简明语言学教程8

Leçon Huit第八课本课重点：1.音素总结2.自我介绍的句型Ⅰ音素小结1. 元音：[а] [ε] [i] [u] [ә] [œ] [e] [Ɔ] [o] [oe] [y] [ã] [Õ] [Ø] [Ɛ]辅音： [p] [t] [k] [s][l] [n] [f] [r] [З] [∫] [b] [v] [m] [d] [g] [η] [z]半元音：[w] [ų] [j]4.对应的清浊辅音 :[p-b] [t-d] [k-g] [f-v] [З-∫] [s-z]对应的清浊辅音群：[tr-dr] [kl-gl][pl-bl]对应的元音及半元音：[u-w] [y-ų] [i-j]对应的元音及鼻化元音：[a-ã] [Ɔ-Õ] [ε-Ɛ] [oe-OE]5.语音、语法知识点及定义：1.清辅音、浊辅音、音节、开音节和闭音节（第一课）2.重音、节奏组、联诵、长音（第二课）3.连音、字母h、连词符（第三课）4.音节的划分、省音和词末发音的辅音字母总结（第四课）5.名词的阴阳性、名词的限定成分和de表示领属关系（第五课）6.名词的单复数、否定形式、ne…pas结构、疑问句的基本形式（4种）、长音小结（第六课）7.主语人称代词、动词变位（être、avoir）、普通名词和专有名词、冠词的省略、阳性名词转化为阴性名词的基本规则（第七课）8.书写注意事项及拼写符号（第八课）II 句型3.Qu’est-ce que c’est ?（可对单数或复数提问）这是什么？/这些是什么？C’est un cahier. /Ce sont des cahiers. 这是一本练习本。

/这些是练习本。

4.Est-ce que c’est une robe ? （一般疑问句，回答用oui，+ 肯定句；non，+ 否定句）这是一条裙子吗？Oui, c’est une robe. / Non, ce n’est pas une robe.是的，这是一条裙子。

Chapter one Introduction一、定义1. Linguistics 语言学Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. General Linguistics 普通语言学The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3. Language 语言Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4. Design Features 识别特征It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

⑴Arbitrariness任意性There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵Productivity多产性Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶Duality双重性Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.⑷Displacement移位性Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmission文化传递Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. This showed that language is culturally transmitted. Not by instinct. Animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5. Competence 语言能力Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6. Performance 语言运用Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

Linguistics is a scientific study of language .语言学是对语言进行的科学研究。

General linguistics is the study of language as a whole. 普通语言学是对语言从整体上进行的研究the major branches of linguistics:语言学内部主要分支Phonetics：the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.. (语音学)对语言交流中语音的研究Phonology the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. (音位学)如何组合在一起并在交流中形传达意义.Morphology:the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (词法学、形态学)如何排列以及组合起来构成词语Syntax:the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (句法学) 如何在组成语法上可接受的句子Semantics(语义学) the study of meaning in abstraction 语言是用来传达意义的。

Pragmatics(语用学) the study of meaning in context of use 用来研究上下文的意义跨学科分支Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. 社会语言学是语言和社会之间关系的研究Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.心理语言学是语言与心灵的关系的研究Applied linguistics is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. 应用语言学是外国和第二语言教学的研究Some important distinctions in linguistic s 语言学中一些基本区分1.Descriptive or PrescriptiveA linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior. 描述性是在描述和分析人们对语言的实际运用，规定性是在为语言“正确和规范的”使用确立规则。

Chapter 8 Language and society语言和社会知识点：1.*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; ReceivedPronunciation2.Relatedness between language and society3.*Varieties of language4.*Halliday’s register theory5.Degree of formality6.Standard Dialect7.# Pidgin and Creole8.*#Bilingualism vs. diglossia考核目标：识记：*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; Received Pronunciation领会：Relatedness between language and society; Varieties of language; Degree of formality; Degree of formality; Standard Dialect; Pidgin and Creole简单应用：Bilingualism vs. diglossia综合应用：Halliday’s register theory一、定义1.Sociolinguistics 社会语言学: is s the sub-field of linguistics that studies relation between language and society, between the ues of language and the social structures in which the users of lamguage live. 社会语言学是语言学中的一个次领域，它研究语言与社会的关系，以及语言的运用和语言使用者所在的社会结构之间的关系。

《新编简洁英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参照答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. Howdo you interpret the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order todiscover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has tocollect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities,and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypothesesabout the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checkedrepeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as inany other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is,a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3)morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbolsrepresenting sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4)syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined toform grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5)semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6)pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as“ traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybeover-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of itspermanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does notforce languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over adiachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than towriting?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary mediumof human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution,speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented ”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount ofinformation conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every nativespeaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later whenhe goes to school.For modern linguists,spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the“revised ” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6.How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar toChomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least inthat Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue isa matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychologicalpoint of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答： First of all, language is a system, ., elements of language are combinedaccording to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connectionbetween a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third,language is vocal because the primary mediumfor all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from thecommunication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of humanlanguage that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答： The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary.This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used torefer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the constructionand interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce andunderstand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they havenever heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower orthe basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediatesituations of the speaker. This is what“displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile humancapacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system arenot genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9.What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examplesfor illustration.答： Three main functions are often recognized of language:the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which canbe asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example:“China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences,prejudices,and values.For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her. ”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations betweenpeople. . For example:“We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1.What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, whichone is primary and why?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, pleaserefer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and someconsonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription.This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.The latter,. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription.This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of thediacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it isnecessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the fourwords leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l]in[li:f],occurring before a vowel,is called a dear [l],and no diacritic is needed to indicate it;the[1] in[fi:l]and [bild],occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1]as in“leaf”. Itis called dark[?]and in narrow transcription the diacritic[?]is used to indicate it.Then in the sound combination[hel θ],the sound [l]is followed by the English dental sound [ θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it.It is thus called a dental[l],and in narrow transcription the diacritic [ 、 ] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounceddifferently in the two words pit and spit.In the word pit,the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent.In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit,the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription,but in narrow transcription, a small raised“h” is used to show aspiration, thuspit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of mannerof articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place ofarticulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental,dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to whichpart of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group,we need to apply another criterion, . the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, weclassify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-openvowels,and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classificationof vowels is the shape of the lips.In English,all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels,i. e.,without rounding the lips,and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowelscan be pronounced with rounded lips.6.A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1)voiced palatal affricate2)voiceless labiodental fricative3)voiced alveolar stop4)front, close, short5)back, semi-open, long6)voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?]6) [?]答： A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop(2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate(4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short(6) front, open7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do youthink will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p],a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the sameaspect of language–– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, theydiffer in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, howthey differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can beclassified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speechsounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to conveymeaning in linguistic communication.(2)A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasksof the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and[?], [ph] and [p].8.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophonesrelated to a phoneme?答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produceduring linguistic communication are all phones. A phonemeis not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phoneticcontext. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme/l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophonesof the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word beginswith a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi]are impossible combinations in English.They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying ” a featureof a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation ofneighbouring sounds is, for the most part,caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This“sloppy ” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, ., itdoes not distinguish meaning. But this does not meanthat vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phoneticcontexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green,team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of thealveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, thenasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it.Weknow that in English the prefix in- can be added to maadjective to makethe meaning of the word negative, . discreet–indiscreet, correct–incorrect. But the [n]sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so inthe word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, . [d], is an alveolarstop,but the [n]sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, . [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop.So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are“copying ” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.Wehave noticed that in the p ronunciation of such words as sign,design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by theletter g. But in their corresponding forms signature,designation,and paradigmatic, the [g]represented by the letter g is pronounced.The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign– signature, resign– resignation, phlegm–phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will bedeleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features ofEnglish function in conveying meaning?答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress,intonation,and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift ofstress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although itsspelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones,the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a“+”between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答： a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2.Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the typesof stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc. ” translator, “one who translates ”答： (1) suffix:-ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples:acceptable,respectable,“can be accepted “can be respected””(2) suffix:-lymeaning: functionalstem type:added to adjectivesexamples: freely.“adverbial form of‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick'”.(3) suffix:-eemeaning:the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee,“one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed ”3.Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the typesof stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not ”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric,“lacking symmetry ” asexual, “without sex or sex organs ”答： (1) prefix:dis-meaning:showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove,“do not approve ”dishonesty, “lack of honesty ”.(2) prefix:anti-meaning:against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples :antinuclear,“opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial,“opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community.”(3) prefix:counter-meaning:the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples:counterproductive,“prod ucing results opposite to thoseintended ”(sth.) ”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答： (1) the third person singular(2)the past tense(3)the present perfect(4)the present progressive5.Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related toone another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d)democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：( 略)6.The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes.Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer ’s cows escaped.b)It was raining.c)Those socks are inexpensive.d)Jim needs the newer copy.e)The strongest rower continued.f)She quickly closed the book.g)The alphabetization went well.答：( 略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined toform sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrasestructure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP→ (Det) N (PP) ...VP→ (Qual) V (NP) ...AP→ (Deg) A (PP) ...PP→ (Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which Xstands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP→ (specifier)X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the sameor similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namelymeaning, inflection and distribution.若详尽回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property orattribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. Forexample, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property‘pretty’to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly,the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted byadverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words ofdifferent categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix - ing . And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix - er and superlative affix - est . Although inflection is very helpful in determininga word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections.For example, nouns like moisture , fog , do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent , intelligent do not take comparative and superlativeaffixes - er and - est .The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. Forexample, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type withthe help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear priorto the conjunction.2)A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3)Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category typeof the elements being conjoined.5.What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier andcomplement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, ithelps to makemore precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks aphrase boundary.Complement:Complementsare themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rulein accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of thesentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure ).（以下几题只作初步的的成分区分，未画树形图,仅供参照）7.Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd)This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier.Drawthe appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A +complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) → specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) → specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) → specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +complement (the window)NPd) The apple might hit the man.S → NP(The apple) + Infl (might) +VP(hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S → NP(He) + VP(often reads detective stories)9.The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence,first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）extreme caution.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane withmoon hung in the sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A woodenhut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a treestructure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范围）a)Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b)Helen put on her clothes and went out.c)Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function ascomplements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure foreach sentence.a)You know that I hate war.b)Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c)Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d)The children argued over whether bats had wings.12.Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw thedeep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a)The essay that he wrote was excellent.b)Herbert bought a house that she lovedc)The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.（斜体的为深层构造，一般字体的为表层构造）a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Helen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the window?who broke the windowChapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答： (1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. Accordingto this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used ina language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2)The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguisticform and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms ofsituation, use, context––elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was . Firth, famous British linguist.。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》自学指导书一、课程编码及适用专业课程编码：04101212适用专业：英语专业函授本科二、课程性质《新编简明英语语言学教程》是英语专业函授本科必修的一门基础课程，是高等学校英语专业（四年制）高年级阶段所开设的一门课。

英语语言学是一门理论性很强的课程，涉及多个学科，知识广泛，是英语专业本科阶段由基础步入提高阶段的一门综合性理论课程。

三、本课程的地位和作用本课程与英语专业其他课程相辅相成。

作为一门理论性较强的课程，英语语言学的学习和理解有赖于英语专业其他课程为学生打下良好的英语基础。

同时，本课程介绍的语言各层次的基本理论和成果将会提高学生对语言的社会、人文、经济、科技以及个人修养等方面重要性的认识，使学生了解语言研究的丰富成果，这对于学生学好英语专业其他课程，也大有裨益。

四、学习目的和要求本课程的学习目的和要求在于全方位地提高学生的语言学理论水平和理论指导实践的能力，引导学生探索英语交际能力的提高途径、英汉两种语言的差异，拓宽学生的思路和视野，培养语言意识，发展理性思维，以期帮助学生理解和掌握英汉语习得规律，用以指导语言学习和教学实践。

为了学好这门课，学习时应注意以下几点：（一）理解和掌握语言学各个分支的基本定义和概念。

（二）在掌握定义的基础上，反复练习和实践语言的产生、发展和结构。

（三）将语言学和现实生活结合起来，把语言和社会结合起来，把语言和文化结合起来。

（四）将英语语言学和汉语语言学进行比较学习。

五、本课程的学习方法为了学好本课程，首先要树立正确的学习目的和态度，在学习中要刻苦钻研、踏踏实实、掌握语言及语言学各层次的各种概念和术语，全面系统地了解语言现象，意识到语言研究的重要性，并能描述语言现象。

通过认真听老师讲课，对语言学理论有一个整体的把握，熟悉语言学各层面研究的经典理论并能把握语言学理论的最新发展。

在学习中注意语言学理论的各个不同层次与不同阶段的不同要求，把握不同阶段的侧重点，理清语言学发展的脉路。

Chapter 9 Language and Culture1. What is culture?Culture2. relationship between language and cultureDiscourse community3. Sapir-Whorf hypothesisLinguistic relativityStrong version---weak version4. Linguistic evidence of cultural differencesP123-1285.Cultural teaching and learningAccultuation6. cultural overlap and diffusion7. Intercultual communicationChapter 10 Language Acquisition1. definitionLanguage acquisition—the child’s development of his mother tongue2. three theories of language acquisition1) Behaviorist viewStimulus-Response-Reinforcement2) Innatist viewALD3) Interactionist viewMotherese/caretaker talk3. Cognitive factorsTwo ways4. language environment and the critical period hypothesisCritical periodTwo versions5. Stages in child language developmentT/F1. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their native language of the community in which they have been brought up.2. A certain amount of concious instruction on the part of parents may have no effect on the language of a child.3. Some languages are more challenging to acquire as a native language.4. A particular aspect of a language may appear to be more difficult to acquire than anequivalent part of another language.5. Many utterance types produced by children do not closely resemble structures found in adult speech.6. There is a three-word sentence stage in the first language acquisition.7. Utterances at the multiword stage are often referred to as telegraphic speech.8. Imitation and overt teachig play a major role in the child’s matery of language.9. Speakers of different languages are capable of distinguishing and recognizing experiences of the same objective world according to their respective different linguistc coding system.10. If a child is deprived of linguistic environment, he or she is unlikely to learn a language successfully later on.11. Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we are all born with the ability to acquire language and the details of a langauge system are genetically transmitted.12. In first language acquisition children’s grammar models exactly after the grammar of adult language.13. Instruction and correction are key factors in child language development.14. A child born to a Chinese or English speaking family takes about the same number of years to acquire their native tongue, regardless of their general intelligence.15. An innatist view of language acquisition holds that human beings are biologically programmed for language.16. A child who enters a foreign language speech community by the age of three or four can learn the new language without the trace of an accent.17. When a child acquires his mother tongue, he also acquires a langue-specific culture and becomes socialized in certain ways.1 Which of the following best states the behaviorist view of child language acquisition?A. Language acquisition is a process of habit formation.B. Language acquisition is the species-specific property of human beings.C. Children are born with an innate ability to acquire language.D. Humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use.2. Which stage does the child belong to according to the stage of first language acquisition when we heard his saying like “Baby chair”,”Mummy sock” etc.A. babbling stageB. one-word stageC. two-word stageD. multi-word stage3. Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the ____ system of language.A. phonologicalB. semanticC. grammaticalD. communicative4. In general, the __________ stage begins roughly in the second half of thechild’s second year.A) babbling B) one-wordC)two-word D) multiword5. Basically all the following categories except ______ are always missing in the children’s telegraphic speech stage.A the copula verb “be” B. inflectional morphemesC. function wordsD. content words6. In first language acquisition children usually ______grammatical rules from the linguistic information they hear.A) use B) accept C) generalize D) reconstruct7. .Whcih of the following best states the behaviorist view of child language acquisition?_______.nguage acquisition is a process of habit formationnguage acquisition is the species-specific property of human beingsC.Children are born with an innate ability to acquire languageD.Humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use8. At the age of four, children_____.A. can master the essentials of their mother tongueB. can only babble several soundsC..can name the things around them only D. can write out all the grammatical rules of their mother tongue.9. A child who knows the general plural form may apply the rule to irregular nouns and produce “foots”. This is called ______.A. assimilationB. transferC. overgeneralizationD. underextension10. It is estimated that the number of basic words known by English-speaking school children of age six is around ______.A. 7800B. 6800C. 5800D. 480011.Linguistic determination and linguistic relativity are also known as ____.A)linguistic universals B) functionalismB)Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis D) structuralism12.Some Southern learners of English in China tend to say “night” as “light”.This shows: .( )A.They cannot pronounce/n/B.Interlangue interference because there is notthe sound /n/in their mother tongueC.The teachers do not have a good teaching methodD.They do not like to pronounce nasal sounds13. ______ holds that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological function such as walking.A. The behaviorist viewB. The innatist viewC. The interactionist viewD. The cognitive theory14. Which of the following hypothesis is put forward by Bric Lenneberg?A. Critical Period HypothesisB. Input HypothesisC. Language Acquisition Device HypothesisD. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis1.The study of human languages as a whole is g_______ linguistics, while the study of a particularlanguage is called p_________ linguistics.2. A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is p______ if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behaviours.3. The reason why an English speaker and a Chinese speaker are not mutually intelligible is because language is culturally t____________.4. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”. This sentence means that language has the feature of a_________.5. In F. de Saussure's dichotomy, langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; p______ is its realization in actual use.6. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d______ .7. Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time is called a s______ study of language.8. Any language is composed of three main elements: speech sounds, grammatical structure, and m____ .9. Articulatory phonetics describes how s__________ sounds are made and provides aframe work.10. If a particular language has forty-eight meaningful sounds, it is said tohave forty-eight p__________ .11. Comsonant sounds can be either voiced or voiceless. For example, the sound"p" in "pin" is v______ and the sound "b" in "bin" is v______.12. If the back of the tongue is at the highest point near the soft palate, we have a b______ vowel.13. Articulatory phonetics studies the movement of the vocal organs in producing the sounds of speech; while a__________ phonetics studies the way the sounds of the speech are perceived by the human ear.14. An initial classification will divide the speech sounds into two broad categories: v________ and c__________.15. The allophone of the same phoneme are said to be in c___________ distribution.16. The basic unit in phonetics is p_______, while the basic unit in phonology is p_______.17. A phoneme is an abstract unit and it is realized by a certain ________ in a certain phonetic context.18. Comsonant sounds can be either voiced or voiceless. For example, the sound"p" in "pin" isv______ and the sound "b" in "bin" is v______.19.Clear ［1］and dark［］are allophones of the same one phoneme /1/.They never take the same position in sound combinations, thus they are said to be in c________ distribution.20. An essential difference between consonants and vowels is whether the air coming from the lungs meets any o______ when a sound is produced.21. Phonological rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s______ rules.22. When pitch, stress and sound length are tired to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i______.23. I______ morphemes are attached to words, but they never change their syntactic category24. A______ phonetics studies the perception of speech sounds.25. Any language is composed of three main elements: speech sounds,grammatical structure, and m____ .26. M______ is the study of word formation and the internal structure of words.27. The morphemes that cannot be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words car called b______ morphemes.28. Bound morphemes may be subdivided into derivational and i________ morphemes.29. M_______ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.30. An independent unit of meaning that can be used freely by itself is called a f______ morpheme.31. According to its position in the new word, a______ are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes.32. According to the transformational-generative grammar, every sentence has two structures. One is the deep structure; the other is the surface structure. and the surface structure comes from the deep structure through t________.33. Any sentences that share the same deep structure are said to be ________of one another.34. XP may contain more than just X. For example, the NP “the boy who likes his puppy” consists of Det, N and S, with Det being the s______, N the head and S the complement.35. A c______ sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word, such as “and”, “but”, “or”.36. A______ is the movement of an auxiliary verb to the sentence-initial position, such as “be”, “have”, “do” etc.37.A c________ sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated in the other.38. The s____ function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.39.The combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words is called c______.40. The study of linguistic meaning of words, phrases, and sentences is called s____ .41.S________ can be simply defined as the study of meaning.42. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.43. The words "rich" and "wealthy" are similar in meaning and their semanticrelation is described as s________.44. Synonymy occurs when more than one form has the same meaning, but p________happens when the same form has more than one meaning.45. Componential analysis is a way to analyze the lexical meaning, which based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components called semantic f______.46. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.47.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.48.R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.49. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________.50.That the denial of one member of two words implies the assertion of the other is the characteristic of c________ antonyms.51. The sense relation between " furniture " and " bed " is __________ .52. Hyponymy is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items. The word that is more general in meaning is called s______.53. “Go” and “come” are pair of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items. They are called r______ antonyms.54. The basic assumption underlying the theory of semantic field is that words do not exist in i________.55.Absolute synonyms are rare and most English synonyms are different in atleast one semantic feature of a type of meaning, for example, " adult " and "grown-up " differ in s__________ meaning.56. R______ is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between form and the reality.57. Words that are close in meaning are called s________.58. H______ refers to a relation between two words, in which the meaning of one of the words includes the meaning of the other word.59. A word or sentence is a____ if it can be understood or interpreted in more than one way.60. Sentences with the same truth conditions are p____ .61. The sentence " She cannot bear children " is ambiguous. The ambiguity iscaused by the word " bear ", which is a h___________ .62. The words "pretty" and "handsome" have the same conceptual meaning but their c________ meaning are different.63.When the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called ______64. Stating, commanding, warning, informing and the like are a____, because they are sentences uttered in certain contexts, under certain conditions and with certain intonations.65. Semantics studies linguistic meaning while Pragmatics studies s____ meaning.66. The c____ of an utterance determine its meaning.67. Language is one of the important means of communication. In communication, when people utter sentences they also perform a____ of various kinds, such as stating, asking, commanding and promising.68. Conversational i______ may arise as a result of a speaker's violation of the cooperational principle.69.While the meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized, that of an u________ is concrete and context-dependent.70. Any sentences that share the same deep structure are said to be p________of one another.。

生活需要游戏，但不能游戏人生；生活需要歌舞，但不需醉生梦死；生活需要艺术，但不能投机取巧；生活需要勇气，但不能鲁莽蛮干；生活需要重复，但不能重蹈覆辙。

-----无名第六课[ɛ] en在i é后：bien, européenyn ym ：syndicat, symbolefaim: avoir faim 感到饿plein，e [plɛ] [plɛn][j] yeux [jø] œil[œj]n.m 眼睛y在两个元音之间=i+i crayon-craiion [krɛjɔ]n.m铅笔第七课阳性名词变为阴性名词1词尾加字母e2 –ien结尾，加ne-on结尾，变为onne ：lion[ljɔ]——lionne[ljɔn] 公狮---母狮-et结尾，变为ette：muet[mɥɛ]——muette[mɥɛt] 哑的，哑巴3 –eur改为rice：有时eur改为euse4 不分阴阳性5 只有阳性auteur---femme auteur6 –er结尾，变为ère：étranger [etrɑʒe] ; étrangère[etrɑʒɛ:r]外国的7 –f结尾，变为ve：veuf; veuve 鳏居的，寡居的8 –eau结尾，变为elle：chameau; chamelle 骆驼9 –x结尾，变为se：époux；épouse 夫---妻10 –c结尾，变为que：Grec；Grecque 希腊的第8课1 s’appeler[sa-ple] 名字叫…这种动词叫做代词式动词，也叫代动词，(les verbes pronominaux)构成：自反代词（me te se se nous vous se se）+普通动词构成，类似的还有s’habiller穿衣，se laver（给自己）洗，se lever起床。

可看作动词的一个整体。