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德国功能翻译理论苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒菲弗尔（2001：l）认为，西方翻译研究发展史的显着特点之一就是对等，这一曾经至关重要的概念，逐渐淡化，并最终消解。
20世纪70年代后期，随着经济全球化的发展，翻译活动更加频繁，各种文本类型的翻译需求迅速增加，非文学文本成为翻译研究的重要考察对象，德国功能翻译学派应运而生。
这个学派的主要代表人物是：卡塔琳娜·赖斯（Katharina Reiss）、汉斯·弗米尔（Hans J. Vermeer）、贾斯特·赫尔兹-曼塔利（Justa Holz-M?ntt?ri）和克里斯蒂安·诺德（Christiane Nord）。
德国功能翻译学派为翻译理论研究提供了崭新的视角，其代表理论有：的功能主义翻译批评理论（functional category of translation criticism），即文本类型理论（text typology）；弗米尔的目的论（skopos theory）；赫尔兹-曼塔利的翻译行为理论（theory of translation action）和诺德的功能加忠诚理论（function plus loyalty）。
由于多元体系翻译观的影响，与原文文本至高无上观念紧密相关的等值标准逐步被侧重目标系统（target system）的观念所取代。
１．２．１功能翻译学派的理论基础卡尔·布勒于1934年提出了语言功能“工具模式”，对功能翻译理论有深远的影响，为赖斯的文本类型学和弗米尔的目的论奠定了基础。
１．２．１．１布勒的语言功能工具模式布勒的语言功能“工具模式”包含以下组成因素：语境（context）：语言的“表现功能”，涉及符号与世界的关系；说话者（speaker）：语言的“表达功能”，涉及符号和说话者的关系；受话者（hearer）：语言的“感染功能”，涉及符号与受话者的关系；符号（sign）。
浅谈功能翻译理论摘要：功能翻译理论对汉蒙翻译工作具有较高的普适性。
因此，为了进一步提升翻译工作质量，为相关工作者提供一定的参考借鉴，本文首先详细介绍了功能翻译理论的主要内容，再阐述功能翻译理论的实际应用，进一步探究了功能翻译理论的创新和局限性。
关键词：功能；翻译；理论引言：功能翻译语言学的一些理论成果得益于语言交际理论、行为理论、话语语言学、话语理论分析技术等一系列语言翻译问题研究和方法活动而带来的重要学术成果，这些功能语言理论研究活动与结果往往都更加趋向于可接受语言理论。
证明我们的翻译工作已从过去偏重主导研究学科地位的语言学范式的研究方法向更强调语言形式特征和语言文化功能对等的语言翻译观理论范式研究方法过渡。
于是，我们的翻译工作更强调和注重语用功能和语言学社会文化因素。
一、功能翻译理论的形成过程和主要理论功能翻译理论是以“目的论”（skopos theory）为核心，强调问题和翻译功能的一种流派，它出现于二十世纪六、七十年代，以1971年莱斯的《翻译批评的可能性与限制》一书的出版为标志。
其中，费米尔的“目的论”是其主导理论。
由弗米尔所创立出来的翻译目的论已完全摆脱了以翻译源语法为理论中心的对等语言理论模式的种种束缚，认为翻译起源问题也不能简单地靠语言学研究来去解决。
翻译活动不是一对一的语言转换活动，因为将翻译过程发生时的生活环境置于有一定历史背景的世界文化框架中，不同时代的社会文化中有着不同时期的传统习俗观念和主流价值观。
在弗米尔后，霍斯曼塔里进一步研究发展成了功能性翻译过程理论。
她认为用语言信息的传递行为来实现指代文本、图片、声音、肢体语言动作等的各种语言跨文化功能的功能转换，将文本翻译功能视为是一种用来实现一个特定功能目的过程的一系列复杂社会活动。
她研究的行为理论主要强调三个理论方面:翻译活动过程中参与者的社会行为，参与者自身的翻译角色行为和功能性翻译行为过程的发生环境。
针对功能翻译理论中提出来的许多不足,诺德还提出了忠实性原则作为补充。
方梦之主编：《译学词典》，上海外语教育出版社，第29页功能翻译理论functionalist translation theory又称“功能目的论”（Skopos theory）。
1971年，德国的莱斯（K. Reiss）首先提出“把翻译行为所要达到的特殊目的”作为翻译评价的新模式。
1984年她在与费米尔（H. J. Vermeer）合写的General Foundation of Translation Theory一书中声称：译者在整个翻译过程中的参照系不应是“对等”翻译理论所注重的原文及其功能，而应是译文在译语文化环境中所预期达到的一种或若钟交际功能。
20世纪90年代初，德国学者克利斯蒂安·诺德（Christiane Nord）进一步拓展了译文功能理论。
她强调译文与原文的联系，但这种联系的质量与数量由译文的预期功能确定。
这就是说，根据译文语境，原文中的哪些内容或成分可以保留，哪些需调整或改写，该由译文的预期功能确定。
功能目的理论的两项基本原则是：1. 翻译各方面的交互作用受翻译目的所决定；2. 目的随接受对象的不同而变化。
按照这两项原则，译者可以为了达到目的而采用任何他自己认为适当的翻译策略。
换句话说，目的决定方式（The end justifies the means）。
作为受文化制约的语言符号，原文语篇和译文语篇受到各自交际环境的影响，译文功能与原文功能可相似或保持一致，也可能完全不同。
根据不同的语境因素和预期功能，选择最佳的处理方法，这是功能翻译理论比以对等为基础的翻译理论或极端功能主义的翻译理论更为优越之处。
翻译功能理论指导下的翻译方法表现出较大的灵活性，较高的科学性和易操作性。
Toury 把“功能目的论”看作是“译文文本中心论”的翻版。
Skopos theory (plural Skopos theories)1.(translation studies) The idea that translating and interpreting should primarilytake into account the function of both the source and target text.o1995, Paul Kussmaul, Training The Translator, John BenjaminsPublishing Co, p. 149:The functional approach has a great affinity with Skopos theory. The function of a translation is dependent on the knowledge, expectations, values andnorms of the target readers, who are again influenced by the situation they arein and by the culture. These factors determine whether the function of thesource text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to bemodified or even changed.Introduction to the Skopos TheoryThe Skopos theory is an approach to translation which was put forward by Hans Vemeer and developed in Germany in the late 1970s and which oriented a more functionally and socioculturally concept of translation. Translation is considered not as a process of translation, but as a specific form of human action. In our mind, transla tion has a purpose, and the word “Skopos” was from Greek. It’s used as the technical term for the purpose of the translation.翻译目的论，"skopos"是希腊语“目的”的意思。
方梦之主编：《译学词典》，上海外语教育出版社，第29页功能翻译理论functionalist translation theory又称“功能目的论”（Skopos theory）。
1971年，德国的莱斯（K. Reiss）首先提出“把翻译行为所要达到的特殊目的”作为翻译评价的新模式。
1984年她在与费米尔（H. J. Vermeer）合写的General Foundation of Translation Theory一书中声称：译者在整个翻译过程中的参照系不应是“对等”翻译理论所注重的原文及其功能，而应是译文在译语文化环境中所预期达到的一种或若钟交际功能。
20世纪90年代初，德国学者克利斯蒂安·诺德（Christiane Nord）进一步拓展了译文功能理论。
她强调译文与原文的联系，但这种联系的质量与数量由译文的预期功能确定。
这就是说，根据译文语境，原文中的哪些内容或成分可以保留，哪些需调整或改写，该由译文的预期功能确定。
功能目的理论的两项基本原则是：1. 翻译各方面的交互作用受翻译目的所决定；2. 目的随接受对象的不同而变化。
按照这两项原则，译者可以为了达到目的而采用任何他自己认为适当的翻译策略。
换句话说，目的决定方式（The end justifies the means）。
作为受文化制约的语言符号，原文语篇和译文语篇受到各自交际环境的影响，译文功能与原文功能可相似或保持一致，也可能完全不同。
根据不同的语境因素和预期功能，选择最佳的处理方法，这是功能翻译理论比以对等为基础的翻译理论或极端功能主义的翻译理论更为优越之处。
翻译功能理论指导下的翻译方法表现出较大的灵活性，较高的科学性和易操作性。
Toury 把“功能目的论”看作是“译文文本中心论”的翻版。
Skopos theory (plural Skopos theories)1.(translation studies) The idea that translating and interpretingshould primarily take into account the function of both the sourceand target text.o1995, Paul Kussmaul, Training The Translator, JohnBenjamins Publishing Co, p. 149:The functional approach has a great affinity with Skopos theory.The function of a translation is dependent on the knowledge,expectations, values and norms of the target readers, who are again influenced by the situation they are in and by the culture. Thesefactors determine whether the function of the source text orpassages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed.Introduction to the Skopos TheoryThe Skopos theory is an approach to translation which was put forward by Hans Vemeer and developed in Germany in the late 1970s and whichoriented a more functionally and socioculturally concept of translation. Translation is considered not as a process of translation, but as a specific form of human action. In our mind, translation has a purpose, and the word “Skopos” was from Greek. It’s used as the technical term for the purpose of the translation.翻译目的论，"skopos"是希腊语“目的”的意思。
德国的功能派翻译理论一、本文概述德国的功能派翻译理论，作为一种重要的翻译理论流派，起源于20世纪70年代的德国。
该理论强调翻译的目的和功能，突破了传统对等翻译理论的束缚，为翻译研究和实践提供了新的视角和思路。
本文将对德国功能派翻译理论的发展历程、核心观点和应用领域进行概述，旨在帮助读者全面了解该理论的基本框架和实践意义。
德国功能派翻译理论的发展历程可以追溯到汉斯·弗米尔（Hans Vermeer）和凯瑟琳娜·莱斯（Katharina Reiss）等学者的早期研究。
他们提出了“功能翻译理论”（Functional Translation Theory），强调翻译应该根据译文的预期功能来决定翻译方法和策略。
随着理论的不断发展和完善，功能派翻译理论逐渐形成了自己的理论体系，包括翻译目的论、翻译行为论、翻译功能论等多个分支。
在核心观点方面，德国功能派翻译理论强调翻译的目的决定翻译的策略。
它认为，翻译不仅仅是一种语言转换过程，更是一种跨文化的交际行为。
因此，翻译的目的和功能是决定翻译质量和效果的关键因素。
根据不同的翻译目的和功能，翻译者可以采用不同的翻译方法和策略，以实现最佳的交际效果。
在应用领域方面，德国功能派翻译理论广泛应用于各种翻译实践，包括文学翻译、商务翻译、法律翻译、医学翻译等。
它不仅为翻译实践提供了理论指导，还为翻译质量的提高提供了有效保障。
该理论也促进了翻译学科的多元化发展，为翻译研究注入了新的活力。
德国功能派翻译理论作为一种重要的翻译理论流派，为翻译研究和实践提供了新的视角和思路。
本文将对这一理论进行全面概述，帮助读者深入了解其发展历程、核心观点和应用领域。
二、德国功能派翻译理论概述德国功能派翻译理论，也被称为“功能主义翻译理论”或“目的论翻译理论”，起源于20世纪70年代的德国。
这一理论的核心观点是，翻译并非简单的语言转换过程，而是一种具有特定目的和功能的社会行为。
功能派翻译理论强调翻译过程中译者的主观能动性，认为译者应根据翻译的目的和受众的需求，选择适当的翻译策略和方法。
浅析翻译目的论三原则及其在翻译实践中的应用一、概述翻译目的论，作为一种重要的翻译理论，起源于20世纪70年代的德国，由汉斯弗米尔（Hans J. Vermeer）提出，并由其学生克里斯蒂娜诺德（Christiane Nord）进一步发展和完善。
翻译目的论强调翻译行为的目的性，认为翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际活动，其首要原则是翻译行为所要达到的目的决定整个翻译过程。
这一理论突破了传统等值理论的束缚，为翻译研究和实践提供了新的视角。
翻译目的论提出了三大原则：目的原则、连贯原则和忠实原则。
目的原则是指翻译行为所要达到的目的决定整个翻译过程，即翻译的方法与策略必须服务于翻译的目的。
连贯原则要求译文必须符合语内连贯的标准，即译文具有可读性和可接受性，能够使接受者理解并在译入语文化及使用译文的交际语境中有意义。
忠实原则是指原文与译文之间应该存在语际连贯一致。
这三大原则在翻译实践中具有指导意义，能够帮助译者根据不同的翻译目的选择合适的翻译策略和方法。
本文将对翻译目的论的三大原则进行浅析，并探讨它们在翻译实践中的应用。
通过具体案例分析，展示如何根据不同的翻译目的，灵活运用这些原则，以实现有效的跨文化交际。
同时，本文还将对翻译目的论在翻译实践中的意义进行探讨，以期对翻译实践和研究提供有益的启示。
1. 翻译目的论概述翻译目的论，作为一种重要的翻译理论，起源于20世纪70年代的德国功能主义翻译理论。
该理论主张翻译活动应以实现特定的翻译目的为核心，强调翻译过程中译者的主观能动性和译文的预期功能。
翻译目的论突破了传统等值翻译理论的束缚，提出了以翻译目的为导向的翻译原则和方法。
在翻译目的论中，翻译被视为一种有目的的跨语言、跨文化的交际行为。
翻译的目的可能因文本的不同而有所不同，如信息传递、文化交流、商业推广等。
翻译过程中，译者应根据翻译目的选择合适的翻译策略和方法，以确保译文能够有效地实现预期的交际功能。
翻译目的论提出了三个基本原则，即目的原则、连贯性原则和忠实性原则。
浅谈翻译目的论一、本文概述翻译目的论是一种重要的翻译理论，它强调翻译活动应基于翻译的目的和目标受众的需求进行。
本文将对翻译目的论进行深入探讨，首先概述其基本概念和核心思想，接着分析其在翻译实践中的应用及其影响，并探讨其优缺点。
本文还将结合具体案例，分析翻译目的论在文学、商务、法律等领域翻译实践中的实际运用，以期对翻译工作者和翻译学习者提供有益的启示和指导。
翻译目的论认为，翻译是一种有目的的交际行为，翻译的目的决定翻译的策略和方法。
翻译过程不仅仅是语言之间的转换，更是文化、语境和交际意图的传递。
因此，翻译者需要根据翻译的目的和目标受众的需求，选择适当的翻译方法和策略，确保译文能够准确传达原文的意义和意图。
本文将从多个角度全面阐述翻译目的论的理论基础和实践应用，旨在为翻译工作者和翻译学习者提供一个全面、深入的了解翻译目的论的平台。
本文也将对翻译目的论的发展趋势进行展望，以期对翻译领域的未来发展提供一定的参考和借鉴。
二、翻译目的论概述翻译目的论（Skopos Theory）是一种重要的翻译理论，起源于20世纪70年代的德国，由汉斯·弗米尔（Hans Vermeer）提出，并由其后的学者如诺德（Nord）等人进一步发展和完善。
这一理论的核心观点是：翻译的目的决定了翻译的策略和方法。
换句话说，翻译并非简单地从一种语言到另一种语言的文字转换，而是一种有目的、有意图的跨文化交流活动。
翻译目的论强调，翻译的首要原则是翻译行为所要达到的目的，这包括译文的交际目的、使用目的以及翻译过程中译者的目的。
因此，翻译的目的决定了翻译策略的选择，也影响了翻译过程中的具体操作。
例如，如果翻译的目的是为了传递原文的信息，那么译者可能会采用直译的策略；如果翻译的目的是为了让目标读者更好地理解原文的文化背景，那么译者可能会采用意译或解释性翻译的策略。
翻译目的论还提出了“功能对等”的概念，即译文在目标语言文化环境中应该具有与原文在原语言文化环境中相同或相似的功能。
The Skopos theory is an approach to translation which was put forward by Hans Vermeer and developed in Germany in the late 1970s and which oriented a more functionally and socioculturally concept of translation. Translation is considered not as a process of translation, but as a specific form of human action. In our mind, translation has a purpose, and the word “Skopos” was from Greek. It’s used as the technical term for the purpose of the translation翻译目的论(Skopos Theory)是一种崭新的翻译理论模式。
是德国功能派翻译学家Reiss、Vermeer和Nord等从翻译行为的目的性出发提出的一种翻译理论。
它的建立可以追溯二十世纪六七十年代，该理论将研究聚集在翻译过程中的各种目的的选择上。
具体说来，它包括三个原则：目的原则（Skopos rule），连贯原则(Coherence rule)，忠实原则(Fidality rule)。
其中核心原则为目的原则“：任何翻译行为都是由翻译的目的决定的，简而言之，就是…翻译的目的决定翻译的手段‟。
”这个目的可以理解为：译者的目的，译文的交际目的以及使用某种翻译手段所要达到的目的。
由于言语交际是一种有目的的活动，它传递说话人的意图，因此要确定话语意义，就必需充分考虑说话人的意图，交际场合，听话人的背景知识，态度等语境因素。
方梦之主编：《译学词典》，上海外语教育出版社，第29页功能翻译理论functionalist translation theory又称“功能目的论”（Skopos theory）。
1971年，德国的莱斯（K. Reiss）首先提出“把翻译行为所要达到的特殊目的”作为翻译评价的新模式。
1984年她在与费米尔（H. J. Vermeer）合写的General Foundation of Translation Theory一书中声称：译者在整个翻译过程中的参照系不应是“对等”翻译理论所注重的原文及其功能，而应是译文在译语文化环境中所预期达到的一种或若钟交际功能。
20世纪90年代初，德国学者克利斯蒂安·诺德（Christiane Nord）进一步拓展了译文功能理论。
她强调译文与原文的联系，但这种联系的质量与数量由译文的预期功能确定。
这就是说，根据译文语境，原文中的哪些内容或成分可以保留，哪些需调整或改写，该由译文的预期功能确定。
功能目的理论的两项基本原则是：1. 翻译各方面的交互作用受翻译目的所决定；2. 目的随接受对象的不同而变化。
按照这两项原则，译者可以为了达到目的而采用任何他自己认为适当的翻译策略。
换句话说，目的决定方式（The end justifies the means）。
作为受文化制约的语言符号，原文语篇和译文语篇受到各自交际环境的影响，译文功能与原文功能可相似或保持一致，也可能完全不同。
根据不同的语境因素和预期功能，选择最佳的处理方法，这是功能翻译理论比以对等为基础的翻译理论或极端功能主义的翻译理论更为优越之处。
翻译功能理论指导下的翻译方法表现出较大的灵活性，较高的科学性和易操作性。
Toury 把“功能目的论”看作是“译文文本中心论”的翻版。
Skopos theory (plural Skopos theories)1.(translation studies) The idea that translating and interpreting should primarilytake into account the function of both the source and target text.o1995, Paul Kussmaul, Training The Translator, John BenjaminsPublishing Co, p. 149:The functional approach has a great affinity with Skopos theory. The function of a translation is dependent on the knowledge, expectations, values andnorms of the target readers, who are again influenced by the situation they arein and by the culture. These factors determine whether the function of thesource text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to bemodified or even changed.Introduction to the Skopos TheoryThe Skopos theory is an approach to translation which was put forward by Hans Vemeer and developed in Germany in the late 1970s and which oriented a more functionally and socioculturally concept of translation. Translation is considered not as a process of translation, but as a specific form of human action. In our mind, transla tion has a purpose, and the word “Skopos” was from Greek. It’s used as the technical term for the purpose of the translation.翻译目的论，"skopos"是希腊语“目的”的意思。
其核心概念是翻译过程的最主要因素是整体翻译行为的目的。
1.Introduction to the Skopos TheoryThe Skopos theory is an approach to translation which was put forward by Hans Vemeer and developed in Germany in the late 1970s and which oriented a more functionally and socioculturally concept of translation. Translation is considered not as a process of translation, but as a specific form of human action. In our mind, translation has a purpose, and the word “Skopos” was from Greek. It’s used as the technical term for the purpose of the translation. In the frame work of this theory, one of the most important factors determining the purpose of a translation is the address, who is the intended receiver or audience of the target text with their world language. Every translation is directed at an intended audience. The theory focuses above all on the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed in order to produce a functionally adequate result. Vermeer regards it as an “offer of information” that is partly or wholly turned into an “offer of information” for the target audience. From t his view, the status of the source is clearly much lower in Skopos theory than the equivalence theory.Ⅰ.Introduction of the Skopos TheorySkopos theory is the nucleus of German Functional School. The main idea of Skopos theory is that translators should hold the thought from the perspective of the target readers during the process of translation. Therefore, translators should bear in mind what the function of translation text is, what the target readers' demand is and even what communicative situation is. Consequently, the choice of translation strategies is decided by the purpose of the translation text,in order to achieve a better function text.There are three main rules which are skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.1.Skopos RuleSkopos is a Greek word for"aim"or"purpose". "The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the'skopos rule',which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos;that is,'the end justifies the means'"by Reiss and Vermeer.Vermeer also stresses on many occasions that the skopos rule is a general rule,and translation strategies and methods are determined by the purpose and the intended function of the target text.2.Coherence RuleThe coherence rule states that the target text"must be interpretable as coherent with the target text receiver's situation".In other words,the target text must be translated in such a way that it is coherent for the target text receivers,given their circumstances and knowledge.In terms of coherence rule,the source text is no longer of most authority but only part of the translation beliefe.It is only an offer of information for the translator,who in turn picks out what he considers to be meaningful in the receiver's situation.2.Fidelity RuleTranslation is a preceding offer of information. It is expected to bear some relationship with the corresponding source text.Vermeer calls this relationship "intertextual coherence" or "fidelity". This is postulated as a further principle, referred to as the "fidelity rule" by Reiss and Vermeer in 1984.The fidelity rule merely states that there must be coherence between the translated version and the source text4.The Relationship among the RulesFidelity rule is considered subordinate to coherence rule,and both are subordinate to the skopos rule.If the skopos requires a change of function,the criterion will no longer be fidelity to the source text but adequacy or appropriateness with regard to the skopos.And if the skopos demands intra-textual incoherence,the standard of coherence rule is no longer vivid.Skopos theorySkopos theory is an approach to translation which was developed in Germany in the late 1970s (Vermeer 1978), and which reflects a general shift from predominantly LINGUISTIC and rather formal translation theories to a more functionally and socioculturally oriented concept of translation. (cf. ACTION (THEORY OF TRANSLATORIAL ACTION); COMMUNICATIVE/FUNCTIONAL APPROACHES). This shift drew inspiration from communication theory, action theory, text linguistics and text theory, as well as from movements in literary studies towards reception theories (see for example Iser 1978). Apart from Hans Vermeer, the founder of skopos theory, other scholars working in the paradigm include Margret Ammann (1989/1990), Hans Hönig and Paul Kussmaul (1982), Sigrid Kupsch-Losereit (1986), Christiane Nord (1988) and Heidrun Witte (1987a); see also articles in the journal TEXTconTEXT, published since 1986 by Groos in Heidelberg.Skopos theory takes seriously factors which have always been stressed in action theory, and which were brought into sharp relief with the growing need in the latter half of the twentieth century for the translation of non-literary text types. In the translation of scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts, etc., the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended readers of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Skopos theory is directly oriented towards this function.Translation is viewed not as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word skopos, derived from Greek, is used as the technical term for the purpose of a translation. Skopos must be defined before translation can begin; in highlighting skopos, the theory adopts a prospective attitude to translation, as opposed to the retrospective attitude adopted in theories which focus on prescriptions derived from the source text.In addition to its purpose, any action has an outcome. The outcome of translational action is a translatum (Vermeer 1979:174; translat in Reiss and Vermeer 1984/1991:2), a particular variety of target text.Vermeer’s skopos theoryVermeer (1978:100) postulates that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the target text that determines translation methods and strategies. From this postulate, he derives the skopos rule: Human action (and its subcategory: translation) is determined by its purpose (skopos), and therefore it is a function of its purpose. The rule is formalized using the formula: IA(Trl) = f(Sk). The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines thetranslation process, as is postulated by EQUIV ALENCE-based translation theories, but the prospective function or skopos of the target text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the skopos is largely constrained by the target text user (reader/listener) and his/her situation and cultural background.Two further general rules are the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The coherence rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances, The starting point for a translation is a text as part of a world continuum, written in the source language. It has to be translated into a target language in such a way that it becomes part of a world continuum which can be interpreted by the recipients as coherent with their situation (Vermeer 1978:100).The fidelity rule concerns intertextual coherence between translatum and source text, and stipulates merely that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of skopos and the rule of (intratextual) coherence have been satisfied.The general translation theory of Reiss and VermeerIn comb ining Vermeer’s general skopos theory of 1978 with the specific translation theory developed by Katharina Reiss, Reiss and Vermeer (1984/1991) arrive at a translation theory that is sufficiently general (allgemeine Translationstheorie), and sufficiently complex, to cover a multitude of individual cases. They abstract from phenomena that are specific to individual cultures and languages an account of general factors determining the translation process, to which special theories that concern individual problems or subfields can be linked consistently.A text is viewed as an offer of information (Informationsangebot) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is then characterized as offering information to members of one culture in their language (the target language and culture) about information originally offered in another language within another culture (the source language and culture). A translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Or, to be more precise, the translator offers information about certain aspects of the source-text-in-situation, according to the target text skopos specified by the initiator (Reiss and Vermeer 1984/1991:76). Neither the selection made from the information offered in the source text, nor the specification of the skopos happens at random; rather, they are determined by the needs, expectations, etc. of the target-text receivers. Translation is by definition interlingual and intercultural, it involves both linguistic and cultural transfer; in other words, it is a culture-transcending process (Vermeer 1992:40).Since skopos varies with text receivers, the skopos of the target text and of the source text may be different. In cases where the skopos is the same for the two texts, Reiss and Vermeer (1984/1991:45) speak of Funktionskonstanz (functional constancy), whereas cases in which the skopos differs between the two texts undergo Funktionsänderung (change of function). In cases of the latter type, the standard for the translation will not be intertextual coherence with the source text, but adequacy or appropriateness to the skopos, which also determines the selection and arrangement of content.Although a translatum is not ipso facto a faithful imitation of the source text, fidelity to the source text is one possible or legitimate skopos. Skopos theory should not, therefore, be understood as promoting (extremely) free translation in all, or even a majority of cases.Although the terms ‘skopos’, ‘purpose’ and ‘function’ are often used in terchangeably by Reiss and Vermeer (1984/1991), function is also used in a more specific sense which derivesmainly from Reiss. In this sense, it is linked to aspects of genre (Textsorte) and text type (Texttyp). The source text can be assigned to a text type and to a genre, and in making this assignment, the translator can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production (Reiss and Vermeer 1984/1991:196). Reiss and Vermeer’s text typology, based on Bühler (1934), includes the informative, the expressive and the operative text types, which derive from the descriptive, the expressive and the appellative functions of language, respectively. Such a typology is helpful mainly where functional constancy is required between source and target texts. However, both Vermeer (1989a) and Reiss (1988) have expressed reservations about the role of genre: the source text does not determine the genre of the target text, nor does the genre determine ipso facto the form of the target text, or, indeed, the skopos; rather, it is the skopos of the translation that determines the appropriate genre for the translatum, and the genre, being a consequence of the skopos, is secondary to it (Vermeer 1989a: 187).Status of source text and target textAccording to skopos theory, then, translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the skopos of the translation. One practical consequence of this theory is a reconceptualization of the status of the source text. It is up to the translator as the expert to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the precisely specified skopos, and the source text is just one constituent of the commission given to the translator. The translator is required to act consciously in accordance with the skopos, and skopos must be decided separately in each specific case. It may be ADAPTATION to the target culture, but it may also be to acquaint the reader with the source culture. The translator should know what the point of a translation is—that it has some goal—but that any given goal is only one among many possible goals. The important point is that no source text has only one correct or preferable translation (Vermeer 1989a: 182), and that, consequently, every translation commission should explicitly or implicitly contain a statement of skopos. The skopos for the target text need not be identical with that attributed to the source text; but unless the skopos for the target text is specified, translation cannot, properly speaking, be carried out at all.Criticism of skopos theoryObjections to skopos theory mainly concern the definition of translation and the relationship between source text and target text.It has been argued that Reiss and Vermeer, in their attempt to establish a truly general and comprehensive translation theory, force totally disparate cases of text relations into a frame which they attempt to hold together by means of the notion of information offer (Schreitmüller 1994:105). But there should be a limit to what may legitimately be called translation as opposed to, for example, ADAPTATION. In translation proper (Koller 1990), the source text is the yardstick by which all translations must be measured, independently of the purpose for which they were produced.In this context it is also argued that, even though a translation may indeed fulfil its intended skopos perfectly well, it may nevertheless be assessed as inadequate on other counts, particularly as far as lexical, syntactic, or stylistic decisions on the microlevel are concerned (a point made by Chesterman 1994:153, who otherwise acknowledges the important contributions of skopos theory). Such objections come mainly from linguistically oriented approaches to translation that focus on bottom-up aspects of text production and reception. For example, Newmark (1991b: 106)criticizes the oversimplification that is inherent in functionalism, the emphasis on the message at the expense of richness of meaning and to the detriment of the authority of the source-language text.However, proponents of skopos theory argue for a wide definition of translation (e.g. Reiss 1990). As soon as one asks for the purpose of a translation, strategies that are often listed under adaptation, for example reformulation, paraphrase and textual explication, will come in naturally as part of translation. And critics of microlevel decisions usually lift the texts out of their respective environments for comparative purposes, ignoring their functional aspects.Reiss and Vermeer’s cultural approach has also been judged less applicable to literary translation, due to the special status of a literary work of art. Snell-Hornby (1990:84) argues that the situation and function of literary texts are more complex than those of non-literary texts, and that style is a highly important factor. Therefore, although skopos theory is by no means irrelevant to literary translation, a number of points need rethinking before the theory can be made fully applicable to this genre.It is also possible to argue that to assign a skopos to a literary text is to restrict its possibili ties of interpretation. In literary theory a distinction is often made between text as potential and text as realization, and skopos theory appears to see the text only as realization, and not as a potential which can be used in different situations with different addressees and having different functions. However, Vermeer (1989a: 181) argues that when a text is actually composed, this is done with an assumed function, or a restricted set of functions, in mind. Skopos theory does not deny that a text may be used in ways that had not been foreseen originally, only that a translatum is a text in its own right, with its own potential for use.Skopos theory has helped to bring the target text into focus. As a text, a translation is not primarily determined by a source text, but by its own skopos. This axiom provides a theoretical argument for describing translations in terms of original text production and against describing them in the more traditional terms of EQUIV ALENCE with another text in another language (see also Jakobsen 1993:156). Translation is a DECISION MAKING process. The criteria for the decisions are provided by the skopos, i.e. the concrete purpose and aims in a concrete translation commission.The shift of focus away from source text reproduction to the more independent challenges of target-text production has brought innovation to translation theory. As attention has turned towards the functional aspects of translation and towards the explanation of translation decisions, the expertise and ethical responsibility of the translator have come to the fore. Translators have come to be viewed as target-text authors and have been released from the limitations and restrictions imposed by a narrowly defined concept of loyalty to the source text alone.Further readingAmmann 1989/1990; Newmark 1991b; Reiss 1986, 1988, 1990; Reiss and Vermeer 1984/ 1991; Vermeer 1978, 1982, 1989a, 1992.CHRISTINA SCHÄFFNER中央电视台主持人：芮成钢名言世界上两件事情最难：一是把自己的思想装进别人的脑袋，二是把别人的钱装进自己的口袋。
