27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 5 Morphology(word文档良心出品)

第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学） The study of meaning inlanguage is called semantics.（语义学）The study of meaning incontext of use iscalled pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language withreference to society iscalled socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language withreference to the working ofmind is calledpsycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications(as the recovery of speechability) is generally knownas applied linguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense,applied linguistics refers to theapplication of linguisticprinciples and theories tolanguage teaching andlearning, especially theteaching of foreign andsecond language.Other related branchesinclude anthropologicallinguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics,（神经语言学） mathematicallinguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics.（计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctionsin linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive描写与规定If a linguistic studydescribes and analyzes thelanguage people actually use,it is said to be descriptive, if itaims to lay down rules to tellpeople what they should sayand what they should not say,it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differsfrom traditional grammar.Traditional grammar isprescriptive while modernlinguistics is descriptive.The task of linguists issupposed to describe thelanguage people actually use,whether it i s “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic共时和历时The description of alanguage at some point intime is a synchronic study; thedescription of a language as itchanges through time isa diachronic study. In modernlinguistics, synchronic study ismore important.Speech and writing口头语与书面语Speech and writing are thetwo major media ofcommunication.Modern linguistics regardsthe spoken form of languageas primary, but not the writtenform.Reasons:●1. Speech precedes writing;●2. There are still manylanguages that have only thespoken form;●3. In terms of function, thespoken language is used for awider range of purposes thanthe written, and carries alarger load of communicationthan the written.Langue and parole [pə'rəul]语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. deSaussure made the distinctionbetween langue and paroleearly 20th century.Langue refers to theabstract linguistic systemshared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. 语言能力和语言运用Competence and performanceProposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.4/ What is language?语言的定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Sapir,Edward uses “ideas”“emotions” and “desires” in hisdefinition.Hall, like Sapir, treatslanguage as a purely humaninstitution.Chomsky’s definition isquite different, it focus on thepurely structural properties oflanguages and to suggest thatthese properties can beinvestigated from amathematically precise pointof view.5/ Design features语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to thedefining properties of humanlanguage that distinguish itfrom any animal system ofcommunication.American linguist CharlesHockett specified twelvedesign features.1) Arbitrariness任意性（和约定俗成性）It means that there is nological connection betweenmeanings and sounds.For instance, there is nonecessary relationshipbetween the word dog and theanimal it refers to. The factthat different sounds are usedto refer to the same object indifferent languages and thatthe same sound may be usedto refer to different objects isanother good example.Although language isarbitrary by nature, it is notentirely arbitrary. Some words,such as the words created inthe imitation of sounds bysounds are motivated in acertain degree. The arbitrarynature of language makes itpossible for language to havean unlimited source ofexpressions.2) Productivity能产性Language is productive orcreative in that it makespossible the construction andinterpretation of an infinitelylarge number of sentences,including those that they havenever said or heard before.3) Duality结构二重性It means that language is asystem, which consists of twosets of structure, or two levels,one of sounds at the lowerlevel and the other ofmeanings at the higher level.At the lower or the basic level,there is the structure ofindividual and meaninglesssounds, which can be groupedinto meaningful units at thehigher level. This duality ofstructure or double articulationof language enables its usersto talk about anything withintheir knowledge.4) Displacement语言的移位性（突破时空性）It means that language canbe used to talk about whathappened in the past, what ishappening now, or what willhappen in the future.Language can also be used totalk about our real wordexperiences or theexperiences in our imaginaryworld. In other words,language can be used to referto contexts removed from theimmediate situations of thespeaker.5) Cultural transmission文化传播性While we are born with theability to acquire language, thedetails of any language arenot genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taughtand learned anew.**********************************Chapter 2Phonology 音系学1.The phonic medium oflanguage语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are thetwo media used by naturallanguages as vehicles for communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) .The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

1. What are the difference between general linguistics and descriptive linguistics and what sis the relationship between them? (P.1)A: Differences between general and descriptive linguistics:(1) They have different goals:General linguistics deals with language; descriptive linguistics study one particular language;(2) They have different aims:General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general;Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a model that describes the rules of this particular language.Relationships between general and descriptive linguistics:General and descriptive linguistics depend on each other:(1) General linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which a particular language can be analyzed and described; (2) The resulting descriptions of particular languages supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the models put forward by general linguists.2. What is the nature of language? (P7)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which is creative, double-structured and changeable.3. What is the difference between langue and parole? (P2/P24)a. Langue is the system of language. Parole is the speakers’ speech.b. Langue refers to the abstract system of a language, while parole refers to the concrete act of speaking in a definite time, place and situation.c. Langue underlies parole and parole, in turn, is a manifestation of langue.4. What is the difference between competence and performance? (P2)a. Competence is the speaker-hearer’s knowledge of his language.b. Performance is the actual use of language in concrete situations.c. Competence is abstract, while performance is concrete.5. Why do linguists maintain that language is primarily speech? (P4) Linguists maintain that language is primarily speech, and not the written form. This view may be justified by the following reasons.a. Biologically speaking, children begin to learn to speak much earlier than to learn to read and write.b. Functionally speaking, the spoken form is used more frequently than the written form in our daily life.c. Historically speaking, all human languages were spoken before they were written and there are still many languages in the world today which have not been written down.The emphasis on the spoken form indicates that linguistic study is primarily based on the data collected from living speech.6. What does it mean by saying that language is arbitrary, creative and double-structured? (P4-5)A. The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is arbitrary.B. Language is creative.a. Every language contains an infinite number of sentences, which, however, are generated by a small set of rules and a finite set of words.b. The length of a sentence has no limit in theory.c. The rules with recursive properly can account for the creative aspect of language.C. Language is double-structured. There are two levels: grammatically-meaningful and sound-meaningless.7. What features of language can differentiate human languages from animal communicative systems? (P7)Human language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which is creative, double-structured and changeable. Those unique features like creativity, duality of structure and changeability can differentiate human languages from animal communicative systems and enable human languages to be the most efficient, flexible and versatile means of communication in the world.8. How many stages does the scientific method have? What are they? (P9) There are four stages of scientific method:a. collecting data,b. forming a hypothesisc. testing the hypothesisd. drawing conclusions9. What are the three linguistic biases? (P9-10, P7)a. One common linguistic bias is that some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced.b. Another deep-rooted bias is that only the standard variety is the pure form of a language.c. Change is not natural for all living languages and such a language is a sign of corruption and decay.10. How is a rule constructed? (P15)a. To construct a rule, the linguist starts with collecting data.b. Based on the data collected, he may construct a very simple rule as a tentative version.c. Then he examines the tentative rule against further data. If the additional data do not agree with it, he has to modify it.d. He keeps on testing the rule and, accordingly, revising the rule until the rule can account for all the relevant data collected.Thus, the rule formed is open to further modifications.11. Give examples to illustrate the two features of an adequate model of competence: explicitness and generativeness. (P15-16/P6)a. By saying a linguistic model is explicit, we mean that the rules the model contains are clearly and precisely defined. Even a computer can produce all and only the grammatical sentences if the rules are fed to the machine.b. By saying the model is generative, we mean that the model contains only a small set of rules which, however, can generate an indefinitely large number ofc. For example, “so…that” is explicit, but they can generate infinite sentences. eg. He is so fat that he could not ran fast.He was so lazy that he never washed his clothes.…12. What are the four types of linguistic knowledge? (P18-19)The four types of linguistic knowledge are phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic.a. Phonological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the sounds and sound patterns of his language.b. Morphological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about how a word is formed.c. Syntactic knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.c. Semantic knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the meaning of language.13. Why is Saussre regarded as the former of modern linguistics? (P21-22)a. The obvious reason is that the book under his name “A Course in General Linguistics” is the first real essay on linguistic theory.b. In this book, quite a few theoretical distinctions introduced have become foundations of linguistic study and exerted great influence on the later development linguistics.c. Chief among them are the distinctions between synchronic and diachronic, syntagmatic and paradigmatic, langue and parole.14. Give examples to illustrate the difference between synchronic and diachronic. (P22)a. If we study the changes in the Chinese language that took place between the 1940’s and the 1960’s, it would be a diachronic study.b. But if we study the Chinese language in the 1940’s, then it would be a synchronic study.concerned with the historical development of a language and the latter is concerned with the “state” of a language at a particular point of time.15. Give examples to illustrate the difference between syntagmatic and paradigmatic. (P116-118/P22-23)a. A syntagmatic relation refers to the sequential characteristic of speech.b. A paradigmatic relation is a relation between a linguistic element in an utterance and linguistic elements outside that utterance.c. We can go tomorrow syntagmatic relationShe may come soonI will ask nextY ou could sleep now………paradigmatic relation16. What is a consonant and what is a vowel? (P30)a. A consonant is a speech sound where the airstream from the longs is either completely blocked, partially blocked or where the opening is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.b. A vowel is a speech sound in which the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced with vibrations of the vocal cords.17. Is the spelling of words a reliable means of describing English sounds? Why or Why not? (P30-31)No, it isn’t.a. Sometimes a single letter may represent different sounds.b. Sometimes, different letters or combinations of letters may r4epresent a single sound.c. The advantage of this system is that within the system, one symbol represents one sound and every symbol has a consistent value.18. What is the difference between plosives and affricates? (P37)b. Affricates are brought together to form a complete closure but not followed by a sudden release, rather by a low release with audile friction.19. What is the difference between phonetics and phonology? (P20, P53)a. English phonetics is concerned with all speech sounds that occur in the English language. It studies how those sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived, and how they re described and classified.b. Different from English phonetics, English phonology does not deal with the actual production of English sounds, but with the abstract aspects: the function of sounds and their patterns of combination.20. What are the three conditions of a minimal pair? (P54)a. They are different in meaningb. They differ only in one sound segment.c. The different sounds occur in the same position in strings.21. Give examples to illustrate the differences between phonemes, phones and allophones. (P90)a. Phonemes are said to be minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.b. Phones are the realizations of phonemes.c. Allophones are the realizations of a particular phoneme.d. For example,22. Give examples to illustrate the differences between contrastive distribution, complementary distribution and free variation. (P59-60)a. If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change in meaning, they are in contrastive distribution.b. If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment, they are said toc. If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another does not cause a change in meaning, they are said to be in free variation.d. The sounds either in contrastive distribution or in free variation can occur in the same environment. The difference between them lies in the fact that in the former case, the substitution of one sound for another results in a change in meaning, but this does not happen in the latter case. Complementary distribution is clearly different from the previous two types of distribution. The sounds in complementary distribution never occur in the same environment.23 What are the 3 principles of identifying phonemes? (P61)a. The sounds that are in contrastive distribution are different phonemesb. The sounds that are always in free variation are allophones of the same phoneme.c. The sounds that are in complementary distribution and also phonetically similar are allophones of the same phoneme.24. What is the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features? (P69)a. The distinctive features, which can only have an effect on one sound segment, are called segmental features.b. The distinctive features, which can affect more than one sound segment and can also contrast meaning, are called suprasegmental features.25. What’s the difference between phonemes and morphemes? (P54, P83)a. Phoneme is defined as a minimal distinctive unit in the sound system of a language.b. A morpheme is defined as a minimal meaningful unit in the grammatical system of a language.26. What are interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes? (P84, P86)a. Semantically, morphemes are grouped into general categories: root morphemes (roots) and affixational morphemes (affixes).b. Structurally, they fall into two classes: free morphemes and bound morphemes.c. All free morphemes are roots, but not all roots are free morphemes. All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes..27. Please explain the difference between inflectional and derivational28. How do we judge whether two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are one morph or different morphs? (P92-93)a. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are identical in both form and meaning, then they are regarded as one morph.b. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are the same in form but different in meaning, then there are as many morphs as there are meanings.c. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are the same in meaning but different in form, then there are as many morphs as there are forms.d. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are different both in form and meaning, there are as many morphs as there different forms and meanings.If two or more morphs are semantically identical and also in complementary distributing, they are then said to allomorphs of the same morpheme; otherwise, they belong to different morphemes.30. What is IC analysis? (P99/P126)a. IC analysis simply means that we divide the morphemes of a word into the two groups and then divide each group into subgroups and so on, until we reach single morphemes.b. Labeled IC simply means that we divide the morphemes of a word or the words of a sentence into the two groups and then divide each group into subgroups and so on, until we reach single morphemes of a word on a signal word of a sentence..31. What is the difference between an empty morph and a zero morph? (P97-98)a. Empty morph is defined as a morph that has form but no meaning.b. Zero morph is defined as a morph that has no form but has meaning.32. What are two ways of studying sentences? Explain them. (P116)a. We make structural descriptions of sentences to illustrate the parts of a sentence and the relationships among them, this is called static study.b. We examine the process by which sentences are generated by syntactic rules this is called dynamic study.33. What are the three syntactic relations? (P116-118)a. Sequential or syntagmatic relations are refers to the linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentence.b. Substitutional (paradigmatic) relation is a kind of relation between linguistic forms in a sentence and linguistic forms outside the sentence.c. Hierarchical relation shows us the inner layering of sentences.34. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?a. A surface structure corresponds to the linear arrangement of words; a deep structure corresponds to the meaningful grouping of words.b. A surface structure is relatively concrete, and a deep structure is abstract.c. A surfaces structure gives the form of a sentence; while the deep structure gives the meaning of a sentence.d. A surface structure is pronounceable, but a deep structure is not pronounceable.35. What are the three kinds of operations performed by T-rules? (P180)a. rearranging the sentence elements;b. adding a new element to the phrase marker;c. deleting an element from the phrase marker.36. What are the differences between PS rules and T-rules? (P139)a. TG grammar has assumed that to generate sentences, we start with deep structures and then transform them into surface structures.b. Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules), and surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).英语语言学概论11Phonetics has three sub-branches:(1) articulatory phonetics that is concerned with how a sound is produced by the vocal organs;(2) acoustic phonetics that deals with how a sound is transmitted from the speaker ’s mouth to the listener ’s ears;(3) auditory phonetics that investigates how a sound is perceived by the listener.2. Speech organs1-nasal cavity; 2-lips; 3-teeth; 4-aveolar ridge; 5-hard palate 6-velum (soft palate); 7-uvula; 8-apex (tip) of tongue; 9-blade (front) of tongue;10-dorsum (back) of tongue; 11-oral cavity;12-pharynx; 13-epiglottis;14-larynx; 15-vocal cords; 16-trachea; 17-esophagus;。

第五章 Reference （领会） – the relationship between language and the world. By means of reference， a speaker indicates which things in the world （including persons） are being talked about. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. This connection is the result of generalization and abstraction. Although reference is abstract， yet with the help of context， it can refer to something specific. Concept（领会） – which beyond language is the result of human cognition reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It isn’t affected by language. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. Meaning belongs to language， so is restricted to language use. A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are language in the world. Sense （领会） – denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language. It is also abstraction. Motivation——accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. English does have words whose meanings can be explained to a certain extent. Most words are non-motivated. The connection of the sign and meaning dose not have a logical explanation. Onomatopoeic Motivation – the words whose sounds suggest their meaning. （Indicate the relationship between sound and meaning）. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. These words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example， bang， ping-pang， crow by cocks， etc. Such echoic words are also conventional for the sounds we say in English may not be the same in other language. Morphological Motivation ——Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many words are the sum total of the morphemes combined. （Indicate the relationship between word meaning and each morpheme meaning）. For instance， airmail means to “mail by air”， miniskirt is “a small skirt”。

第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics什么是语言学Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense,applied linguistics refersto the application oflinguistic principles andtheories to languageteaching and learning,especially the teaching offoreign and second language.Other related branchesinclude anthropologicallinguistics, （人类语言学）neurologicallinguistics, （神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics, （数字语言学）and computationallinguistics. （计算机语言学）3/ Some importantdistinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive anddescriptive描写与规定If a linguistic studydescribes and analyzes thelanguage people actually use,it is said tobe descriptive, if it aimsto lay down rules to tellpeople what they should sayand what they should not say,it is said tobe prescriptive.Modern linguisticsdiffers from traditionalgrammar.Traditional grammar isprescriptive while modernlinguistics is descriptive.The task of linguists issupposed to describe thelanguage people actually use,whether it is “correct” ornot.Synchronic and diachronic共时和历时The description of alanguage at some point intime is a synchronic study;the description of alanguage as it changesthrough time isa diachronic study. Inmodern linguistics,synchronic study is moreimportant.Speech and writing口头语与书面语Speech and writing are thetwo major media ofcommunication.Modern linguisticsregards the spoken form oflanguage as primary, but notthe written form.Reasons:1. Speech precedeswriting;2. There are still manylanguages that have only thespoken form;3. In terms of function,the spoken language is usedfor a wider range of purposesthan the written, andcarries a larger load ofcommunication than thewritten.Langue and parole [pə'rəul]语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. deSaussure made thedistinction between langueand parole early20th century.Langue refers to theabstract linguistic systemshared by all the members ofa speech community,and parole refers to therealization of langue inactual use.Saussure made thedistinction in order tosingle out one aspect oflanguage for serious study.He believes what linguistsshould do is to abstractlangue from parole, todiscover the regularitiesgoverning the actual use oflanguage and make them thesubjects of study oflinguistics.语言能力和语言运用Competence andperformanceProposed by Americanlinguist N. Chomsky in thelate 1950’s.Hedefines competence as theideal user’s knowledge ofthe rules of his language,and performance theactual realization of thisknowledge in linguisticcommunication. He believesthe task of the linguists isto discover and specify thelanguage rules.4/ What is language语言的定义Language is a system ofarbitrary vocal symbols usedfor human communication.Sapir,Edward uses“ideas” “emotions” and“desires” in hisdefinition.Hall, like Sapir, treatslanguage as a purely humaninstitution.Chomsky’s definition isquite different, it focus onthe purely structuralproperties of languages andto suggest that theseproperties can beinvestigated from amathematically precisepoint of view.5/ Design features语言的甄别性特征Design features refer tothe defining properties ofhuman language thatdistinguish it from anyanimal system ofcommunication.American linguist CharlesHockett specified twelvedesign features.1) Arbitrariness任意性（和约定俗成性）It means that there is nological connection betweenmeanings and sounds.For instance, there is nonecessary relationshipbetween the word dog and theanimal it refers to. The factthat different sounds areused to refer to the sameobject in differentlanguages and that the samesound may be used to refer todifferent objects is anothergood example.Although language isarbitrary by nature, it isnot entirely arbitrary. Somewords, such as the wordscreated in the imitation ofsounds by sounds aremotivated in a certaindegree. The arbitrary natureof language makes itpossible for language tohave an unlimited source ofexpressions.2) Productivity能产性Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those that they have never said or heard before.3) Duality结构二重性It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4) Displacement语言的移位性（突破时空性）It means that language can be used to talk about what happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real word experiences or the experiences in our imaginary world. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmission文化传播性While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.**********************************Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication.Of the two media oflanguage, speech is morebasic than writing. Speechis prior to writing. Thewriting system of anylanguage is always“invented” by its users torecord speech when the needarises.For linguists, the studyof sounds is of greaterimportance than that ofwriting.The limited ranges ofsounds which are meaningfulin human communication andare of interest tolinguistic studies are thephonic medium of language(语言的声音媒介) .The individual soundswithin this range are thespeech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics什么是语音学Phonetics is defined asthe study of the phonicmedium of language；It isconcerned with all thesounds that occur in theworld’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2. Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in theirnative language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in theimmediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality ofstructure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next throughteaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the threefunctional components of adult language?I. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通语言学与描写语言学) The former deals with language in general whereas the latter isconcerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of thelanguage and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copes with languages with a view to establishing atheory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only the structure of language system whereas thelatter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech communitywhereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latteris the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to acertain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a languagewhile the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmittinginformation is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where theopening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs (双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs(三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly andcontinuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q]12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowelsare tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones (音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3. phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5. contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for anotherbrings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution(互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be incomplementary distribution.7. free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause anychange in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features (区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are knownas suprasegmental features.10. tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12. juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account forhow they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries todescribe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in achange of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because theformer occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred toas segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes (词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchicallydefined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphologicalrules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of alreadyexisting linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero mor ph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing (方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformationalrules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures. 5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are used to break a natural language sentencedown into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful groupingof sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we st art with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are theygenerated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation (外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within whichwords interrelate and define each other in various ways. The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy (同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?4. What are the sense relations between sentences?1) S1 is synonymous with S2.2) S1 entails S2.3) S1 contradicts S2.4) S1 presupposes S2.5) S1 is a tautology, and therefore invariably true.6) S1 is a contradiction, and therefore invariably false.7) S1 is semantically anomalous.1. Speech act theory (言语行为理论)2. Cooperative principle and its maxims (合作原则及其准则)3. Politeness principle and its maxims (礼貌原则及其准则)4. Conversational implicature (会话含义)5. Indirect speech act (间接言语行为)6. Pragmatic presupposition (语用学预设)7. Relevance theory (关联理论)8. Illocutionary act (言外行为)9. (Horn’s) Q-Principle and R-Principle10. Perfrmative verbs (施为句动词)1. Make comments on the different definitions of pragmatics.2. What are the main types of deixis?3. Explain the statement: context is so indispen sable in fully understanding interpreting the speaker’s meaning.4. How are Austin’s and Searle’s speech act theories related to each other?5. What’s the relationship between CP and PP?6. What do you know about presupposition triggers in English? Explain them briefly with examples.7. What is ostensive-referential communication?8. Explain the obvious presupposition of speaker who say each of the following:1) When did you stop beating your wife?2) Where did Tom buy the watch?3) Your car is broken.9. What do you think of the fol lowing statement? “Tom participated in spreading rumors” entails “Tom engaged in spreading rumors”.Chapter 9 话语分析1. text(语篇) = discourse 语篇是指实际使用的语言单位，是一次交际过程中的一系列连续的话段或句子所构成的语言整体。

自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结(希望对大家有帮助-我也是学生-这是由老师总的-我将P P T转为W O R D)(总15页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 2/ The scope oflinguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is oftencalled general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used inlinguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language iscalled semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use iscalled pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理recovery of speech ability)is generally knownas applied linguistics.（应用语言学）But in a narrow sense,applied linguistics refersto the application oflinguistic principles andtheories to languageteaching and learning,especially the teaching offoreign and secondlanguage.Other related branchesinclude anthropologicallinguistics, （人类语言学）neurologicallinguistics, （神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics, （数字语言学）and computationallinguistics. （计算机语言学）3/ Some importantdistinctions inlinguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive anddescriptive描写与规定If a linguistic studydescribes and analyzes thelanguage people actuallyuse, it is said tobe descriptive, if itaims to lay down rules totell people what theyshould say and what theyshould not say, it is saidto be prescriptive.Modern linguisticsdiffers from traditionalgrammar.Traditional grammar isprescriptive while modernlinguistics is descriptive.The task of linguists issupposed to describe thelanguage people actuallyuse, whether it is“correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic共时和历时The description of alanguage at some point ina diachronic study. Inmodern linguistics,synchronic study is moreimportant.Speech and writing口头语与书面语Speech and writing arethe two major media ofcommunication.Modern linguisticsregards the spoken form oflanguage as primary, butnot the written form.Reasons:1. Speech precedeswriting;2. There are still manylanguages that have onlythe spoken form;3. In terms of function,the spoken language isused for a wider range ofpurposes than the written,and carries a larger loadof communication than thewritten.Langue and parole[pə'rəul]语言和言语The Swiss linguist F.de Saussure made thedistinction between langueand parole early20th century.Langue refers to theabstract linguistic systemshared by all the membersof a speech community,and parole refers to therealization of langue inactual use.Saussure made thedistinction in order tosingle out one aspect oflanguage for serious study.He believes what linguistsshould do is to abstractlangue from parole, todiscover the regularitiesgoverning the actual useof language and make themthe subjects of study oflinguistics.语言能力和语言运用Competence andperformanceProposed by Americanlinguist N. Chomsky in thethe ideal user’sknowledge of the rules ofhis language,and performance theactual realization of thisknowledge in linguisticcommunication. He believesthe task of the linguistsis to discover and specifythe language rules.4/ What is language语言的定义Language is a system ofarbitrary vocal symbolsused for humancommunication.Sapir,Edward uses“ideas” “emotions” and“desires” in hisdefinition.Hall, like Sapir, treatslanguage as a purely humaninstitution.Chomsky’s definition isquite different, it focuson the purely structuralproperties of languagesand to suggest that theseproperties can beinvestigated from amathematically precisepoint of view.5/ Design features语言的甄别性特征Design features refer tothe defining properties ofhuman language thatdistinguish it from anyanimal system ofcommunication.American linguistCharles Hockett specifiedtwelve design features.1) Arbitrariness任意性（和约定俗成性）It means that there isno logical connectionbetween meanings andsounds.For instance, there is nonecessary relationshipbetween the word dog andthe animal it refers to.The fact that differentsounds are used to referto the same object indifferent languages andthat the same sound may beused to refer to differentnot entirely arbitrary. Some words, such as the words created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) Productivity能产性Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those that they have never said or heard before.3) Duality结构二重性It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything withintheir knowledge.4) Displacement语言的移位性（突破时空性）It means that language can be used to talk about what happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real word experiences or the experiences in our imaginary world. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. 5) Cultural transmission文化传播性While we are born withthe ability to acquirelanguage, the details ofany language are notgenetically transmitted,but instead have to betaught and learned anew.**********************************Chapter 2Phonology 音系学phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Speech and writing arethe two media used bynatural languages asvehicles for communication.Of the two media oflanguage, speech is morebasic than writing. Speechis prior to writing. Thewriting system of anylanguage is always“invented” by its usersto record speech when theneed arises.For linguists, the studyof sounds is of greaterimportance than that ofwriting.The limited ranges ofsounds which aremeaningful in humancommunication and are ofinterest to linguisticstudies are the phonicmedium of language (语言的声音媒介) .The individual soundswithin this range are thespeech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined asthe study of the phonicmedium of language；It isconcerned with all thesounds that occur in theworld’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

<语言学概论> 第一章: 语言和语言学一识记内容1口语:语言的客观存在形式首先是有声的口头语言2书面语:文字出现后语言的第二种客观存在形式3符号:指的是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体4能指:语言符号的物质实体能够指称某种意义的成分5所指:也就是“能指成分”,即特定的物质实体,所指的意义内容6聚合关系:在同一个位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位处在互相可以联想起来的关系之中,因而聚合成为一个类7组合关系:组合关系体现为一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位,或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系,也体现了部分与整体之间的关系8语言学:是研究语言的科学9普通语言学:语言学界把研究人类社会的语言这种社会现象的一般理论10理论语言学:把研究某种具体语言的语言学称为汉语语言学或英语语言学等等,把侧重理论探讨的称为理论语言学11应用语言学:侧重语言学理论和成果的实际应用12传统语言学:一般泛指20世纪前的语言学,特别是指索绪尔开创的结构主义语言学以前的语言学13结构主义语言学:索绪尔创立的语言学可以称为“结构主义语言学”,至于我国内常说的“结构主义语言学”“结构主义语法”,往往只是指在国外影响较大并且我国语言学界比较熟悉的美国结构主义描写语言学,那只是当代结构主义语言学的一个流派,并不等于受索绪尔影响的整个结构主义语言学二领会内容不用识记,大体知道即可1言语交际是一个编码和解码的过程？答:人要说话所需要的因素:生活经历社会环境当前处理的问题社会问题文化问题哲学问题逻辑问题人要接受语言所需要的因素:组织与分析的能力心理生理问题:发音听音的器官和神经网络及机制和能力:复杂的生理和物理问题总之一句话,言语交际是通过许多因素对语言进行编码和解码的过程,言者编码,听者解码“码”即所谓的言语2书面语和口语的主要差别？答:书面语比口语多了一些成分,是那些口语所特有的面部表情手势和体态,还有口气和语调用书面的文字语言来描述出来的成分,也就是书面语补上的某些省略以后影响理解的成分用二者的一致性来分析可以用公式理解:口语的基本语言成分=书面语的基本语言成分+用书面描写的口语非语言成分3书面语的产生具有重大的社会历史意义？答:书面语克服了人和人间进行交际传递信息和交流思想感情在空间和时间方面的限制,极大地加快了人类社会经验和知识积累的速度和传播的范围,从而大大加快了社会发展的步伐4语言和种族的关系？没有必然的联系,根本原因:语言能力和生理因素心理因素有关,但语言是一种社会现象,完全是在一定语言环境中后天获得的,所以语言和种族没有必然联系5语言与各个领域的社会活动都有着密切的联系,在这种情况下,语言学必须明确自己的研究对象,才能成为一门现代意义上的科学？答:语言客观存在形式是极其多样化的,可以从各个不同的角度,根据不同的需要,去研究客观存在的语言的各个不同的方面要形成一门现代意义上的科学首先要有明确的研究对象,然后才有可能形成自己完整的理论体系和方法论体系,那样才能成为一门现代意义上的科学如果研究对象长期不确定不明确,或者研究对象太杂,范围太宽,研究就不可能深入,就不可能形成自己的理论体系和方法论体系6语言和言语的区别？答:“语言”是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的,有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分因此也可以说“语言”是一个抽象的实体,是从言语活动中抽象出来的全社会约定俗成的一个均质的系统“语言”就有内在一致的规律,而“言语”则很难找到内在一致的规律语言=言语活动-言语,言语带着个人性,语言带着社会性7任何符号,包括语言符号都是形式和意义的统一体？答:无法把语言符号的声音实体和所表示的意义分开:声音离开了意义就不再是语音的声音,意义离开了声音也就不再是语言的意义,而且声音和所表示的意义一旦分开,语言符号也就不存在了语言的形式和意义是语言的两个不可分割的方面8语言符号的强制性？答:语言符号是社会约定俗成的,对使用同一种语言的每一个社会成员来说是强制性的,是不能任意改变的,因为如果个人可以任意改变,那就互相听不懂了,也就从根本上丧失柴交际工具的作用9语言符号的可变性？一方面在口耳相授的过程中细微的偏离现象是不可避免的,时间的推移,细微的偏离积累成明显的差异另一方面社会生活的不断变化,人口的增加,居住条件的改变,民族的形成,国家的出现,书面语的产生生产和科学技术的发展社会内部的阶层和行业等等的分化,都必然会引起语言在功能上的分化和发展10语言是一个系统?语言是一个人和人之间表达思想感情的符号系统,而人的思想感情是非常复杂的,因此表达人的思想感情的语言系统也必然是非常复杂的由语音系统语汇系统语法系统语义系统等子系统组成是各种不同的语言符号根据严密的组织规律分层次组织起来的,不同单位间互相联系互相制约的系统11语言系统的各个子系统的系统性是不平衡的?答:语言系统的各个子系统的系统性是有明显差异的,其中语音系统的系统性最强,几乎达到牵一发而动全身的地步语法子系统的系统性也很强,但比语音系统稍差一些就是按照一定的规律去进行语言的发音时态的变换等等语言系统的各个子系统均有这样的规律12语言系统具有相对的封闭性和自主性?答:系统性还表现为相对的封闭性,整个语言系统是在封闭状态下运转的,在一般情况下不依赖外界因素的支撑,不受外界因素的影响如果没有相对的封闭性也就不成其为一个系统13语言系统的层次性?答:语言的出层次性是就整个语言系统和各个子系统而言语言的层次性是就整个语言系统和各个子系统而言,都是分层次的,不是单一层次的,而且有上位层次下位层次之分大小依次为:语速—词—短语—句子,句子是最小的交际单位,句子和句子可以组合成语篇,语篇是最大的交际单位14组合关系的含义？答:组合关系体现为一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位,或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系,也体现在部分和部分,整体和部分之间的关系上15聚合关系的含义？答:在同一个位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位处在互相可以联想起来的关系之中,因而聚合成为一个类16组合关系和聚合关系的关系?聚合是在组合关系中体现出来的,或者说是在组合关系中分析出来的,而组合又体现为聚合关系的线性序列17普通语言学的含义和主要研究领域?研究领域包括的内容有:语言的定义,语言学的研究对象,语言和社会的关系,语言和思维的关系,语言本体的语音语法语汇语义和文字的一般规律,不同的语言结构系统的共性和特性等等18应用语言学的性质和主要研究领域?把语言学的理论和具体成果用来为社会实际生活中的某个领域服务,任何一门应用语言学都有自己的理论,都是依据一定的语言学理论结合具体应用领域的需要而形成的,是主要性质主要研究领域:1最早为第二语言教学的理论2实验语音学,是现代通讯领域应用语音学的理论和成果改进通讯质量和效能的体现3计算机的广泛翻译自然语言理解等等结合语言学的理论和成果,形成的新的应用语言学4也可用来侦破刑事案件19古代哲学家对语言的研究古代的语言本体研究?不论中外,古代哲学家都把对语言的哲学思辩作为语言研究的重点印度人希腊人已经对语法进行了深入系统的研究,奠定了后世语法研究的基础中国人则对语义文字音韵进行了深入系统的研究,这些都是对语言本体的研究,即使今天看来也是真正的语言学研究20历史比较语言学的产生?几个阶段:1从16世纪到18世纪,由于国际贸易的发展,西方一些学者懂得的语言和了解的语言大大增多217世纪和18世纪不少人纷纷搜集和编纂多语种的对照词表,有人发现欧亚两洲语言有明显相似之处,并开始加以比较研究,后来语言学吸收近代生理学和声学的研究成果,建立了科学的语音学,并运用其的理论和方法发现语言之间严格的语音对应规律3从18世纪末到19世纪初,历史比较语言学学科终于建立起来了21普通语言学的产生?答:由于语言学在各方面取得的成就,特别是对更多的语言的认识,就有可能产生关于“语言”的一般理论或者说普遍理论,这就是现在的“普通语言学”22索绪尔的主要贡献?主要贡献在从语言本体的角度界定了“语言,明确地限定了语言学的研究对象范围和重点,使语言学脱离了早期什么都研究,什么都难以深入的缺陷,走上研究对象相对单纯,因而有可能逐步形成本学科特有的理论体系和方法论体系的现代科学的道路23社会语言学功能语言学认知语言学等语言学新学派的产生?由于过分强调语言的自主性,企图摆脱语言跟人和社会之间客观存在的千丝万缕的联系,并在不同程度上忽视语义研究,也就越来越显露出自己的局限性,因此,就兴起了社会语言学功能语言学认知语言学24语言学和文学的关系?文学是语言的艺术,文学作品长期以来是语言学的研究素材诗律学修辞学文章学更跟文学创作和文学作品分不开的在基础科段,语言和文学是不分家的25语言学在历史学和考古学中的应用?答:中国甲骨文和金文的辨认全靠汉代语言学家许慎给我们留下了一部《说文解字》,而甲骨文和金文的解读则大大促进了中国古代史的研究古埃及的文字没人能认读,后来语言学家解读了在一块石碑上刻下的这种文字和古希腊文对照的铭文,才解开了古埃及文字之谜,美洲玛雅文字的解读则揭开了欧洲人来美洲以前印第安人历史的神秘面纱26语言学研究在语言规划中的作用?答:确定官方语言和教学语言,民族语言规范化,发展中国家同样需要补课27语言学研究与计算机科学?信息处理是对语言文字资料的处理一方面是现有的语言学研究成果还远远不能满足这方面的要求三思考内容1什么是语言的客观存在形式?答:语音是语言的物质外壳,是语言的客观形式,客观存在形式有两种:一利是有声的口头语言,一种是以文字作为载体的书面语一言2为什么说语言的客观存在形式跟语言学家研究的语言不完全是一模一样的?答:1)语言的客观存在形式有口语和书面语2)不同的人说同一个句子时各有不同,有个人特点同一个人在不同时间地点说同一句话也不能完全相同3)书面语也有个人特点4)语言学家研究的是经过主观的在不同程度上已经理想化和简单化了的语言5)所以说,语言的客观存在形式跟语言学家研究的不同3应该如何理解口语是第一性的,书面语是第二性的?口语是语言的第一种客观存在形式,而书面语是第二种客观存在形式,任一种语言总是先有口语,后有书面语,任何一种书面语又都只能是在口语的基础上产生的,并且或迟或早的总是要随着口语的演变而演变古往今来只有极少数语言在口语的基础上产生了相应的书面语,大多语言只有口语,并不存在书面语4为什么说语言虽然是民族的重要标志,但并不是最可靠的标志?在绝大多数情况下一个民族使用同一种语言,因此语言就成了民族的一个重要标志但是在很多情况下,民族又突破了语言作为标志的现象,这样看来,尽管“语言”是最直观,最容易识别的民族标志,但事实上还不是最可靠的标志,从目前了解到的情况来看,“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”也许是维系一个民族的最根本的因素,因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准。

简答题1言语交际是一个编码和解码的过程。

2书面语和口语的主要差别。

3书面语的产生具有重大的社会历史意义。

4语言和种族的关系5语言与各个领域的社会活动都有着密切的联系，在这种情况下，语言学必须明确自己的研究对象，才能成为一门现代意义上的科学。

6语言和言语的区别。

7任何符号，包括语言符号都是形式和意义的统一体。

8语言符号的强制性。

9语言符号的可变性10语言是一个系统11语言系统的各个子系统的系统性不平衡。

12语言系统具有相对的封闭性和自主性。

13语言系统的层次性14组合关系的含义15聚合关系的含义16组合关系和聚合关系的关系17普通语言学的含义和主要研究领域。

18应用语言学的性质和主要研究领域19、古代哲学家对语言的研究、古代的语言本体研究20、历史比较语言学的产生21、普通语言学的产生22、索绪尔的主要贡献23、社会语言学、功能语言学、认知语言学等语言学新学派的产生24、语言学和文学的关系25、语言学在历史学和考古学中的应用26、语言学研究在语言规划中的作用。

27、语言学研究与计算机科学。

28.简答语音中最基本的要素。

29.简答语音的本质属性体现在那些方面?30 简答国际音标与音素之间的关系。

31 简述元音分类的依据。

32 论述音位的性质(特征)。

33 音位的划分。

34.简答“对立关系”与“互补”关系35. 简答音位和音位变体的关系。

36. 音位与音素的区别。

37. 简答复元音与几个相连的单元音的区别。

38. 简答汉语普通话的音节结构特点。

39什么是语言的客观存在形式、为什么说语言的客观存在形式跟语言学家研究的语言不完全是一模一样的、应该如何理解口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的40、为什么说语言虽然是民族的重要标志，但并不是最可靠的标志。

41.为什么不能单凭“相互理解程度”来区分语言和方言。

42区分语言和言语有什么意43.应该如何理解语言符号的任意性44.语言符号的离散特征和线形特征对语言系统的结构特点有什么重大意义。