胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记章

[语言]（什么是语言）●语言是人类用于交际的任意的声音符号系统●语言是言语交流的一种方式（简洁地说）●语言是人类最重要的交际工具、思维工具、认识成果的贮存所●语言是实用性的●语言是社会的、约定俗成的●语言是把人和其他动物区别开来的一个重要标志●语言有四个本质特征：任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性*实用性的——因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为*社会的、约定俗成的——因为语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非谚语的暗示、动机、社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行。

[语言的本质特征]*（Russell）“不管一只狗可以多么流利地吠叫，它无法告诉你它的父母贫穷但又诚实。

”本质特征是决定我们人类语言性质的特征，包括任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性。

1 [任意性]由Saussure最先提出●指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系如果人类第一次看到猪是把它叫成“狗”，那么现在我们所知道的“猪”便叫做“狗”。

不同的语言中有不同的词来表达相同的概念：酒店—hotel，狗—dog同一语言中由于方言、历史、地理位置等原因也会出现这一特性：素质—质素，公鸡—鸡公，客人—人客●是人类语言多样性的一个重要原因●有不同的程度：（1）语素的音和义之间的任意性狗叫：wow wow—wang wang拟声词的发音看上去代表了他们所描述的词，但实际上任意性和拟声是可以同时起作用的（2）句法上的任意性对于系统功能语言学家和美国功能语言学家来说，语言在句法上是非任意的。

因为句子序列和真实发生的事情之间有着一定程度的对应关系He came in and sat down.He sat down and come in.功能语言学家认为语言最严格的任意性在于对立的语音，通过它我们辨别各组词。

（3）约定性语言学上意义和符号之间是约定俗成的关系，所以语言有约定性，即任意性的相反面任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力，约定性又使学习语言变得费力。

W e e k1.T h e N a t u r e o f H u m a n L a n gFerdinand de Saussure (1857,11 – 1913,2 ), a Swiss linguist whose ideas laid a foundation for many significant developments in linguistics in the 20th century and widely considered to be one of the fathers of 20th-century linguistics, said in 1916:“Language is a system of signs that express ideas, and is therefore comparable to a system of writing…”Edward Sapir (1884, 1-1939, 2), a German-born American anthropologist- linguist, said in 1921:“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotion and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”Bernard Bloch (1907–1965) and George Trager(1906–1992), American linguists, said in 1942:"A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates."Noam Chomsky (1928- ) an American linguist, said in 1957:“A set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”R.A. Hall (1911–1997), an American linguist and specialist in the Romance languages, said in 1968:“The institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral- auditory arbitrary symbols.”A language is the system of symbols with the most general meanings of any used by humans.The perceptible portions of linguistic symbols are articulatory gestures, transmitted one after another usually as sounds.They are used to communicate or store information, or even to design and think.★The definition that most linguists agree:Language is a s y s t e m of arbitrary v o c a l s y m b o l s used for h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n.In the sense of our linguistic study, it is generally held that:Language is a system—It is made up of units, functions, and relations.Language is a set of symbols—It involves signs, which are sequences of sounds, those can be transferred into vocal signs.Language is vocal—In linguistics, language is first of all speech, meaningful vocal sounds.Language is human—In the study of this course, language is restricted to human natural language.Language is communication—The chief purpose of language.Of all the aptitudes and behaviors which characterize human beings, language is the most uniquely human, and quite possibly the most important. Language is a capacity that distinguishes human beings from other creatures.Major Design Features of Human LanguageArbitrariness Words and their meaning have no a priori connection. We cannot tell from the sound structure which meaning is behind it. Duality of patterning Language has two levels of structure: at the level of sound and at the level of meanings, and these two levels of structure are independent of one another.Productivity Language has the capacity to generate an infinite variety of messages, including messages that have never been said before. Displacement Language is able to refer to things that are removed from the speaker in both time and space.Traditional (Cultural) transmission Language is learned through cultural transmission, typically from parents and older siblings, children build their grammar of language by inference from a limited sample of sentences.Interchangability Individuals can both receive and transmit messages.Functions of LanguageLanguage as a means of communication: Communication of information, ideas,feelings and emotionThe cognitive and social functions of language behavior: the former refers to the transmission of propositional, or factual, information and discursive reasoning or “cogitation”; the second to the establishment and maintenance of social rapport.※Some descriptionsThe well-known model of the functions of language introduced by the Russian-American linguist, Roman Jakobson in "Linguistics and Poetics“, Jakobson's model of the functions of language distinguishes six elements, or factors of communication, that are necessary forcommunication to occur:※Briefly, these six functions can be described as follows:(1)the referential function is oriented toward the context (the dominant function in a message like 'Water boils at 100 degrees');(2) the emotive function is oriented toward the addresser (as in the interjections 'Bah!' and 'Oh!');(3) the conative function is oriented toward the addressee (imperatives and apostrophes);(4) the phatic function serves to establish, prolong or discontinue communication [or confirm whether the contact is still there] (as in 'Hello?');(5) the metalingual function is used to establish mutual agreement on the code (for example, a definition);(6) the poetic function(e.g., 'Smurf'), puts 'the focus on the message for its own sake' [Jakobson, 1960, p. 356]Three Basic Functions of Language1. Informative language function: essentially, the communication of information.a. The informative function affirms or denies propositions, as in science.b. This function is used to describe the world or reason about it (e.g.., whether a state of affairs is true or false).c. These sentences have a truth value; hence, they are important for logic.2. Expressive language function: reports feelings or attitudes of the writer (or speaker), or of the subject, or evokes feelings in the reader (or listener).a. Poetry is one of the best examples, but much of, perhaps most of, ordinary language discourse isthe expression of emotions, feelings or attitudes.b. Two main aspects are generally noted: (1) to evoke certain feelings and (2) to express feelings.c. Expressive discourse, qua expressive discourse, is best regarded as neither true or false.e.g., Shakespeare's King Lear's lament, "Ripeness is all!" Even so, the nature of "fictional statements" is an interesting area of inquiry.3. Directive language function: language used for the purpose of causing or preventing overt actions.a. The directive function is most commonly found in commands and requests.b. Directive language is not normally considered true or false (although a logic of commands have been developed).c. Example: "Close the windows." The Origin of languageThe origin of language is still mystery. Scholars over the centuries have been interested in it because man and language are so closely related that they believed that if we know how and when language originated we would probably know how and when man arose as well. There are beliefs throughout the world that language is a gift from God to mankind. One of such beliefs is found in the Holy Bible.The Book of Genesis 2:19-20 has God give Adam the task of assigning names to all the animals and plants he had in Eden.God said, 'They are a single people, all having one language, and this is the first thing they do! Now nothing they plan to do will be unattainable for them! Come, let us descend and confuse their speech, so that one person will not understand another's speech'. (Book of Genesis 11:1-9)God punished human presumption in building the Tower of Babel by confusing the tongues of the builders.The observed variety of humanlanguages is a consequence of that divine judgment.Some Hypotheses that try to explain the origins of human languageThe "ding-dong" hypothesis This hypothesis places the origin of human language in onomatopoeia: the various imitative sounds that humans make to mimic the sounds of the world around them. So boom becomes a word for thunder, and oink for a pig.The "bow-wow" hypothesis Similar to the "ding-dong" hypothesis, this one has humans forming their first words by imitating animal sounds.The "pooh-pooh" hypothesis According to this hypothesis, the first words developed from sighs of pleasure, moans of pain, and other semi-involuntary cries or exclamations. These vocalisms then became the names of the phenomena that made people say them.The “ta-ta” hypothesis Charles Darwin lent his authority to this hypothesis. According to this, human language represents the use of oral gestures that began in imitation of hand gestures that were already in use for communicationThe Indian-born British neurologist Vilayanur S. Ramachandran’s(拉马钱兰)research into synesthesia(心理联感) and sound symbolism （语音象征）would seem to support this hypothesis.语音象征指语言在长期使用的过程中，依据语言符号象似性的原理，某些语音常用于表示某种意思，给人某种语义联想，这些语音似乎具有了自己固定的象征含义。

第1章语言学导论1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与特征2.The origin and the function of language语言的起源和功能3.Main branches of linguistics study语言学研究的范围和内容4.Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分本章考点：1.有关语言的常考考点语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、文化传递和互换性)；语言的功能(提供信息、人际交往、施为、表达情感、寒暄、娱乐、元语言)；语言的起源(神授说，人造说(“汪汪”，“噗噗”，“哟-嘿-吼”理论)，进化说)等。

2.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别。

(2)语言学研究的四个原则及其简要说明。

语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。

(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。

(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

本章内容索引：I.Definition of languageII.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Creativity4.Displacement5.Cultural Transmission6.InterchangeabilityIII.Origin of language1.The Biblical account2.The bow-wow theory3.The pooh-pooh theory4.The yo-he-ho theory5.The evolution theoryIV.Functions of languagermative function2.Interpersonal function3.Performative function4.Emotive function5.Phatic function6.Recreational function7.Metalingual functionV.Definition of linguisticsVI.Branches of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsVII.Important concepts and their distinctions1.Descriptive vs.Prescriptive2.Synchronic vs.Diachronicngue vs.Parolepetence vs.Performance5.Etic vs.Emic6.Traditional Grammar vs.Modern Grammar7.Linguistic Potential vs.Actual Linguistic BehaviorI.The definition of language(语言的定义)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.This definition has revealed five essential factors of language:systematic,arbitrary,vocal,symbolic语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。

【最新整理，下载后即可编辑】Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed ofelements of the secondary level and each of the two levels hasits own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rulewhich can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. Therecursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for thepossibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.加1 Each sound in the language is加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolicrelation between meaning and form. There areresemblances between the language form andwhat they refer to. That relationship is calledicon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons andsyntax. It is the motivation between languageforms and meanings. It is a relation ofresemblance between language form and whatthey refer to.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.1. function: to convey new information, toembodying all use of language to3. referring to the fact that language hasto make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a livingpassage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions: 1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. 1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talkabout a book, and I can also use the expression “the wordbook” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, andauditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape ofsyllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the studyof the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 Macrolinguistics1.8.1 Psycholinguistics1.8.2 Sociolinguistics1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics1.8.4 Computational linguisticsthe linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which themembers of a language-community actually conform and doesnot seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, ofcorrectness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and forall.For example, “Don’t say X.”is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement.The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be anddescribing how things are. In the 18th century, all the mainEuropean languages were studied prescriptively. However,modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature oflinguistics as a science determines its preoccupation withdescription instead of prescription.1.9.2as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic descriptionis the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g.a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’stime would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is ofteninfluenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’sperformance does not always match his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence,rather than performance. Chomsky’scompetence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as,though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction.Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of acommunity, while competence is deemed as a property of mindof each individual. Saussure looks at language more from asociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomskysince the latter deals with his issues psychologically orpsycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emicBeing etic means researcher s’making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just asoften the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis inlinguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the nativemembers of a speech community rather than via appeal to theinvestigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three mainareas:1. phonetics –the study of the production of2. phonetics –the study of the physical properties of3. phonetics –the study of perception of speechMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in anylanguage according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consist of letters anddiacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet,some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive:2. Fricative:3. (Median) approximant:4. Lateral (approximant):2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with thelower lip and the upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tipor blade and the upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with thetongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with thetongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with thetongue tip or blade curled back so that the underside ofthe tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the backof the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front ofthe tongue and the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back ofthe tongue and the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back ofthe tongue and the uvula, the short projection of thesoft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the rootof the tongue and the walls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the twopieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English”or “OxfordEnglish” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonants[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximantChapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of alanguage that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms ofrelationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes”has two morphemes: “box”and “es,”neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme.E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s”makes the allomorphsthereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute,by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. Stability2. Relative uninterruptibility3. A minimum free form3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable words2. Grammatical words and lexical words3. Closed-class words and open-class words4. Word class3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1.those which may constitute words by themselves, are freemorphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further beanalyzed. An affix is the collective term for the type offormative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute ordelicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys,walks, John’s,etc. Therefore, they serve toproduce different forms of a single word. In contrast,derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning.E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class ofthe word they attach to, such as flower, flowers,whereas derivational affixes might or might not, suchas the relation between small and smallness for theformer, and that between brother and brotherhoodfor the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned bynonsemantic linguistic factors outside the word theyattach to but within the phrase or sentence. E.g. thechoice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on theinternet.”is determined by the subject the boy inthe sentence, whereas derivational affixes are moreoften based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. Thechoice of clever and cleverness depends on whetherwe want to talk about the property “clever” or wewant to talk about “the state of being clever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes,which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, etc.But derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes.E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, whichdo not change the grammatical class of the stems to whichthey are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassifiedinto the compositional type (compound) and derivationaltype (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join twoseparate words to produce a single form, such asice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room,simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb.Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or asynthetic compound. Usually, the first member is aparticipant of the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control,pain-killer, etc. Adjectives: virus-sensitive, machinewashable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formed byV + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric comefrom V + N and V + A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat,etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc.(2) DerivationDerivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations canmake the word class of the original word either changedor unchanged.3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology1. Allomorph: Any of the different forms of a morpheme.2. Morphophonology / morphophonemics:Morphophonology is a branch of linguistics referring tothe analysis and classification of the phonological factorsthat affect the appearance of morphemes, andcorrespondingly, the grammatical factors that affect theappearance of phonemes. It is also called morphonologyor morphonemics.3. Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the change of asound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called “contact”or“contiguous” assimilation.4. Dissimilation: Dissimilation refers to the influenceexercised by one sound segment upon the articulation ofanother, so that the sounds become less alike, ordifferent.3.3 Lexical change3.3.1 Lexical change proper1. InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items comedirectly from the consumer items, their producers or theirbrand names.2. BlendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part ofthe first word and the final part of the second word, or byjoining the initial parts of the two words.3. Abbreviation / clippingA new word is created by cutting the final part, cuttingthe initial part or cutting both the initial parts of the originalwords.4. AcronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5. Back-formationBack-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deletingan imaged affix from a longer form already in the language.6. Analogical creationThe principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in theconjugation of some English verbs.7. BorrowingEnglish in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languageshave all played an active role in this process.3.3.2 Phonological change1. LossThe loss of sound can first refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system.The loss of sounds may also occur in utterances at theexpense of some unstressed words.2. AdditionSounds may be lost but they may also be added to the original sound sequence.3. MetathesisMetathesis is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds. Metathesis had been originally aperformance error, which was overlooked and accepted bythe speech community.4. AssimilationAssimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is morespecifically called “contact”or “contiguous”assimilation.3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change1. Morphological changeThe form of inflectional affixes may also change.2. Syntactical changeThere are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words3.3.4 Semantic change1. BroadeningBroadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its specific sense to a relatively general one.2. NarrowingContrary to broadening, the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3. Meaning shiftAll semantic changes involve meaning shift. Here meaning shift is understood in its narrow sense, i.e. thechange of meaning has nothing to do with generalization orrestriction as mentioned above.4. Class shiftBy shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process orattribution. This process of word formation is also knownas zero-derivation, or conversion.5. Folk etymologyFolk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of theorigin or meaning of the term or from the influence ofmore familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.3.3.5 Orthographic changeChanges can also be found at the graphitic level. Since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological changes will no doubt set off graphitic changes.End of Chapter 3Chapter 4 Syntax4.1 The traditional approach4.1.1 Number, gender and case4.1.2 Tense and aspect[For these two sections, please consult materials ontraditional English grammar. – icywarmtea]4.1.3 Concord and governmentConcord (a.k.a. agreement) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntacticrelationship should agree with each other in terms of somecategories. E.g. in English the determiner and the noun itprecedes should concord in number as in this man, these men.And the form of a subject should agree with that of the verb interms of number in the present tense, e.g. He speaks English;They speak English.Government is another type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic construction. Itdiffers from concord in that this is a relationship in which aword of a certain class determines the form of others in termsof certain category. E.g. in English, the pronoun after a verb ora preposition should be in the object form as in She gave him abook; She gave a book to him. In other words, the verb, or thepreposition, governs the form of the pronoun after it. Theformer is the governor, and the latter is the governed.4.2 The structural approach4.2.1 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic (a.k.a. horizontal / chain) relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or betweenelements which are all present, such as the relation betweenweather and the others in the following sentence: If the weatheris nice, we’ll go out.Paradigmatic (a.k.a. vertical / choice) relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at aparticular place in a structure, or between one element presentand the others absent.4.2.2 Immediate constituent analysis (IC analysis)1. How to do itImmediate constituents are constituents immediately, directly, below the level of a construction, which may be asentence or a word group or a word.Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediateconstituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turnanalyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and theprocess goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience. The ICanalysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets orshown with a tree diagram. E.g.Poor John ran away. →(1) ((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)).(2)Poor John ran awayThrough IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, any ambiguities, if any, will berevealed in that IC analysis emphasizes not only the linearstructure of the sentence but also the hierarchical structure ofthe sentence. E.g. the sentence Leave the book on the shelf. isambiguous. It has two meanings: (1) Put the book on the shelf;(2) Don’t touch the book on the shelf. These two meaningscan be shown by the following tree diagrams. (Omitted. See thetextbook p125~128.)3. Its problemsHowever, IC analysis has three disadvantages. First, at the beginning, some advocator insisted on binary divisions. Anyconstruction, at any level, will be cut into two parts. But this isnot possible. E.g. Old men and women is ambiguous in that itmay mean old + men and women or old men + and women.It’s impossible to combine with only the preceding part oronly the succeeding part. Second, constructions withdiscontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for treediagrams in IC analysis. E.g. the phrasal verbs like make up,turn on, or give up will cause problems in that when the objectis expressed by a pronoun, it will interrupt the phrasal verb asin make it up. The most serious problem is that there arestructural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis.E.g. the tree diagram and the labels can only do one analysis forthe love of God.4.2.3 Endocentric and exocentric constructionsAn endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one ofits constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of thewhole. It is also called headed construction. Typical endocentricconstructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjectivephrases. They may be further divided into two subtypes:subordinate and coordinate constructions. Those, in whichthere is only one head, with the head being dominant and theother constructions dependent, are subordinate constructions.In the coordinate construction, there are more than one head,e.g. boys and girls, in which the two content constituents, boysand girls, are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependenton the other.The exocentric construction is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalentto any of its constituents. There is no noticeable center or headin it. Typical exocentric constructions are prepositional phrases,subordinate clauses, English basic sentences, and the verb plusobject constructions.4.3 The generative approach4.3.1 Deep and surface structuresIn transformational generative grammar (a.k.a. T-G grammar), the deep structure may be defined as the abstractrepresentation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its differentconstituents, such as the relation between the underlyingsubject and its verb, or a verb and its object.The surfaces structure is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to thestructural organization of a construction people actuallyproduce and receive.The example for the surface structure is The newspaper was not delivered today. The deep structure of the above sentencewould be something like: (negative) someone (past tense)deliver the newspaper today (passive). The items in brackets arenot lexical items but grammatical concepts which shape thefinal form of the sentence. Rules which describe deep structureare in the first part of the grammar (base component). Ruleswhich transform these structures into surface structures(transformational rules) are in the second part of the grammar(transformational component).4.3.2 The standard theory and afterWhat is the trace theory?[I think this is difficult. It is too abstract for me. –icywarmtea]After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace inT-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace,all the necessary information for semantic interpretation maycome from the surface structure. E.g. The passive Dams arebuilt by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in。

胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享（全；免"支持"版：）《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章??语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章? ?? ?语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章? ?? ?语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章? ???音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章? ? 词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章? ? 词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章??句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章? ?语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章? ?语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章??语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

好的，以下是考研语言学专业课复习攻略：
1.复习要点
第2章语音学的主要内容包括以下方面：
（1）语音符号：声母、韵母、声调和语调等；
（2）语音系统：语音库、音位、音系、音变等；
（3）语音规律：音位组合规律、音节结构规律、声调变化规律等；（4）语音变异：方言、口音、个体差异等。

2.学习目标
通过本章的学习，你应该能够：
（1）理解语音学的基本概念，包括声音、音素、音位、音系等；
（2）掌握各种语音符号的特点和用法，以及声调语调的分类和作用；
（3）了解语音规律和变异现象，掌握语音变异的基本类型和特点；
（4）掌握语音学研究的基本方法和技术，如声谱分析、声学实验等。

3.时间安排
第一天：
上午：阅读第2章，理解语音学的基本概念和语音符号的特点和用法。

下午：掌握声调语调的分类和作用，了解语音规律和变异现象。

第二天：
上午：了解语音变异的基本类型和特点，掌握语音学研究的基本方法和技术。

下午：进行实验操作或模拟练习，加深对语音学知识的理解和运用。

4.总结
通过以上复习要点和学习目标，你可以在2天内全面了解语音学的基本概念和知识体系，掌握各种语
音符号的特点和用法，了解声调语调的分类和作用，学习语音规律和变异现象，掌握语音学研究的基本方法和技术。

建议在学习过程中注重实践和思考，多进行练习和实验操作，加深对概念和方法的理解和记忆。

同时，还应该注意扩大知识面，关注语音学的前沿研究和应用领域，为未来的学术研究和职业发展打下坚实的基础。

《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

第2章语音2.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Speech Organs 发音器官2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则3. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions协同发音和语音转写4. Phonemes and Allophones音位和音位变体5. Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features音系过程、音系规则和区别特征6. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation音节结构、重音和语调常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；音姿的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类、基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法。

2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系和区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布与互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音(词重音、句子重音)；音高和语调。

本章内容索引I. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology1. Phonetics2. Three Major Research Fields of Phonetics3. PhonologyII. Speech Organs▼1. Gestures2. Speech organs3. Voiceless sounds4. Voiced sounds5. IPAIII. Consonants and Vowels1. Definition2. Consonants(1) Manner of Articulation and Place of Articulation(2) Classification of Consonants3. Vowel(1) Cardinal vowels(2) Criteria of vowel description(3) Monophthongs, Diphthongs and Triphthongs IV. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions＊1. Coarticulation＊2. Phonetic TranscriptionV. Phonemes and Allophones1. Phoneme2. AllophonesVI. Phonological Processes and Distinctive Features1. Phonological processes2. Assimilation＊3. Distinctive featuresVII. Suprasegmentals1. Suprasegmental features2. The Syllable Structure▼3. Sonority Scale▼4. Stress(1) Change of the stresses due to suffixes(2) Stresses in compounds and phrases5. Intonation and ToneI. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology (语音学和音系学的定义)1. Phonetics (语音学)Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.语音学研究语音的发生、传递和感知。