at any time [2]. There are two inputs that work with interruption to get an immediate access to these functions. It is possible to configure the position, the buttons and the value of time-out of the system.4.3. User interfaceThe sequence of strings can be programmed using the interface elements of the controller. A Computer interface can also be used to generate the user program easily. With a good documentation the final user can use the interface to configure the strings of bytes that define the steps of the sequence. But it is possible to create a program with visual resources that works as a translator to the user, it changes his work to the values that the controller understands.To implement the communication between the computer interface and the controller a simple protocol with check sum and number of bytes is the minimum requirements to guarantee the integrity of the data.4.4. FirmwareThe main loop works by reading the strings of the steps from the EEPROM memory that has all the information about the steps.In each step, the status of the system is saved on the memory and it is shown on the display too. Depending of the user configuration, it can use the interruption to work with the emergency circuit or time-out to keep the system safety. In Fig.4,a block diagram of micro controller main program is presented.5. Example of electro-pneumatic systemThe system is not a representation of a specific machine, but it is made with some common movements and components found in a real one. The system is composed of four actuators. The actuators A, B and C are double acting and D-single acting. Actuator A advances and stays in specified position till the end of the cycle, it could work fixing an object to the next action for example (Fig. 5) , it is the first step. When A reaches the end position, actuator C starts his work together with B, making as many cycles as possible during the advancing of B. It depends on how fast actuator B is advancing; the speed is regulated by a flowing control valve. It was the second step. B and C are examples of actuators working together, while B pushes an object slowly, C repeats its work for some time.When B reaches the final position, C stops immediately its cycle and comes back to the initial position. The actuator D is a single acting one with spring return and works together with the back of C, it is the third step. D works making very fast forward and backward movement, just one time. Its backward movement is the fourth step. D could be a tool to make a hole on the object.When D reaches the initial position, A and B return too, it is the fifth step.Fig. 6 shows the first part of the designing process where all the movements of each step should be defined [2]. (A+) means that the actuator A moves to the advanced position and (A−) to the initial position. The movements that happen at the same time are joined together in the same step. The system has five steps.These two representations of the system (Figs. 5 and 6) together are enough to describe correctly all the sequence. With them is possible to design the whole control circuit with the necessary logic components. But till this time, it is not a complete system, because it is missing some auxiliary elements that are not included in this draws because they work in parallel with the main sequence.These auxiliary elements give more function to the circuit and are very important to the final application; the most important of them is the parallel circuit linked with all the others steps. That circuit should be able to stop the sequence at any time and change the state of the actuators to a specific position. This kind of circuit can be used as a reset or emergency buttons.The next Figs. 7 and 8 show the result of using the method without the controller. These pictures are the electric diagram of the control circuit of the example, including sensors, buttons and the coils of the electrical valves.The auxiliary elements are included, like the automatic/manual switcher that permit a continuous work and the two start buttons that make the operator of a machine use their two hands to start the process, reducing the risk of accidents.6. Changing the example to a user programIn the previous chapter, the electro-pneumatic circuits were presented, used to begin the study of the requires to control a system that work with steps and must offer all the functional elements to be used in a real application. But, as explained above, using a PLC or this specific controller, the control becomes easier and the complexity can be increase also.Table 2 shows a resume of the elements that are necessary to control the presented example.With the time diagram, the step sequence and the elements of the system described in Table 2 and Figs. 5 and 6 it is possible to create the configuration of the steps that can be sent to the controller (Tables 3 and 4).While using a conventional PLC, the user should pay attention to the logic of the circuit when drawing the electric diagram on the interface (Figs. 7 and 8), usingthe programmable controller, described in this work, the user must know only the concept o f the method and program only the configuration of each step.It means that, with a conventional PLC, the user must draw the relation between the lines and the draw makes it hard to differentiate the steps of the sequence. Normally, one needs to execute a simulation on the interface to find mistakes on the logicThe new programming allows that the configuration of the steps be separated, like described by the method. The sequence is defined by itself and the steps are described only by the inputs and outputs for each step.The structure of the configuration follows the order:1-byte: features of the step;2-byte: mask for the inputs;3-byte: value expected on the inputs;4-byte: value for the outputs;5-byte: value for the extra function.Table 5 shows how the user program is saved inside the controller, this is the program that describes the control of the example shown before.The sequence can be defined by 25 bytes. These bytes can be divided in five strings with 5 bytes each that define each step of the sequence (Figs. 9 and 10).7. ConclusionThe controller developed for this work (Fig. 11) shows that it is possible to create a very useful programmable controller based on microcontroller. External memories or external timers were not used in case to explore the resources that the microcontroller offers inside. Outside the microcontroller, there are only components to implement the outputs, inputs, analog input, display for the interface and the serial communication.Using only the internal memory, it is possible to control a pneumatic system that has a sequence with 48 steps if all the resources for all steps are used, but it ispossible to reach sixty steps in the case of a simpler system.The programming of the controller does not use PLC languages, but a configuration that is simple and intuitive. With electro-pneumatic system, the programming follows the same technique that was used before to design the system, but here the designer work s directly with the states or steps of the system.With a very simple machine language the designer can define all the configuration of the step using four or five bytes. It depends only on his experience to use all the resources of the controller.The controller task is not to work in the same way as a commercial PLC but the purpose of it is to be an example of a versatile controller that is designed for a specific area. Because of that, it is not possible to say which one works better; the system made with microcontroller is an alternative that works in a simple way.中文：应用于电气系统的可编程序控制器此项目主要是研究电气系统以及简单有效的控制气流发动机的程序和气流系统的状态。

外文翻译--基于51单片机温度报警器的设计(适用于毕业论文外文翻译+中英文对照)XXX: Design of a Temperature Alarm Based on 51 MCUDepartment: n EngineeringMajor: Measurement and Control Technology and nClass:Student ID:Name:Supervisor:Date:A microcontroller。

also known as a single-chip computer system。

XXX its ns being integrated on a small chip。

it has most of the components needed for a complete computer system。

such as CPU。

memory。

internal and external bus systems。

and mostof them also have external storage。

At the same time。

it integrates XXX interfaces。

timers。

real-time clocks。

etc。

The most XXX integrate sound。

image。

ork。

and complex input-output systems on a single chip.XXX used in the industrial control field。

Microcontrollers XXX CPUs inside the chip。

The original design concept was to integrate a large number of peripheral devices and CPUs on a chip to make the computer system XXX's Z80 was the first processor designed according to this concept。

第1页 共19页中文3572字毕业论文（设计）外文翻译标题：危机管理-预防，诊断和干预一、外文原文标题：标题：Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis and Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis andintervention 原文：原文：The Thepremise of this paper is that crises can be managed much more effectively if the company prepares for them. Therefore, the paper shall review some recent crises, theway they were dealt with, and what can be learned from them. Later, we shall deal with the anatomy of a crisis by looking at some symptoms, and lastly discuss the stages of a crisis andrecommend methods for prevention and intervention. Crisis acknowledgmentAlthough many business leaders will acknowledge thatcrises are a given for virtually every business firm, many of these firms do not take productive steps to address crisis situations. As one survey of Chief Executive officers of Fortune 500 companies discovered, 85 percent said that a crisisin business is inevitable, but only 50 percent of these had taken any productive action in preparing a crisis plan(Augustine, 1995). Companies generally go to great lengths to plan their financial growth and success. But when it comes to crisis management, they often fail to think and prepare for those eventualities that may lead to a company’s total failure.Safety violations, plants in need of repairs, union contracts, management succession, and choosing a brand name, etc. can become crises for which many companies fail to be prepared untilit is too late.The tendency, in general, is to look at the company as a perpetual entity that requires plans for growth. Ignoring the probabilities of disaster is not going to eliminate or delay their occurrences. Strategic planning without inclusion ofcrisis management is like sustaining life without guaranteeinglife. One reason so many companies fail to take steps to proactively plan for crisis events, is that they fail to acknowledge the possibility of a disaster occurring. Like an ostrich with its head in the sand, they simply choose to ignorethe situation, with the hope that by not talking about it, it will not come to pass. Hal Walker, a management consultant, points out “that decisions will be more rational and better received, and the crisis will be of shorter duration, forcompanies who prepare a proactive crisis plan” (Maynard, 1993) .It is said that “there are two kinds of crises: those that thatyou manage, and those that manage you” (Augustine, 1995). Proactive planning helps managers to control and resolve a crisis. Ignoring the possibility of a crisis, on the other hand,could lead to the crisis taking a life of its own. In 1979, theThree-Mile Island nuclear power plant experienced a crisis whenwarning signals indicated nuclear reactors were at risk of a meltdown. The system was equipped with a hundred or more different alarms and they all went off. But for those who shouldhave taken the necessary steps to resolve the situation, therewere no planned instructions as to what should be done first. Hence, the crisis was not acknowledged in the beginning and itbecame a chronic event.In June 1997, Nike faced a crisis for which they had no existi existing frame of reference. A new design on the company’s ng frame of reference. A new design on the company’s Summer Hoop line of basketball shoes - with the word air writtenin flaming letters - had sparked a protest by Muslims, who complained the logo resembled the Arabic word for Allah, or God.The council of American-Islamic Relations threatened aa globalNike boycott. Nike apologized, recalled 38,000 pairs of shoes,and discontinued the line (Brindley, 1997). To create the brand,Nike had spent a considerable amount of time and money, but hadnever put together a general framework or policy to deal with such controversies. To their dismay, and financial loss, Nike officials had no choice but to react to the crisis. This incident has definitely signaled to the company that spending a little more time would have prevented the crisis. Nonetheless,it has taught the company a lesson in strategic crisis management planning.In a business organization, symptoms or signals can alert the strategic planners or executives of an eminent crisis. Slipping market share, losing strategic synergy anddiminishing productivity per man hour, as well as trends, issues and developments in the socio-economic, political and competitive environments, can signal crises, the effects of which can be very detrimental. After all, business failures and bankruptcies are not intended. They do not usually happen overnight. They occur more because of the lack of attention to symptoms than any other factor.Stages of a crisisMost crises do not occur suddenly. The signals can usuallybe picked up and the symptoms checked as they emerge. A company determined to address these issues realizes that the real challenge is not just to recognize crises, but to recognize themin a timely fashion (Darling et al., 1996). A crisis can consistof four different and distinct stages (Fink, 1986). The phasesare: prodromal crisis stage, acute crisis stage, chronic crisisstage and crisis resolution stage.Modern organizations are often called “organic” due tothe fact that they are not immune from the elements of their surrounding environments. Very much like a living organism, organizations can be affected by environmental factors both positively and negatively. But today’s successfulorganizations are characterized by the ability to adapt by recognizing important environmental factors, analyzing them, evaluating the impacts and reacting to them. The art of strategic planning (as it relates to crisis management)involves all of the above activities. The right strategy, in general, provides for preventive measures, and treatment or resolution efforts both proactively and reactively. It wouldbe quite appropriate to examine the first three stages of acrisis before taking up the treatment, resolution or intervention stage.Prodromal crisis stageIn the field of medicine, a prodrome is a symptom of the onset of a disease. It gives a warning signal. In business organizations, the warning lights are always blinking. No matter how successful the organization, a number of issues andtrends may concern the business if proper and timely attentionis paid to them. For example, in 1995, Baring Bank, a UK financial institution which had been in existence since 1763,ample opportunitysuddenly and unexpectedly failed. There wasfor the bank to catch the signals that something bad was on thehorizon, but the company’s efforts to detect that were thwarted by an internal structure that allowed a single employee both to conduct and to oversee his own investment trades, and the breakdown of management oversight and internalcontrol systems (Mitroff et al., 1996). Likewise, looking in retrospect, McDonald’s fast food chain was given the prodromalsymptoms before the elderly lady sued them for the spilling ofa very hot cup of coffee on her lap - an event that resulted in a substantial financial loss and tarnished image of thecompany. Numerous consumers had complained about thetemperature of the coffee. The warning light was on, but the company did not pay attention. It would have been much simplerto pick up the signal, or to check the symptom, than facing the consequences.In another case, Jack in the Box, a fast food chain, had several customers suffer intestinal distress after eating at their restaurants. The prodromal symptom was there, but the company took evasive action. Their initial approach was to lookaround for someone to blame. The lack of attention, the evasiveness and the carelessness angered all the constituent groups, including their customers. The unfortunate deaths thatptoms,occurred as a result of the company’s ignoring thesymand the financial losses that followed, caused the company to realize that it would have been easier to manage the crisis directly in the prodromal stage rather than trying to shift theblame.Acute crisis stageA prodromal stage may be oblique and hard to detect. The examples given above, are obvious prodromal, but no action wasWebster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, an acute stage occursacutewhen a symptom “demands urgent attention.” Whether the acutesymptom emerges suddenly or is a transformation of a prodromalstage, an immediate action is required. Diverting funds and other resources to this emerging situation may cause disequilibrium and disturbance in the whole system. It is onlythose organizations that have already prepared a framework forthese crises that can sustain their normal operations. For example, the US public roads and bridges have for a long time reflected a prodromal stage of crisis awareness by showing cracks and occasionally a collapse. It is perhaps in light of the obsessive decision to balance the Federal budget that reacting to the problem has been delayed and ignored. This situation has entered an acute stage and at the time of this writing, it was reported that a bridge in Maryland had just collapsed.The reason why prodromes are so important to catch is thatit is much easier to manage a crisis in this stage. In the caseof most crises, it is much easier and more reliable to take careof the problem before it becomes acute, before it erupts and causes possible complications (Darling et al., 1996). In andamage. However, the losses are incurred. Intel, the largest producer of computer chips in the USA, had to pay an expensiveprice for initially refusing to recall computer chips that proved unreliable o n on certain calculations. The f irmfirm attempted to play the issue down and later learned its lesson. At an acutestage, when accusations were made that the Pentium Chips were not as fast as they claimed, Intel quickly admitted the problem,apologized for it, and set about fixing it (Mitroff et al., 1996). Chronic crisis stageDuring this stage, the symptoms are quite evident and always present. I t isIt is a period of “make or break.” Being the third stage, chronic problems may prompt the company’s management to once and for all do something about the situation. It may be the beginning of recovery for some firms, and a deathknell for others. For example, the Chrysler Corporation was only marginallysuccessful throughout the 1970s. It was not, however, until the company was nearly bankrupt that amanagement shake-out occurred. The drawback at the chronic stage is that, like in a human patient, the company may get used to “quick fixes” and “band “band--aid”approaches. After all, the ailment, the problem and the crisis have become an integral partoverwhelmed by prodromal and acute problems that no time or attention is paid to the chronic problems, or the managers perceive the situation to be tolerable, thus putting the crisison a back burner.Crisis resolutionCrises could be detected at various stages of their development. Since the existing symptoms may be related todifferent problems or crises, there is a great possibility thatthey may be misinterpreted. Therefore, the people in charge maybelieve they have resolved the problem. However, in practicethe symptom is often neglected. In such situations, the symptomwill offer another chance for resolution when it becomes acute,thereby demanding urgent care. Studies indicate that today anincreasing number of companies are issue-oriented and searchfor symptoms. Nevertheless, the lack of experience in resolvinga situation and/or inappropriate handling of a crisis can leadto a chronic stage. Of course, there is this last opportunityto resolve the crisis at the chronic stage. No attempt to resolve the crisis, or improper resolution, can lead to grim consequences that will ultimately plague the organization or even destroy it.It must be noted that an unsolved crisis may not destroy the company. But, its weakening effects can ripple through the organization and create a host of other complications.Preventive effortsThe heart of the resolution of a crisis is in the preventiveefforts the company has initiated. This step, similar to a humanbody, is actually the least expensive, but quite often the mostoverlooked. Preventive measures deal with sensing potential problems (Gonzales-Herrero and Pratt, 1995). Major internalfunctions of a company such as finance, production, procurement, operations, marketing and human resources are sensitive to thesocio-economic, political-legal, competitive, technological, demographic, global and ethical factors of the external environment. What is imminently more sensible and much more manageable, is to identify the processes necessary forassessing and dealing with future crises as they arise (Jacksonand Schantz, 1993). At the core of this process are appropriate information systems, planning procedures, anddecision-making techniques. A soundly-based information system will scan the environment, gather appropriate data, interpret this data into opportunities and challenges, and provide a concretefoundation for strategies that could function as much to avoid crises as to intervene and resolve them.Preventive efforts, as stated before, require preparations before any crisis symptoms set in. Generally strategic forecasting, contingency planning, issues analysis, and scenario analysis help to provide a framework that could be used in avoiding and encountering crises.出处：出处：Toby TobyJ. Kash and John R. Darling . Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis 179-186二、翻译文章标题：危机管理：预防，诊断和干预译文：本文的前提是，如果该公司做好准备得话，危机可以更有效地进行管理。

毕业设计毕业论文电气工程及其自动化外文翻译中英文对照电气工程及其自动化外文翻译中英文对照一、引言电气工程及其自动化是一门涉及电力系统、电子技术、自动控制和信息技术等领域的综合学科。

本文将翻译一篇关于电气工程及其自动化的外文文献，并提供中英文对照。

二、文献翻译原文标题：Electric Engineering and Its Automation作者：John Smith出版日期：2020年摘要：本文介绍了电气工程及其自动化的基本概念和发展趋势。

首先，介绍了电气工程的定义和范围。

其次，探讨了电气工程在能源领域的应用，包括电力系统的设计和运行。

然后，介绍了电气工程在电子技术领域的重要性，包括电子设备的设计和制造。

最后，讨论了电气工程与自动控制和信息技术的结合，以及其在工业自动化和智能化领域的应用。

1. 介绍电气工程是一门研究电力系统和电子技术的学科，涉及发电、输电、配电和用电等方面。

电气工程的发展与电力工业的发展密切相关。

随着电力需求的增长和电子技术的进步，电气工程的重要性日益凸显。

2. 电气工程在能源领域的应用电气工程在能源领域的应用主要包括电力系统的设计和运行。

电力系统是由发电厂、输电线路、变电站和配电网络等组成的。

电气工程师负责设计和维护这些设施，以确保电力的可靠供应。

3. 电气工程在电子技术领域的重要性电气工程在电子技术领域的重要性体现在电子设备的设计和制造上。

电子设备包括电脑、手机、电视等消费电子产品，以及工业自动化设备等。

电气工程师需要掌握电子电路设计和数字信号处理等技术，以开发出高性能的电子设备。

4. 电气工程与自动控制和信息技术的结合电气工程与自动控制和信息技术的结合是电气工程及其自动化的核心内容。

自动控制技术可以应用于电力系统的运行和电子设备的控制，以提高系统的稳定性和效率。

信息技术则可以用于数据采集、处理和传输，实现对电力系统和电子设备的远程监控和管理。

5. 电气工程在工业自动化和智能化领域的应用电气工程在工业自动化和智能化领域的应用越来越广泛。

外文资料与中文翻译外文资料：Intelligent thermal energy meter controllerAbstractA microcontroller based, thermal energy meter cum controller (TEMC) suitable for solar thermal systems has been developed. It monitors solar radiation, ambient temperature,fluid flow rate, and temperature of fluid at various locations of the system and computes the energy transfer rate. It also controls the operation of the fluid-circulating pumpdepending on the temperature difference across the solar collector field. The accuracyof energy measurement is ±1.5%. The instrument has been tested in a solar water heatingsystem. Its operation became automatic with savings in electrical energy consumption ofpump by 30% on cloudy days.1 IntroductionSolar water heating systems find wide applications in industry to conserve fossil fuel like oil, coal etc. They employ motor driven pumps for circulating water with on-offcontrollers and calls for automatic operation. Reliability and performance of the system depend on the instrumentation and controls employed. Multi-channel temperature recorders, flow meters, thermal energy meters are the essential instruments for monitoring andevaluating the performance of these systems. A differential temperature controller (DTC) is required in a solar water heating system for an automatic and efficient operation ofthe system. To meet all these requirements, a microcontroller based instrument wasdeveloped. Shoji Kusui and Tetsuo Nagai [1] developed an electronic heat meter formeasuring thermal energy using thermistors as temperature sensors and turbine flow meter as flow sensor.2 Instrument detailsThe block diagram of the microcontroller (Intel 80C31) based thermal energy meter cum controller is shown in Fig. 1. RTD (PT100, 4-wire) sensors are used for the temperaturemeasurement of water at the collector field inlet, outlet and in the tank with appropriate signal conditioners designed with low-drift operational amplifiers. A precision semiconductor temperature sensor (LM335) is used for ambient temperature measurement. A pyranometer, having an output voltage of 8.33 mV/kW/m2, is used for measuring the incident solar radiation. To monitor the circulating fluid pressure, a sensor with 4–20 mA output is used. This output is converted into voltage using an I-V converter. All these outputsignals are fed to an 8-channel analog multiplexer (CD4051). Its output is fed to adual-slope 12-bit A/D converter (ICL7109). It is controlled by the microcontroller through the Programmable Peripheral Interface (PPI-82C55).Fig. 1. Block diagram of thermal energy meter cum controller.A flow sensor (turbine type) is used with a signal conditioner to measure the flowrate. Its output is fed to the counter input of the microcontroller. It is programmed tomonitor all the multiplexed signals every minute, compute the temperature difference,energy transfer rate and integrated energy. A real-time clock with MM58167 is interfacedto the microcontroller to time-stamp the logged data. An analog output (0–2 V) is provided using D/A converter (DAC-08) to plot both the measured and computed parameters. A 4×4 matrix keyboard is interfaced to the microcontroller to enter the parameters like specificheat of liquid, data log rate etc. An alphanumeric LCD display (24-character) is alsointerfaced with the microcontroller to display the measured variables. The serialcommunication port of the microcontroller is fed to the serial line driver and receiver(MAX232). It enables the instrument to interface with the computer for down-loading thelogged data. A battery-backed static memory of 56K bytes is provided to store the measured parameters. Besides data logging, the instrument serves as a DTC. This has been achievedby interfacing a relay to the PPI. The system software is developed to accept thedifferential temperature set points (ΔT on and ΔT off) from the keyboard. An algorithmsuitable for on-off control having two set-points is implemented to control the relays.3 Instrument calibrationThe amount of energy transferred (Q) is :Where = mass flows rate of liquid kg/s ; V = volumetric flow rate (l/h) ; ρ= density of water (kg/l) ; Cp = specific heat (kJ/kg°C); and ΔT = temperature difference between hot and cold (°C).The accuracy in energy measurement depends on the measurement accuracy of individual parameters. Temperature measurement accuracy depends on the initial error in the sensorand the error introduced due to temperature drifts in the signal conditioners and the A/D converter. The temperature sensor is immersed in a constant temperature bath (HAAKE B ath-K, German), whose temperature can be var ied in steps of 0.1°C. A mercury glass thermometer (ARNO A MARELL, Germany) with a resolution of 0.05°C is also placed along with PT100 sensor in the bath. This is compared with the instrument readings. The accuracy of the instrument in temperature measurem ent is ±0.1°C. Hence, the accuracy in differential temperature measurement is ±0.2°C.The flow sensor having a maximum flow rate of 1250 l/h is used for flow measurement.It is calibrated by fixing it in the upstream of a pipeline of length 8 m. The sensor output is connected to a digital frequency counter to monitor the number of pulses generated withdifferent flow rates. Water collected at the sensor outlet over a period is used forestimating the flow rate. The K-factor of the sensor is 3975 pulses/l. The uncertaintyin flow measurement is ±0.25% at 675 l/h. Uncertainties in density and specific heat ofwater are ±0.006 kg/l and ±0.011 kJ/kg°C respectively.Maximum amount of energy collection (Q) = 675×0.98×4.184×15/3600 = 11.53kW. Uncertainty in energy measurementωq/Q = [(ωv/V)2 + (ωρ/ρ)2 + (ωcp/Cp)2+(ωt/T )2]1/2.Inaccuracy in electronic circuitry is ±0.03 kW.The net inaccuracy in energy measurement is ±1.5%4 Field testThe instrument is incorporated in a solar water heating system as shown in Fig. 2.It consists of five solar flat plate collectors having an absorber area of 1.6 m2 each. The absorber is a fin and tube extruded from aluminium and painted with matt black paint. The collectors are mounted on a rigid frame facing south at an angle equal to the latitude of Bangalore (13°N). They are arranged in parallel configuration and connected to athermally insulated 500 l capacity storage tank. A 0.25 hp pump is used for circulatingthe water through the collector field. All the pipelines are thermally insulated. Thetemperature sensors and the flow sensor are incorporated in the system as shown in Fig.2. The data on solar radiation, ambient temperature, water flow rate, solar collector inlet and outlet temperatures and the system heat output are monitored at regular intervals.Fig. 2. Solar water heating system with thermal energy meter cum controller.The performance of the solar water heating system with TEMC on a partial cloudy dayis shown in Fig. 3. It is observed that DTC switched OFF the pump around 14:40 h as thereis no further energy gain by the collector field. This in turn reduced the heat lossesfrom the collector to ambient. Experiments are conducted with and without DTC o n both sunny and cloudy days. The DTC operated system shows the savings in electrical energy by 30%on a partial cloudy day and 8% on a sunny day. The variation in system output with andwithout DTC i s around 3%. Thus the controller has not only served as an energy conservation device, but also switches ON/OFF the system automatically depending on the availabilityof solar radiation. The collector field output (shown in Fig. 3) is calculated by measuring the fluid flow rate using volumetric method and the temperature difference with anotherpair of standard thermometers. It is 16.86 kWh. It is compared with the instrument reading 17.18 kWh. Thus, the deviation is 1.9%. Fig. 3 shows that the solar collector fieldefficiency is 54% when the incident solar irradiation is 31.75 kWh.Fig. 3. Performance of SWH system with TEMC on a partial cloudy day.5 Concluding remarksTEMC is used as on-line instrument in solar water heating systems for the measurement of thermal energy, temperature, flow rate with simultaneous control on the operation ofthe pump t o save electrical energy and enhance the thermal energy collection. Since several options are provided in the instrument, it can be used for monitoring the energy transfer rate in other thermal systems.AcknowledgementsThe authors are thankful to Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India forproviding the financial assistance to carry out the above work.References1. Shoji Kusui, Tetsuo Nagai. An electronic integrating heat meter. IEEE Trans. onInstrumentation and Measurement, 1990;39(5):785-789.中文翻译：智能热能表控制器摘要适用于太阳能热系统的单片机热能表控制器（TEMC）已经研制成功。

外文资料与翻译PID Contro l6.1 IntroductionThe PID controller is the most common form of feedback. It was an essential element of early governors and it became the standard tool when process control emerged in the 1940s. In process control today, more than 95% of the control loops are of PID type, most loops are actually PI control. PID controllers are today found in all areas where control is used. The controllers come in many different forms. There are standalone systems in boxes for one or a few loops, which are manufactured by the hundred thousands yearly. PID control is an important ingredient of a distributed control system. The controllers are also embedded in many special purpose control systems. PID control is often combined with logic, sequential functions, selectors, and simple function blocks to build the complicated automation systems used for energy production, transportation, and manufacturing. Many sophisticated control strategies, such as model predictive control, are also organized hierarchically. PID control is used at the lowest level; the multivariable controller gives the set points to the controllers at the lower level. The PID controller can thus be said to be the “bread and butter of control engineering. It is an important component in eve ry control engineer’s tool box.PID controllers have survived many changes in technology, from mechanics and pneumatics to microprocessors via electronic tubes, transistors, integrated circuits. The microprocessor has had a dramatic influence the PID controller. Practically all PID controllers made today are based on microprocessors. This has given opportunities to provide additional features like automatic tuning, gain scheduling, and continuous adaptation.6.2 AlgorithmWe will start by summarizing the key features of the PID controller. The “textbook” version of the PID algorithm is described by:()()()()⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛++=⎰dt t de d e t e K t u T T d t i 01ττ 6.1 where y is the measured process variable, r the reference variable, u is the control signal and e is the control error （e =sp y − y ）. The reference variable is often calledthe set point. The control signal is thus a sum of three terms: the P-term （which is proportional to the error）, the I-term （which is proportional to the integral of the error）, and the D-term （which is proportional to the derivative of the error）. The controller parameters are proportional gain K, integral time T i, and derivative time T d. The integral, proportional and derivative part can be interpreted as control actions based on the past, the present and the future as is illustrated in Figure 2.2. The derivative part can also be interpreted as prediction by linear extrapolation as is illustrated in Figure 2.2. The action of the different terms can be illustrated by the following figures which show the response to step changes in the reference value in a typical case.Effects of Proportional, Integral and Derivative ActionProportional control is illustrated in Figure 6.1. The controller is given by D6.1E with T i= and T d=0. The figure shows that there is always a steady state error in proportional control. The error will decrease with increasing gain, but the tendency towards oscillation will also increase.Figure 6.2 illustrates the effects of adding integral. It follows from D6.1E that the strength of integral action increases with decreasing integral time T i. The figure shows that the steady state error disappears when integral action is used. Compare with the discussion of the “magic of integral action” in Sec tion 2.2. The tendency for oscillation also increases with decreasing T i. The properties of derivative action are illustrated in Figure 6.3.Figure 6.3 illustrates the effects of adding derivative action. The parameters K and T i are chosen so that the closed loop system is oscillatory. Damping increases with increasing derivative time, but decreases again when derivative time becomes too large. Recall that derivative action can be interpreted as providing prediction by linear extrapolation over the time T d. Using this interpretation it is easy to understand that derivative action does not help if the prediction time T d is too large. In Figure 6.3 the period of oscillation is about 6 s for the system without derivative Chapter 6. PID ControlFigure 6.1Figure 6.2Derivative actions cease to be effective when T d is larger than a 1 s (one sixth of the period). Also notice that the period of oscillation increases when derivative time is increased.A PerspectiveThere is much more to PID than is revealed by （6.1）. A faithful implementation of the equation will actually not result in a good controller. To obtain a good PID controller it is also necessary to consider。

中英文对照外文翻译Automation of professional developmentAutomation in the history of professional development, "industrial automation" professional and "control" professional development of the two main line, "industrial automation" professional from the first "industrial enterprises electrified" professional.In the 1950s, the New China was just founded, the 100-waste question, study the Soviet Union established system of higher education, Subdivision professional. Corresponding to the country in the construction of industrial automation and defense, military construction in automatic control, successively set up the "electrification of industrial enterprises" professional and "control" professional (at that time in many schools, "Control" professional secrecy is professional) . After several former professional name of evolution (see below), and gradually develop into a "biased towards applications, biased towards strong," Automation, and the latter to maintain professional name of "control" basically unchanged (in the early days also known as the "automatic learning And remote learning, "" Automatic Control System "professional), and gradually develop into a" biased towards theory, biased towards weak, "the automation professional, and come together in 1995, merged into aunified" automatic "professional . In 1998, according to the Ministry of Education announced the latest professional undergraduate colleges and universities directory, adjusted, the merger of the new "automated" professional include not only the original "automatic" professional (including "industrial automation" professional and "control" professional ), Also increased the "hydraulic transmission and control of" professional (part), "electrical technology" professional (part) and "aircraft guidance and control of" professional (part).Clearly, one of China's automation professional history of the development of China's higher education actually is a new development of the cause of a microcosm of the history, but also the history of New China industrial development of a miniature. Below "industrial automation" professional development of the main line of this example, a detailed review of its development process in the many professional name change (in real terms in the professional content changes) and its industrial building at the time of the close relationship.First a brief look at the world and China's professional division history. We know that now use the professional division is largely from the 19th century to the beginning of the second half of the first half of the 20th century stereotypes of the engineering, is basically industry (products) for the objects to the division, they have been the image of people Known as the "industry professionals" or "trade associations." At present the international education system in two categories, with Britain and the United States as the representative of the education system not yet out of "industry professionals" system, but has taken the "generalist" the road of education and the former Soviet Union for Europe (close to the Soviet Union) as the representative The education system, at the beginning of theimplementation of "professionals" education, professional-very small, although reforms repeatedly, but to the current "industry professionals" are still very obvious characteristics.In the 1950s, just after the founding of New China, a comprehensive study and the Soviet Union and sub-professional very small; Since reform and opening up, only to Britain and the United States to gradually as the representative of the education system to move closer, and gradually reduce the professional, the implementation of "generalist" education through a number of professional Restructuring and merger (the total number of professionals from the maximum of 1,343 kinds of gradually reducing the current 249 kinds), although not out of "industry professionals" and "Mei Ming," but many of the colleges and universities, mostly only one of a Professional, rather than the past more than a professional.Before that, China's first professional automation from the National University in 1952 when the first major readjustment of the establishment of professional - electrified professional industrial enterprises. At that time, the Soviet Union assistance to the construction of China's 156 large industrial enterprises, automation of much-needed electrical engineering and technical personnel, and such professional and technical personnel training, and then was very consistent with China's industrial construction. By the 1960s, professional name changed to "industrial electric and automation," the late 1970s when to resume enrollment "Electric Industrial Automation" professional. This is not only professional name changes, but has its profound meaning, it reflects China's industries from "electrified" step by step to the "automatic" into the real history and that part of the development trend of China's automation professional reflects how urgent countries Urgent for the country'seconomic construction services that period of history and development of real direction.1993, after four years of the third revision of the undergraduate professional directories, the State Education Commission issued a call "system integrity, more scientific and reasonable, the harmonization of norms," the "ordinary professional directory of undergraduate colleges and universities." "Electric Industrial Automation" and "production process automation" merger of the two professional electrician to set up a kind of "industrial automation" professional, by the then Ministry of Industry Machinery centralized management colleges and universities to set up industrial automation teaching guide at the Commission, responsible for the "Industrial Automation "professional teaching and guiding work at the same time," Control "was attributable to the professional category of electronic information, the then Ministry of Industry of electronic centralized management control to set up colleges and universities teaching guide at the Commission, responsible for the" control " Professional teaching guide our work. After the professional adjustment, further defined the "industrial automation" professional and "control" professional "- both strong and weak, hardware and software into consideration and control theory and practical system integration, and the movement control, process control and other targets of control "The common characteristics with the training objectives, but also the basic set of" industrial automation "biased towards strong, professional, biased towards applications," Control "professional biased towards weak, biased towards the theory of professional characteristics and pattern of division of labor. 1995, the State Education Commission promulgated the "(University) undergraduate engineering leading professional directory", the electrical category "industrialautomation" professional and the original electronic information such as "control" of professional electronic information into a new category of "automatic" professional . As this is the leading professional directory, are not enforced, coupled with general "industrial automation" strong or weak, both professional "into" a weak professional category of electronic information is not conducive to professional development and thus many Schools remain "industrial automation" professional and "control" the situation of professional co-exist. Since 1996 more, again commissioned by the Ministry of National Education Ministry of Industry and electronic machinery industries of other parts of the establishment of the new session (second session) centralized management guidance at the University Teaching Commission, making the leading professionals have not been effective Implemented.1998, to meet the country's economic construction of Kuan Koujing personnel training needs, further consolidation of professional and international "generalist" education track by the Ministry of Education announced a fourth revision of the latest "Universities Undergraduate Catalog." So far in the use of the directory, the total number of professionals from the third amendments to the 504 kinds of substantially reduced to 249 species, the original directory is strong, professional electrician and a weak professional category such as electronics and information into categories Electric power, the unity of Information, a former electrician at the same time kind of "industrial automation" professional and the type of electronic information "control" professional formal merger, together with the "hydraulic transmission and control of" professional (part) , "Electric technology" professional (part) and "aircraft guidance and controlof" professional (part), the composition of the new (enforcement) are electrical information such as "automatic" professional. According to statistics, so far the country has more than 200 colleges and universities set up this kind of "automatic" professional. If the name of automation as part of their professional expertise (such as "electrical engineering and automation," "mechanical design and manufacturing automation," "agricultural mechanization and automation" and other professionals) included Automation has undoubtedly is the largest in China A professional.Of the characteristics of China's automation professional:Recalling China's professional history of the development of automation, combined with the corresponding period of the construction of China's national economy to the demand for automation and automated the development of the cause, it is not difficult to sum up following professional characteristics:(1) China's automation professional is not only a relatively long history (since 1952 have been more than 50 years), and from the first day of the establishment of professional automation, has been a professional one of the countries in urgent need, therefore the number of students has also been The largest and most employers welcome the allocation of the professional one.(2) China's automation is accompanied by a professional from the electrification of China's industrial automation step by step to the development of stable development, professional direction and the main content from the first prominent electrified "the electrification of industrial enterprises" step by step for the development of both the electric and automation " Industrial electric and automation ", highlighting the electrical automation" Electric Industrial Automation "and prominent automation" industrial automation ", then the merger of professional education reform in1995 and" control "of professional content into a broader" automated " Professional. From which we can see that China's automation professional Although the initial study in the Soviet education system established under the general environment, but in their development and the Soviet Union or the United States and Britain did not copy the mode, but with China's national conditions (to meet national needs for The main goal) from the innovation and development of "cross-industry professionals," features the professional.自动化专业的发展自动化专业的发展历史中，有“工业自动化”专业与“自动控制”专业两条发展主线，其中“工业自动化”专业最早源于“工业企业电气化”专业。

中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述附录A英文原文Designing the Testing and Controlling Instrument of the Photoelectric Rotating Speed Sensor Based on AT89C52AbstractAiming at the necessity of performance test of photoelectric rotating speed sensor and the limitation of traditional testing instruments,by using dual-processormodular structure of AT89C52, a new testing instrument is designed and developed, which is a generation of advanced instrument with practical high performance and high reliability. The photoelectric rotating speed sensor is driven and tested by the instrument.The drive and test of the photoelectric rotating speed sensor are implemented. The hardware design of drive and test circu it module in testing and controlling instrument are introduced, and the software design is also presented by drive and test circu it procedures of step motor. The practical running indicates the developed testing and controlling instrument improves working efficiency and testing objective reality, it has definitely practical value.Key words:Pulse Sensor Microprocessor StepmotorB.1 IntroductionTQG15 locomotive the Photoelectric Rotating Speed Sensoris used for detecting the speed of Railway locomotive vehicle wheel, it provides electric pulse signal for locomotive electric control system,and is one of the main parameters of the locomotive safety, reliability,normal work. To ensure the TQG15 locomotive photoelectric rotational speed sensor quality and performance, The test is very important.The traditional detection devices are based on manual operation, only a few limited performance indicators of detection, there is a high precision and productivity low disadvantages. With the continuous development of electronic technology, especially the Single-chip technology in intelligent instrument widely application, development a new generation of high performance and practical the testing and controlling instrument of the photoelectric sensor is imperative.B.2 TQG15 locomotive the Photoelectric Rotating Speed SensorB.2.1 Structure and working principleTQG15 locomotive the Photoelectric Rotating Speed Sensor consists of fulcrum bearing institutions、rotation shaft and universal united shaft driving、optoelectronic conversion circuit.Optoelectronic conversion circuit 's the core is small circuit boards which consists of grating plate and photosensitive transistor,grating plate fixed in the hinge shaft ends,through seven-core cable to connect a small circuit board and the external circuit,Seven-core cable is divided into two groups A and B,each group has three lines,two of the lines to add 15V DC power,other output pulse signals.After TQG15 locomotive the Photoelectric Rotating Speed Sensor connected to 15V power supply, using light-emitting diodes (leds) as the light source, grating plate rotating driven by the wheel shaft, because the blocking effect of grating plate，thus the light source becomes intermittent light, then lead the light interrupters photosensitive transistor switch interchangeably to produce the pulse signals, through the magnifying circuit reshaping, output square-wave pulse that it and speed is proportional, in order to meet the electrical control system of locomotive work needs.B.2.2 Performance index and test contentthe Testing and Controlling Instrument required performance index for: Dc working power: (15±15% )V, power dissipation current less than: 50mA, output pulse amplitude(Whenthe load resistor is 3kΩ)：high-level≥9V，low-level≤2V，phase position：90°±50%，rotational speed range：0~1 000 r/min，the number of pulses per circle:200, the dutyfactor of output pulse: (50±20)%.the Testing and Controlling Instrument required test parameters for: rotational speed、pulse number、The lowest high-level、The highest low-level and the dutyfactor of pulse.B.2 The Tes ting and Controlling Instrument’s hardware designThe AT89C52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory and 256 bytes of RAM, the development of instrument chosen AT89C52 microcontroller.According to the work principle of photoelectric sensor, the main performance indexes and test content, the Testing and Controlling Instrument’s general principle structure schematic instrument is shown in figure 1Fig·1Hardware structure of measuring and controlling instrument Its working process:through the keyboard of initialization and function after setting,then execute AT89C52 applications,output pulse signal,drive stepp motor and photoelectric sensors rotate,through the signal circuit and A/D converter,then photoelectric sensor output pulse signals into digital signals,into the AT89C52 microcontroller,after data processing,sendto monitor and micro printer output..Stepmotor lifting speed control need two timer interrupt handling;Although photoelectric speed sensor pulse signal test content can be a step-by-step process,but in testing dutyfactor、when two channel's phase difference is equal,all need two timers.but AT89C52 Chip can only provide three timer/counter,the AT89C52 single resources are not qualified for the testing and controlling instrument’s job.Besides,in order to simplify the operation of the testing and controlling instrument and use,the testing and controlling instrument adopts the dual structure of AT89C52 microprocessor, therefore, the testing and controlling instrument of the photoelectric rotating speed sensor divided into drive circuit and signal measuring circuit two functional modules.B.2.1 Driving circuit module designIn order to drive photoelectric sensors rotate and easily adjust its speed,you need to select suitable for the system characteristics and applications of motor,as the photoelectric rotating speed sensor’s powerplant. sepmotor has four characters: ①Step angle and speed size only and proportional to the pulse frequency; ②By changing the size of the pulse frequency range can adjust motor speed; ③To achieve quick start-up, brake, inversion; ④High control accuracy and reliable operation. Stepmotor characteristics of these four aspects,applicable to the system,therefore, in the test apparatus-driven part of the selection of the stepper motor as a power plant.Stepmotor is a type of electric pulse into angular displacement of motor.the power to drive by special offers a series of stepping motor with certain regularity of electrical signals,each input an electrical pulse,it further before stepping motor,its angular and pulse proportional to the number of,motor speed proportional to the pulse frequency,rotating speed and r otating direction are connected with each phase windings’ way of electricity[1].Use AT89C52 MCU photoelectric speed sensor drive circuit module,output the desired frequency pulse signals.according to the function requirement of drive circuit and the principle of stepping motor,the testing and controlling instrument driver module hardware principle as shown in Figure 2:Fig·2Structure schematic of drivermoduleIn Figure 2 for the stepper motor speed grading control, In AT89C52 microcontroller P1 port pin access control 300, 500, 700 and 900 four speed (r/min) work in the press. Take advantage of some of the P2 port pin drive light-emitting diode, indicates the current step motor speed segment. While, P2.0 tube feet output stepping motor required pulse signal, control stepper motors work. Besides,P1 • 6 and P1 • 7 pin used to implement the drive circuit and test circuit of simple communication,namely stepper motor work needed to speed, take advantage of P1 • 6 control test circui try for testing, while the test is completed, with P1.7 control stepper motor can work to the next file.B.2.2 Test circuit module designAccording to the photoelectric sensor output speed electric pulse signal characteristics and the required test parameters, the testing and controlling instrument of measurement circuit module hardware configuration as shown in Figure 3Fig·3Structure schematic of test circuitFigure 3 the measuring circuit consists of four parts: ①Signal conditioning and acquisition circuit, the photoelectric speed sensor 15V square wave signal converting can receive the CMOS AT89C52 level. used to measure photoelectric sensor’s the number of pulses, pulse duty cycle and phase parameters.besides, using high-performance ADC AD574A achieve pulse signal high-low amplitude measurement; ②Switch control circuit, take advantage of the P1 port selection through A, B channel pulse signals; meet A and B channel pulse signal testing work; ③The I/O circuit, one is to use the keyboard input circuit of the relevant information about realizing function keys of initialization and different test content, the second is to use the LCD display the work of the test instrument in time, three is the use of micro-printer to print the test results archive. ④SCM AT89C52, AT89C52 is the core of the test circuit, to achieve coordination of data input, output, operation and processing.B.3 software designThe software design based on the system function, performance, and user requirements, and adopt modularized structure and "top-down" approach to design job.To improve the work efficiency,run-time minimizing manual intervention and action,while,system initializationwork status online adjustable, intuitive display.according to the testing and controlling instrument hardware structure layout and functionality requirements,software design content mainly includes the stepmotor driver and signal testing two basic modules,the following is a description.B.3.1 Stepmotor driver developmentPhotoelectric sensor performance parameters of the test,need a multi-level speed driven by its output signal of electrical impulses along with any exceptions to those conditions test. Stepping motor speed is the use of multistage AT89C52 application system,by changing the frequency of driven pulse to implementation,in addition there is a limit to start stepping motor and the frequency and maximum working frequency,that is, the acceleration and deceleration excessive exist-problem, in devising their control program is to give full consideration[2] As shown in Figure 4 is in accordance with the requirements for the design of driving part of the main module flowchart.Fig·4Flowchart ofmain control program for stepmotorWhen developing a stepper motor driver, you should also deal with three issues: first, on the work of the State flag of motor planning and application; the second is the stepper motor acceleration and deceleration of discrete tranche and the correspondence between the operating frequency;the third is determined by pulse frequency is the SCM timer interrupt output, but the initial timer interrupt response and there is an additional delay of Mount, the program performs processing necessary[2].B.3.2 Software development of testing modulesTest modules of software into the monitoring program and the interrupt service program, where each part consists of a number of functional modules. Monitor mainly includes initialization modules, self-diagnostics and test module, display module and key scanning and processing module; interrupt service program mainly consists of A/D conversion, data read, timer, and clock handling function module.Depending on the test circuit functional requirements, which monitor the overall process as shown in Figure 5. Various monitoring module of key features are: initialize module is used to initialize the extension interface, internal RAM and SFR (special function register) and work status flag; test and diagnostic module, used to check the data input and output channels, DAC and display hardware circuit is functional; display module, used to display the test work parameters and the work of the State; key scanning and processing module, complete key recognition and execution of the function, each key to set the flags. The main function keys and function keys for lot number is used to set the test batch; date key is used to set the test day channel key toggles the A/B test pulse output channel; keys are used to perform the testing capabilities; print key control miniature printer output test reports.Fig·5Flowchart ofmonitoring programDepending on the system needs, pulse more performance indicators of measurement, is in the main test key control for itemized testing, test module to process as shown in Figure 6. To test the implementation requires the combination of appropriate sub modules, the interrupt service program and hardware wiring.Fig·6Operational flowchart of testingmoduleTest method for main parameters: its a number of measurement, pulse, qualified grating spare should open with 200 tanks, according to the stepper motor speed, you can determine a desired time, scheduled count total; Secondly, the pulse of high and low level measurement, belong to the analog test, the use of pulse of rising and falling edge as the interrupt flag, with A/d converter, converts the analog voltage digital; its three, duty cycle measurement, pulse input to the external interrupt interface, with its rising and falling edge control two timer start and stop; fourth, two channel phase difference measurement, in the phase difference function keys under the control of the complete switch about wiring, makes A, B channel pulse signal received two external interrupt port, and then use a timer to determine its latency, combined with pulse signal cycle can determine the phase difference between the two.B.4 conclusionThe development of the Testing and Controlling Instrument of the Photoelectric Rotating Speed Sensor with dual microprocessor architecture, in the system's hardware and software,both in terms of structure, its control operations simple and practical, work performance and high reliability. The actual running shows that the design of the instrument has high utility value.Article From：Xi'an University of Technology附录B中文翻译基于AT89C52的机车光电转速传感器测控仪设计摘要针对光电转速传感器性能指标测试的必要性和传统测试仪的局限性,引入AT89C52双微处理器模块结构,设计开发出先进而实用的高性能、高可靠性的新一代光电转速传感器测控仪,实现光电转速传感器的驱动和测试工作。

中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述Support software for the development ofprogrammable logic1、IntroductionProgrammable Logic Controllers (PLC) class of real-time computers used extensively in industrial control applications. The development of a PLC application requires the configuration of the inputs and outputs of the PLC architecture, that is the selection of the number, type and addresses of the inputs and outputs of the PLC, and the writing and debugging of the application program. Programming these computers is usually done in specific graphical structured text languages [Bekkum93,Hughes 89,Jones 83] and the program debugging is carried out in a development environment. Most of the available environments [Square D 90, Taylor 90] allow program writing in more than one language, running it by step or in segments on the actual PLC and checking whether the assumed logical relationships between the inputs and the outputs at each program step or segment are satisfied. I addition, these environments offer engineering support, such as the preparation of input/output wiring diagrams and the generation of the executable code of the program. Recent versions of commercially available environments are supplied with a software emulator of one or more PLC units. This allows to perform program debugging without having access to the programmable controller itself. Also, the use of emulators makes easier and economically affordable the simulation of a large number of program operating conditions. By making sure that the program operates correcty under all the critical operating conditions, the risk of implementing aPLC-based system that does not meet the desired requirements is reduced. However, the ultimate goal of a development environment should be to verify the functional properties and behavior of the programs in all the possible states that thes programs and the plants they may enter.In the literature, various languages and graphical or mathematical formalisms are proposed for writing or specifying real-time programs .The timing and/or functional performance of these programs can be verified at compile time or mathematically. ADA[Ada83],RT-ASLAN[Auemheimer86], EUCLID[Kligerman86], PEARL [Halang 91], FLEX[Lin88] are some of the proposed and most widely known languages. Their graphical or mathematical formalisms are based on the use of finite state automata [Alford 77],Petri-Nets[Fedler 93], dataflow diagrams [Zave 82] and metric temporal logic [Koymans 90]. Although all these formal methods and languages represent significant advances to the problem of real-time program verification, still they have not reached the maturity required to deal with the complexities of large software systems . Until these methods reach a certain level of maturity we must rely on less formal methods, tuned to the needs of specific classes of real-time systems.In the case of PLC, we may continue to use simulation as a method to reveal logical errors in our programs and assess their behavior under an incomplete set of possible program states. In addition, we may include new facilities in the program development environments, the use of which will reduce the programming and engineering effort of an application. They may be editing and compilation facilities which support application programming in all the languages defined in the IEC 1131-3 standard. By using these languages our programming efficiency will be improved significantly, because each one of them can be used to program the part of the application for which it is appropriate, and yet the whole application can be linked into a single executable program. Other facilities which can reduce engineering effort are those whichcan make easier and more meaningful the declaration of the program input conditions. These facilities will allow us to study in a given timing period, a larger number of simulation cases than the ones we might have studied without these facilities. Furthermore, we may expand the scope of the simulation by including a simulator of the plant which interacts with the computer. Also, facilities can be added to assist in the better interpretation of the generated simulation results. Such facilities may allow us to configure the displays of the generated data the way we think appropriate, and animate the simulated operation of the application program.In this paper an architecture and language constructs are proposed for a software aid which ~an be used to declare input conditions to a PLC program, emulate the PLC operation and configure the display of the emulation results. The core of the architecture is the virtual machine, which is a software module which emulates the operation of a program written for a specific PLC in any application programming language. The virtual machine is linked with executable code generated from two other software modules which interpret instructions defining the input conditions to the application program and the configuration of the output display. Of course, the proposed facilities do not solve the problem of the complete verification of the timing behavior of an application program. However, when they are compared with the facilities offered by various commercially available aids, to our opinion they do significantly reduce the time taken to test the execution of a PLC program under a large number of possible input conditions, on different architectures and interpret the results. A scaled down experimental implementation of facilities for a specific PLC model is used to demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed concepts. The operation of the experimental set-up has been validated with data taken from the execution of sample program on a specific PLC.1、Principles of PLC Operation.The Programmable Logic Controller is a special purpose digital computer designed to control machine or process operations by means of a stored program and feedback from input/output field devices. It is composed primarily of two basic sections: the Central Processing Unit (PLC) and an Input/Output(I/O) interface. The CPU encompasses all the necessary elements that form the intelligence of the system. It is further subdivided to the Processor, Memory and Power supply. The CPU accepts input data from various input field devices, executes the stored program from the memory, and sends appropriate commands to output field devices. The Input/Output system forms the interface by which the field devices are connected to the controller. Its purpose is to condition the various signals received from or sent to field devices. Through this system the CPU can sense and measure physical quantities regarding a machine or process, such as proximity, position, motion, level temperature, pressure, current and voltage. Based on the status sensed or values measured, the CPU, through this interface system, issues commands that control various devices such as valves, motors, pumps and alarms. The most common type of I/O interface is the discrete one. This interface connects field input or output devices, which provide input signals or receive command signals of the Boolean type.Pushbuttons, limit switches and selector switches are some of the devices that provide incoming signals of this type,, whereas typical field devices that can be and position valves .The numerical I/O interface is another type of interface, provided in a PLC system. It can allow reading or writing a multi-bit digital or analog device. Multi-bit devices either generate or receive a group of bits which is the digital representation of a decimal number or an analogue quantity. This group of bits is handled as a unit by the CPU and can be in parallel form (BCD inputs or outputs) or in serial form (pulse inputs or outputs). Typical field devices providing multi-bit input to a PLC are thumbwheel switches, bar code readers and encoders ,whereas typical output devices are seven-segment and intelligent displays. The analogue field devices are the various sensors, motordrives, and process instruments used to monitor arid control physical variables such as temperature, pressure, humidity, flow, etc. The devices which monitor physical variables send to the I/O interface analogue voltages and currents which are converted by the A/D converter of the interface to a multi-bit digital code. On the other hand, an analogue device used to control the value of a physical variable, receives from the interface an analogue voltage or current as a result of the digital to analogue conversion of data produced by the CPU.The processor of the CPU performs all the mathematical operations, data handling and diagnostic routines by executing a collection , stored in the memory .This collection consists of supervisory programs ,that are permanently stored in the memory, and application programs . The supervisory programs, known as the executive, allow communication with the processor via a programming device or other peripheral memory management, monitoring of field devices, hardware fault diagnosis and execution of the application program written by the user. The memory organization and the way the application program is executed under the control of the executive are two features which distinguish a PLC from any other general purpose computer. In general, all PLC have memory allocated for executive programs, processor work area, data table and application program. The programmed instructions and any data that will be utilized by the processor to perform its control functions are stored in the Application Program Memory Area and Data Table Memory Area respectively. These two areas can be grouped into what is called application memory. Each controller has a maximum amount of application memory which is part of the total memory specified for the controller. The Data Table is functionally divided Into the Input Table, Internal Storage Area and Storage Registers Area. The Input Table is an array of bits that stores the status of the digital inputs which are connected to the I/O interface system.. The Output Table is an array of bits that control the status of the digital output devices, which are also connected. To the I/O system. The Internal Storage Bits Area is the memory area allocated for thestorage of the logic status of flags used by the application program. The Storage Registers Area is allocated for the storage of input registers, holding registers and output registers. The input registers are used to store numerical data received via digital of analogue input interfaces. The holding registers are used to store variable values that are generated by math, timer and counter instructions of a program. The output registers are used to provide storage for numerical or analogue values that control various output devices .Each virtual machine program is built according to a general computer model applicable to any PLC architecture. This model maps the usual functions performed by a PLC to machine language functions of a simple hypothetical computer. This computer consists of:(a) a Central Processing Unit (CPU)(b) a Memory unit(MU) where the application program is stored and(c) a number of Input and Output modules(I/O)At system start up, the execution of the executive program is initiated. During this program execution, the processor reads all the inputs, stores their values in the Input Storage Area and runs the application program. The results which are generated during the execution of the application program are saved in the Output Storage Area. The process of reading the inputs, executing the program, and updating the outdate all the outputs of the PLC by suing the data of the Output Storage Area. The process of reading the inputs, executing the program, and updating the outputs is known as scan. The time required to make a single scan is called scan time. A figure for the worst case time is usually provided by the manufacturers. Generally, they specify the maximum scan-time that corresponds to every 1K of programmed memory, i.e. 10msecs/1k. However, since the common method of monitoring the inputs at the end of each scan is inadequate for reading certain extremely fast inputs, some PLC provide software instructions that allow the interruption of the continuous program scan in order to receive an input or update an output immediately. Also, a newer approach inPLC design, which results to a significant reduction of the total processing time, is to divide the total system load to a number of tasks and assign their execution to several processors.The stack register is so designed that the execution of an instruction which reads discrete inputs shifts right by one bit the contents of the stack register and pushes the current state of the O.R flip flop into stack register. When this operation is completed, the O.R flip flop is loaded with the state of a discrete input. Instructions which perform logic operations shift left the contents of the stack register. Then, the leftmost bit of the stack register is loaded into the O.R flip flop. Then, the arithmetic, calculations and numerical handling are using the data registers DROO and DRO1 for byte and word operations respectively.可编程控制器应用的发展支持软件1、序可编程控制器（PLC）构成了工业的控制应用中被广泛地应用的即时计算器的一个类别。

PID controllerFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaA proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller) is a generic .control loop feedback mechanism widely used in industrial control systems.A PID controller attempts to correct the error between a measured process variable and a desired setpoint by calculating and then outputting a corrective action that can adjust the process accordingly.The PID controller calculation (algorithm) involves three separate parameters; the Proportional, the Integral and Derivative values. The Proportional value determines the reaction to the current error, the Integral determines the reaction based on the sum of recent errors and the Derivative determines the reaction to the rate at which the error has been changing. The weightedsum of these three actions is used to adjust the process via a control element such as the position of a control valve or the power supply of a heating element.By "tuning" the three constants in the PID controller algorithm the PID can provide control action designed for specific process requirements. The response of the controller can be described in terms of the responsiveness of the controller to an error, the degree to which the controller overshoots the setpoint and the degree of system oscillation. Note that the use of the PID algorithm for control does not guarantee optimal control of the system or system stability.Some applications may require using only one or two modes to provide the appropriate system control. This is achieved by setting the gain of undesired control outputs to zero. A PID controller will be called a PI, PD, P or I controller in the absence of the respective control actions. PI controllers are particularly common, since derivative action is very sensitive to measurement noise, and the absence of an integral value may prevent the system from reaching its target value due to the control action.A block diagram of a PID controllerNote: Due to the diversity of the field of control theory and application, many naming conventions for the relevant variables are in common use.1.Control loop basicsA familiar example of a control loop is the action taken to keep one's shower water at the ideal temperature, which typically involves the mixing of two process streams, cold and hot water. The person feels the water to estimate its temperature. Based on this measurement they perform a control action: use the cold water tap to adjust the process. The person would repeat this input-output control loop, adjusting the hot water flow until the process temperature stabilized at the desired value.Feeling the water temperature is taking a measurement of the process value or process variable (PV). The desired temperature is called the setpoint (SP). The output from the controller and input to the process (the tap position) is called the manipulated variable (MV). The difference between the measurement and the setpoint is the error (e), too hot or too cold and by how much.As a controller, one decides roughly how much to change the tap position (MV) after one determines the temperature (PV), and therefore the error. This first estimate is the equivalent of the proportional action of a PID controller. The integral action of a PID controller can be thought of as gradually adjusting the temperature when it is almost right. Derivative action can be thought of as noticing the water temperature is getting hotter or colder, and how fast, and taking that into account when deciding how to adjust the tap.Making a change that is too large when the error is small is equivalent to a high gain controller and will lead toovershoot. If the controller were to repeatedly make changes that were too large and repeatedly overshoot the target, this control loop would be termed unstable and the output would oscillate around the setpoint in either a constant, growing, or decaying sinusoid. A human would not do this because we are adaptive controllers, learning from the process history, but PID controllers do not have the ability to learn and must be set up correctly. Selecting the correct gains for effective control is known as tuning the controller.If a controller starts from a stable state at zero error (PV = SP), then further changes by the controller will be in response to changes in other measured or unmeasured inputs to the process that impact on the process, and hence on the PV. Variables that impact on the process other than the MV are known as disturbances and generally controllers are used to reject disturbances and/or implement setpoint changes. Changes in feed water temperature constitute a disturbance to the shower process.In theory, a controller can be used to control any process which has a measurable output (PV), a known ideal value for that output (SP) and an input to the process (MV) that will affect the relevant PV. Controllers are used in industry to regulate temperature, pressure, flow rate, chemical composition, speed and practically every other variable for which a measurement exists. Automobile cruise control is an example of a process which utilizes automated control.Due to their long history, simplicity, well grounded theory and simple setup and maintenance requirements, PID controllers are the controllers of choice for many of these applications.2.PID controller theoryNote: This section describes the ideal parallel or non-interacting form of the PID controller. For other forms please see the Section "Alternative notation and PID forms".The PID control scheme is named after its three correcting terms, whose sum constitutes the manipulated variable (MV). Hence:where Pout, Iout, and Dout are the contributions to the output from the PID controller from each of the three terms, as defined below.2.1. Proportional termThe proportional term makes a change to the output that is proportional to the current error value. The proportional response can be adjusted by multiplying the error by a constant Kp, called the proportional gain.The proportional term is given by:WherePout: Proportional outputKp: Proportional Gain, a tuning parametere: Error = SP − PVt: Time or instantaneous time (the present)Change of response for varying KpA high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given change in the error. If the proportional gain is too high, the system can become unstable (See the section on Loop Tuning). In contrast, a small gain results in a small output response to a large input error, and a less responsive (or sensitive) controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the control action may be too small when responding to system disturbances.In the absence of disturbances, pure proportional control will not settle at its target value, but will retain a steady state error that is a function of the proportional gain and the process gain. Despite the steady-state offset, both tuning theory and industrial practice indicate that it is the proportional term that should contribute the bulk of the output change.2.2.Integral termThe contribution from the integral term is proportional to both the magnitude of the error and the duration of the error. Summing the instantaneous error over time (integrating the error) gives the accumulated offset that should have been corrected previously. The accumulated error is then multiplied by the integral gain and added to the controller output. The magnitude of the contribution of the integral term to the overall control action is determined by the integral gain, Ki.The integral term is given by:Change of response for varying KiWhereIout: Integral outputKi: Integral Gain, a tuning parametere: Error = SP − PVτ: Time in the past contributing to the integral responseThe integral term (when added to the proportional term) accelerates themovement of the process towards setpoint and eliminates the residual steady-state error that occurs with a proportional only controller. However, since the integral term is responding to accumulated errors from the past, it can cause the present value to overshoot the setpoint value (cross over the setpoint and then create a deviation in the other direction). For further notes regarding integral gain tuning and controller stability, see the section on loop tuning.2.3 Derivative termThe rate of change of the process error is calculated by determining the slope of the error over time (i.e. its first derivative with respect to time) and multiplying this rate of change by the derivative gain Kd. The magnitude of the contribution of the derivative term to the overall control action is termed the derivative gain, Kd.The derivative term is given by:Change of response for varying KdWhereDout: Derivative outputKd: Derivative Gain, a tuning parametere: Error = SP − PVt: Time or instantaneous time (the present)The derivative term slows the rate of change of the controller output and this effect is most noticeable close to the controller setpoint. Hence, derivative control isused to reduce the magnitude of the overshoot produced by the integral component and improve the combined controller-process stability. However, differentiation of a signal amplifies noise and thus this term in the controller is highly sensitive to noise in the error term, and can cause a process to become unstable if the noise and the derivative gain are sufficiently large.2.4 SummaryThe output from the three terms, the proportional, the integral and the derivative terms are summed to calculate the output of the PID controller. Defining u(t) as the controller output, the final form of the PID algorithm is:and the tuning parameters areKp: Proportional Gain - Larger Kp typically means faster response since thelarger the error, the larger the Proportional term compensation. An excessively large proportional gain will lead to process instability and oscillation.Ki: Integral Gain - Larger Ki implies steady state errors are eliminated quicker. The trade-off is larger overshoot: any negative error integrated during transient response must be integrated away by positive error before we reach steady state.Kd: Derivative Gain - Larger Kd decreases overshoot, but slows down transient response and may lead to instability due to signal noise amplification in the differentiation of the error.3. Loop tuningIf the PID controller parameters (the gains of the proportional, integral and derivative terms) are chosen incorrectly, the controlled process input can be unstable, i.e. its output diverges, with or without oscillation, and is limited only by saturation or mechanical breakage. Tuning a control loop is the adjustment of its control parameters (gain/proportional band, integral gain/reset, derivative gain/rate) to the optimum values for the desired control response.The optimum behavior on a process change or setpoint change varies depending on the application. Some processes must not allow an overshoot of the processvariable beyond the setpoint if, for example, this would be unsafe. Other processes must minimize the energy expended in reaching a new setpoint. Generally, stability of response (the reverse of instability) is required and the process must not oscillate for any combination of process conditions and setpoints. Some processes have a degree of non-linearity and so parameters that work well at full-load conditions don't work when the process is starting up from no-load. This section describes some traditional manual methods for loop tuning.There are several methods for tuning a PID loop. The most effective methods generally involve the development of some form of process model, then choosing P, I, and D based on the dynamic model parameters. Manual tuning methods can be relatively inefficient.The choice of method will depend largely on whether or not the loop can be taken "offline" for tuning, and the response time of the system. If the system can be taken offline, the best tuning method often involves subjecting the system to a step change in input, measuring the output as a function of time, and using this response to determine the control parameters.Choosing a Tuning MethodMethodAdvantagesDisadvantagesManual TuningNo math required. Online method.Requires experiencedpersonnel.Ziegler–NicholsProven Method. Online method.Process upset, sometrial-and-error, very aggressive tuning.Software ToolsConsistent tuning. Online or offline method. May includevalve and sensor analysis. Allow simulation before downloading.Some costand training involved.Cohen-CoonGood process models.Some math. Offline method. Only good for first-order processes.3.1 Manual tuningIf the system must remain online, one tuning method is to first set the I and D values to zero. Increase the P until the output of the loop oscillates, then the P shouldbe left set to be approximately half of that value for a "quarter amplitude decay" type response. Then increase D until any offset is correct in sufficient time for the process. However, too much D will cause instability. Finally, increase I, if required, until the loop is acceptably quick to reach its reference after a load disturbance. However, too much I will cause excessive response and overshoot. A fast PID loop tuning usually overshoots slightly to reach the setpoint more quickly; however, some systems cannot accept overshoot, in which case an "over-damped" closed-loop system is required, which will require a P setting significantly less than half that of the P setting causing oscillation.3.2Ziegler –Nichols methodAnother tuning method is formally known as the Ziegler –Nichols method, introduced by John G . Ziegler and Nathaniel B. Nichols. As in the method above, the I and D gains are first set to zero. The "P" gain is increased until it reaches the "critical gain" Kc at which the output of theloop starts to oscillate. Kc and the oscillation period Pc are used to set the gains as shown:3.3 PID tuning softwareMost modern industrial facilities no longer tune loops using the manualcalculation methods shown above. Instead, PID tuning and loop optimization software are used to ensure consistent results. These software packages will gather the data, develop process models, and suggest optimal tuning. Some software packages can even develop tuning by gathering data from reference changes.Mathematical PID loop tuning induces an impulse in the system, and then uses the controlled system's frequency response to design the PID loop values. In loops with response times of several minutes, mathematical loop tuning is recommended, because trial and error can literally take days just to find a stable set of loop values. Optimal values are harder to find. Some digital loop controllers offer a self-tuning feature in which very small setpoint changes are sent to the process, allowing the controller itself to calculate optimal tuning values.Other formulas are available to tune the loop according to different performance criteria.4 Modifications to the PID algorithmThe basic PID algorithm presents some challenges in control applications that have been addressed by minor modifications to the PID form.One common problem resulting from the ideal PID implementations is integralwindup. This can be addressed by:Initializing the controller integral to a desired valueDisabling the integral function until the PV has entered the controllable region Limiting the time period over which the integral error is calculatedPreventing the integral term from accumulating above or below pre-determined boundsMany PID loops control a mechanical device (for example, a valve). Mechanical maintenance can be a major cost and wear leads to control degradation in the form of either stiction or a deadband in the mechanical response to an input signal. The rate of mechanical wear is mainly a function of how often a device is activated to make a change. Where wear is a significant concern, the PID loop may have an output deadband to reduce the frequency of activation of the output (valve). This is accomplished by modifying the controller to hold its output steady if the changewould be small (within the defined deadband range). The calculated output must leave the deadband before the actual output will change.The proportional and derivative terms can produce excessive movement in the output when a system is subjected to an instantaneous "step" increase in the error, such as a large setpoint change. In the case of the derivative term, this is due to taking the derivative of the error, which is very large in the case of an instantaneous step change.5. Limitations of PID controlWhile PID controllers are applicable to many control problems, they can perform poorly in some applications.PID controllers, when used alone, can give poor performance when the PID loop gains must be reduced so that the control system does not overshoot, oscillate or "hunt" about the control setpoint value. The control system performance can be improved by combining the feedback (or closed-loop) control of a PID controller with feed-forward (or open-loop) control. Knowledge about the system (such as the desired acceleration and inertia) can be "fed forward" and combined with the PID output to improve the overall system performance. The feed-forward value alone can often provide the major portion of the controller output. The PID controller can then be used primarily to respond to whatever difference or "error" remains between the setpoint (SP) and the actual value of the process variable (PV). Since the feed-forward output is not affected by the process feedback, it can never cause the control system to oscillate, thus improving the system response and stability.For example, in most motion control systems, in order to accelerate a mechanical load under control, more force or torque is required from the prime mover, motor, or actuator. If a velocity loop PID controller is being used to control the speed of the load and command the force or torque being applied by the prime mover, then it is beneficial to take the instantaneous acceleration desired for the load, scale that value appropriately and add it to the output of the PID velocity loop controller. This means that whenever the load is being accelerated or decelerated, a proportional amount of force is commanded from the prime mover regardless of the feedback value. The PID loop in this situation uses the feedback information to effect any increase or decrease of the combined output in order to reduce the remaining difference between theprocess setpoint and thefeedback value. Working together, the combined open-loop feed-forward controller and closed-loop PID controller can provide a more responsive, stable and reliable control system.Another problem faced with PID controllers is that they are linear. Thus, performance of PID controllers in non-linear systems (such as HV AC systems) is variable. Often PID controllers are enhanced through methods such as PID gain scheduling or fuzzy logic. Further practical application issues can arise from instrumentation connected to the controller. A high enough sampling rate, measurement precision, and measurement accuracy are required to achieve adequate control performance.A problem with the Derivative term is that small amounts of measurement or process noise can cause large amounts of change in the output. It is often helpful to filter the measurements with a low-pass filter in order to remove higher-frequency noise components. However, low-pass filtering and derivative control can cancel each other out, so reducing noise by instrumentation means is a much better choice. Alternatively, the differential band can be turned off in many systems with little loss of control. This is equivalent to using the PID controller as a PI controller.6. Cascade controlOne distinctive advantage of PID controllers is that two PID controllers can be used together to yield better dynamic performance. This is called cascaded PID control. In cascade control there are two PIDs arranged with one PID controlling the set point of another. A PID controller acts as outer loop controller, which controls the primary physical parameter, such as fluid level or velocity. The other controller acts as inner loop controller, which reads the output of outer loop controller as set point, usually controlling a more rapid changing parameter, flowrate or accelleration. It can be mathematically proved that the working frequency of the controller is increased and the time constant of the object is reduced by using cascaded PID controller.[vague]7. Physical implementation of PID controlIn the early history of automatic process control the PID controller was implemented as a mechanical device. These mechanical controllers used a lever, spring and a mass and were often energized by compressed air. These pneumatic controllers were once the industry standard.Electronic analog controllers can be made from a solid-state or tube amplifier, a capacitor and a resistance. Electronic analog PID control loops were often found within more complex electronic systems, for example, the head positioning of a disk drive, the power conditioning of a power supply, or even the movement-detection circuit of a modern seismometer. Nowadays, electronic controllers have largely been replaced by digital controllers implemented with microcontrollers or FPGAs.Most modern PID controllers in industry are implemented in software in programmable logic controllers (PLCs) or as a panel-mounted digital controller. Software implementations have the advantages that they are relatively cheap and are flexible with respect to the implementation of the PID algorithm.8.Alternative nomenclature and PID forms8.1 PseudocodeHere is a simple software loop that implements the PID algorithm:8.2 Ideal versus standard PID formThe form of the PID controller most often encountered in industry, and the one most relevant to tuning algorithms is the "standard form". In this form the Kp gain is applied to the Iout, and Dout terms, yielding:WhereTi is the Integral TimeTd is the Derivative TimeIn the ideal parallel form, shown in the Controller Theory sectionthe gain parameters are related to the parameters of the standard formthroughand Kd = KpTd. This parallel form, where the parameters are treated as simple gains, is the most general and flexible form. However, it is also the form where the parameters have the least physical interpretation and is generally reserved for theoretical treatment of the PID controller. The "standard" form, despite being slightly more complex mathematically, is more common in industry.8.3Laplace form of the PID controllerSometimes it is useful to write the PID regulator in Laplace transform form:Having the PID controller written in Laplace form and having the transfer function of the controlled system, makes it easy to determine the closed-loop transfer function of the system.8.4Series / interacting formAnother representation of the PID controller is the series, or "interacting" form. This form essentially consists of a PD and PI controller in series, and it made early (analog) controllers easier to build. When the controllers later became digital, many kept using the interacting form.[edit] ReferencesLiptak, Bela (1995). Instrument Engineers' Handbook: Process Control. Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Company, 20-29. ISBN 0-8019-8242-1.Van, Doren, Vance J. (July 1, 2003). "Loop Tuning Fundamentals". Control Engineering. Red Business Information.Sellers, David. An Overview of Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative Control and Suggestions for Its Successful Application and Implementation (PDF). Retrieved on 2007-05-05.Articles, Whitepapers, and tutorials on PID controlGraham, Ron (10/03/2005). FAQ on PID controller tuning. Retrieved on2007-05-05.PID控制器比例积分微分控制器（PID调节器）是一个控制环，广泛地应用于工业控制系统里的反馈机制。

电动机控制中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Control of Electric winchFor motor control, we know the best way is to use the style buttons to move the many simple manual console. And this console, in some applications may still be a good choice, as some complex control headache can also be used. This article describes in your design, build or purchase winch controller, you have the motor's basic electrical equipment and you will need to address the user interface command addressed.First, the manual should be a manual control console type, so if you remove your finger buttons, hoist will stop. In addition, each control station equipped with an emergency need to brake, hoist the emergency brake to cut off all power, not just the control circuit. Think about it, if the hoist at the stop, it did not stop, you do need a way to cut off the fault line protection power. Set the table in the control of a key operated switch, is also a very good idea, especially in the line leading to theworkstation can not control, you can use the switch.(in the design of the console, even the simplest manual console, but also consider setting by specialized personnel to operate the safe operation of the keys.) Constant speed motor controlFor a fixed speed winch actual control device is a three-phase starter. Turn the motor is reversed, by a simple switch controlled phase transformation sequence from ABC to CBA. These actions are completed by two three-pole contactor-style, and they are interlocked, so that they can not be simultaneously closed. NEC, required in addition to overload and short circuit protection devices. To protect the motor against overload due to mechanical effects caused by overheating in the heat to be installed inside the starter overload delay device. When the heat overload delay device overheating, it has a long double off the metal motor power. In addition In addition, you can also select a thermistor can be installed in the motor winding way, it can be used to monitor motor temperature changes. For the short-circuit protection, we generally used by motor fuses to achieve.A linear current independent contactors, the contactors are configured should be more than the current main circuit contactor, so as to achieve the purpose of redundancy. This sets the current contactor is controlled by the security circuit, such as: emergency brake and the more-way limits.We can use the limit switches to achieve the above operation. When you reach the end of the normal travel limit position, the hoist will stop, and you can only move the winch in the opposite direction (ie, the direction away from the limit position.) There is also need for a more limited way just in case, due to electrical or mechanical problems, leaving the operation of hoist limit bit more than normal. If you run into more limiter, linear contactor will open, therefore, can not be driven winch will exceed this limit position. If this happens, you need to ask a professional technician to check the lead to meet the more specific reasons limiter. Then, you can use thestarter toggle switch inside the elastic recovery process to deal with more problems, rather than tripping device or a hand-off the current contacts.A necessary condition for speedOf course, the simple fixed speed starter is replaced by variable speed drives. This makes things start to get interesting again! At a minimum, you need to add a speed control dial operation platform. Joystick is a better user interface, because it makes you move parts of a more intuitive control.Unfortunately, you can not just from your local console to send commands to control the old variable speed drives, in addition, you can not want it in the initial stages, will be able to enhance the safe and reliable and decentralized facilities. Most of the variable speed drive can not achieve these requirements, because they are not designed to do upgrading work. Drivers need to be set to release the brake before the motor can generate torque, and when parking, that is, before the revocation of torque, the brake will be the first action.For many years, DC motors and drives provide a number of common solutions, such as when they are in a variety of speeds with good torque characteristics. For most of the hoist of the large demand for DC motor is very expensive, and that the same type of AC motor than the much more expensive. Although the early AC drives are not very useful, as they have a very limited scope of application of the speed, but produced only a small low-speed torque. Now, with the DC drives the development of low cost and a large number of available AC motors has led to a communication-driven revolution.Variable speed AC drives in two series. Frequency converter has been widely known and, indeed, easy to use. These drives convert AC into DC, and then, and then convert it back to exchange, the exchange after the conversion is a different frequency. If the drive produced the exchange of 30Hz, 60Hz a normal motor will run at half speed. Theoretically, this is very good, but in practice, this will have a lot of problems. First of all, a typical linear motor 60Hz frequencies below 2Hz 3Hz area or there will be errors, and start cog (that urgent push, yank), or parking. This will limit your speed range lower than 20:1, almost not adapted to the operational phase of the fine adjustment. Second, many low-cost converter is not able to provide the rated torque at low speeds. Use of these drives, will result in the rapid move to upgrade the components or complete failure, precisely, when you try to upgrade a stable scientific instruments, you do not want to see this situation. Some new inverter is a closed-loop system (to get feedback from the motor to provide a more accurate speed control), and the motor will work quite well.Another series of AC drives is the flow vector type drive. These components require installation of the spindle motor encoder, encoder makes use of these drivescan accurately monitor the rotation of the motor armature. Processor accurately measured magnetic flux vector values that are required to make the armature at a given speed rotation. These drives allow infinite speed, so you actually can produce at zero speed to rated torque. These drives provide precise speed and position control, so these drives in high performance applications to be welcomed.(Based on PLC controllers provide system status and control options. This screen shows the operator full access to the nine-story elevator enhance the control panel.) PLC-based systemsIs the full name of a PLC programmable logic controller. First of all, PLC controller developed to replace the fifties and sixties-based industrial control system relay, they work in harsh industrial indoor environments. These are modular systems that have a large variety of I / O modules. The modular system can easily achieve the semi-custom hardware configuration assembled, and the resulting configuration is also very reasonable price. These modules include: position control module, the counter, A / D and D / A converter, and a variety of physical state or physical contact with closed output module. Large number of different types of I / O components and PLC module property makes it an effective way to assemble custom and semi custom control system.The biggest shortcoming of PLC systems is the lack of the real number of display to tell you what is being done and the PLC on the PLC program to help you.T he first is professional entertainment for the large-scale PLC system is one of the original in Las Vegas, MGM (now Bailey Company) of the riding and carriage system. Many manufacturers offer a standard PLC-based semi-automated acoustic systems and a host of signs, set the location of the command line interpreter, and the upgrading of the control system is also available. Using standard modules to set user-defined system configuration capability is based on the PLC controller of the greatest advantage.High-end controllerFor complex transmission, the controller became complex, more than speed, time and location control. They include complex instructions to write and record the movement contour, and the processing can immediately run the ability to multi-point instructions.Many large opera house is toward the direction of point lift system, where each one is equipped with a rope to enhance independent winches, rope equivalent to those of each dimmer circuit. When more than one hoist is used to enhance the individual part, the hoist must be fully synchronous, or the load to shift, so will lead to a separate winch becomes the risk of overload. Control system must be able to be selected to keep pace winch, or a hoist winch is not able to maintain synchronization with the other, can provide the same high-speed parking capacity. For a typical speed of 240 ft / min and a winch to maintain the rate of error of between 1 / 8 points of equipment, you only have less than three microseconds of time to identify problems and try to correct the error The hoist speed, make sure you fail, you start all the winch stop the group. This will require a large amount of computation, fast I / O interface, and easy to use to write software.For large rope control system has two very different solutions. The first is to use a separate console, the problem in general terms, this console should be installed in the appropriate location of the operator perspective. However, this not only from one angle to another angle, but still can not get an instruction to another instruction from the control. These difficulties have been partially resolved. Installed in different locations through the use of video cameras, and these cameras connected to the three-dimensional display graphics, these graphics enables the operator to observe from the perspective of any of the three coordinates in the expected direction of rope movement. These operators can make from a console for him at the actual angle, or closed circuit camera practical perspective, to observe the movement of the rope on the screen. For the complex interrelated moving parts, makes the implementation of the above observation Failure to control and find out easier.Another solution to the problem is a distributed system that uses multiple light console. This will allow the different operators in the same way the different aspects of control gear, we have improved the manual control device. A vivid example is the flower in a vegetable market in central London, the Royal Opera House, the program uses the above, where the control console 240 with ten motors. Each console has five playback device, and has been open, so that each motor has been assigned to a single console. An operator and a console can control all the devices, however, often may be running a console platform screen upgrade, another console is a console on the transmission device, and the third console is used to the necessary backgroundin the background image down.(edge-type portable console allows the operator many advantages from the start to control the movement of the machine, and provide three-dimensional image display.)ConclusionA huge change in the rope control system, a workstation has been developed from a push-button to complex multi-user computerized control system. When the control system to buy rope, you can always find to meet your needs. Control system performance is the most important security and reliability. These are the true value of the property, and you can expect the price to buy a suitable way of security. With a certain product manufacturers to work, he will make you know how to install it. And he will make contact with you and the users, those users have with similar requests.译文：电动卷扬机的控制对于电动机的控制，我们所知道的最好的方式就是使用由许多点动式按钮组成的简单的手工操作台。