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第一章翻译学的主要方面小结：翻译研究是一个相对较新的研究领域，近年来获得了迅猛发展。
翻译以前是作为语言学习的一种方法，或是比较文学、翻译工作坊和对比语言学课程的一部分。
这门新的学科在很大程度上应该归功于詹姆斯.霍姆斯，他在《翻译研究的名与实》一文中不但为该领域提供了一个名称，而且还规划了该学科的结构。
翻译理论研究、描述性翻译研究和应用翻译学是互相关联的，近年来都有发展，逐渐在翻译理论与翻译实践之间架起了一座桥梁。
1. 翻译实践历史悠久，翻译学却是一门新兴学科。
2. 翻译实践和翻译理论之间的割裂持续存在。
3. James S. Holmes的《翻译研究的名与实》(The name and nature of translation studies, 1988年才为人所知)被认为是翻译学的“成立宣言”4. 翻译可以指翻译研究领域、翻译产品(译本)或者翻译过程(产生译本的行为)5. 俄裔美国结构主义学家Roman Jakobson在《论翻译的语言学方面》提出三种翻译类型：语内翻译(intralingual)，语际翻译(interlingual)，符际翻译(intersemiotic)6. 翻译研究作为一个学术研究领域是最近50年的事，它被称为“翻译学translatology”多亏了James S. Holmes.7. 对翻译的探讨，从公元前1世纪的西塞罗、贺拉斯和公元4世纪的圣哲罗姆(《七十子希腊文本圣经》)就开始了，后者被翻译成拉丁文时所用的手法影响了其后的圣经翻译。
8. 18世纪晚期到20世纪60年代，语法-翻译教学法统治了中学语言学习(死记硬背外语的语法规则和结构)，20世纪六七十年代，直接法或交际法兴起，语言学习摒弃对翻译的摒弃，翻译局限于高层次大学语言课程和专业译员培训。
9. 翻译也是对比分析(contrastive analysis)领域的一个研究方向。
10. 霍姆斯的“描述性翻译理论”探讨三个方面：翻译产品(已有译作，探讨特定时期、某种语言/文本类型的翻译)，翻译功能(哪些书籍何时何地被翻译，何种影响)，翻译过程(挖掘译者大脑中发生的事情)11. 翻译理论、描述性翻译研究和应用翻译学还是会互相影响的。
《翻译理论与实践》考试理论部分复习提纲一、翻译定义：1. 张培基——翻译是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动。
3. 刘宓庆——翻译的实质是语际的意义转换。
4. 王克非——翻译是将一种语言文字所蕴含的意思用另一种语言文字表达出来的文化活动。
5. 泰特勒——好的翻译应该是把原作的长处完全地移注到另一种语言，以使译入语所属国家的本地人能明白地领悟、强烈地感受，如同使用原作语言的人所领悟、所感受的一样。
6. 费道罗夫——翻译就是用一种语言把另一种语言在内容与形式不可分割的统一中所业已表达出来的东西准确而完全地表达出来。
7. 卡特福德——翻译的定义也可以这样说：把一种语言（Source Language）中的篇章材料用另一种语言（Target Language）中的篇章材料来加以代替。
8.奈达——翻译就是在译入语中再现与原语信息最切近的自然对等物，首先就意义而言，其次就是文体而言。
“Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”---Eugene Nida纽马克——通常（虽然不能说总是如此），翻译就是把一个文本的意义按作者所想的方式移译入另一种文字（语言）。
“Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language.”--- Peter Newmark10. “Translation is the expression in one language (or target language译入语) of what has been expressed in another language (source language 原语), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences.”--- Dubois12. 13.Translation or translating is a communicative activity or dynamic process in which the translator makes great effort to thoroughly comprehend a written message or text in the source language and works very hard to achieve an adequate or an almost identical reproduction in the target language version of the written source language message or text.二、翻译标准1. 翻译的标准概括为言简意赅的四个字：“忠实（faithfulness）、通顺（smoothness）”。
1. 直译法(1) 英译按原文的字面翻译, 其比喻意义同原文一样生动, 译文使读者能很快联想起英文中的对等成语. 如:竭泽而渔 to drain a pond to catch all the fish (相当于 kill the goose that lays the golden eggs)2) 打草惊蛇 to stir up the grass and alert the snake (相当于 wake a sleeping dog)3)易如反掌 to be as easy a s turning over one’s hand (相当于as easy as falling off a log)4) 玩火自焚 to get burnt by the fire kindled by oneself (相当于fry in one’s own grease)5)掌上明珠 a pearl in the palm (相当于the apple of one’s eye)6)对牛弹琴 to play the lute to a cow (相当于 cast pearls before swine)7)守口如瓶to keep one’s mouth closed like a bottle (相当于 keep a still tongue in one’s head)8) 雪中送炭to send charcoal in snowy weather (相当于help a lame dog over a stile)9) 画蛇添足 to draw a snake and add feet to it (相当于 paint the lily)(2) 不少汉语成语不一定有非常对等的英语成语, 但它们的字面翻译也能使译文读者得到正确无误的形象意义. 如:1) 声东击西 to shout in the east and strike in the west2) 刻骨铭心to be engraved on one’s heart and bones3)井底之蛙to be like a frog at the bottom of a well4)调虎离山to lure the tiger from the mountain5)口蜜腹剑 to be honey-mouthed and dagger-hearted2. 意译法如：手忙脚乱 in a frantic rush 立竿见影get instant results它虽难以保全成语的文化特色和具体形象，却能简洁明快的反应出成语的喻义。
翻译概论期末复习题 Microsoft Office Word 文档翻译概论期末复习题microsoftofficeword文档期末复习：翻译导论一、请将对应的翻译理论与对应的翻译理论家划线连接起来。
1.异化理论a.汉斯。
J.Vermeer 2动态对等与功能对等理论B Christian Nord 3翻译目的论C智谦4宁信而不顺d奈达（eugenea.nida）5弃文存质e韦努蒂（lawrencevenuti）6功能+忠诚f鲁迅7音美、形美、意美g道安8既需求真，又须喻俗h安世高9贵本不饰i玄奘10案本而传j许渊冲11信达雅k严复12重神似不重形似l傅雷二、根据所学内容将合适的词填写在空白处：1.从表面上看，翻译是在两种语言之间进行的，但在更深层次上，翻译传达了。
从语言和文化的关系来看，语言是文化的__________,直接反映文化的现实和内涵。
2.在中国，传统翻译理论一直有着强大的影响力，从古代佛经翻译家库马罗什的《嚼米与人》，到严复的《信、达、雅》，再到傅雷的《___________________________，这些都体现了中国传统翻译理论注重体验、感知和艺术交流的特点。
3.发挥译者的创造性有一个度的问题，并不是__________发挥和__________发挥，而是基于对原作者负责、对读者负责、对__________负责的态度。
4.非文学翻译包括文体翻译、文体翻译、文体翻译。
5.英语名词和介词使用较多，而汉语中则是_________使用较多。
即相对于汉语而言，英语倾向于_________描写，而相对于英语而言，汉语则多使用_________描写。
6.直译和意译作为两种最基本的翻译方法，适用于不同的翻译目的，因此，它们都有各自的优势和价值。
7.从功能上翻译等值分为三大层次：_________等值、_________等值和_________等值。
8.口译员的特殊素质包括出色的记忆力和强大的听力能力、敏捷、良好的身体素质。
翻译理论与实践II期末考试题型第一篇：翻译理论与实践II期末考试题型期末考试题型Part I．Multiple Choice(30 points, 1 point each)Directions: This part consists of thirty sentences, each followed by four different versions marked A, B, C and D．Choose the one that you think is the closest equivalent of the original in terms of meaning and expressiveness.(Please write the corresponding letter on the answer sheet.)Example：破镜虽已粘补，但既不美观，又不牢固。
[A] A mirror that has been glued back together has an unsightly flaw and breaksagain easily.[B] Though it can be glued back together, a mirror does not look beautiful butfragile.[C] A broken mirror, though glued back together, does not look beautiful butfragile.[D] A broken mirror, though glued back together, has an unsightly flaw and breaks again easily.答案是：APart II．Translate the idioms into English.(30 points, 1.5 points each)（共20个成语）Part III.Translation Improvement(15 points, 1.5 points each) Directions: Each of the following English translations has one or more inadequacies.Improve the given translations.Example：原文：能为他的这本散文集子作序，我觉得很荣幸。
1、解释翻译、翻译学概念、描述翻译学体系；2、解释以下所讲各翻译学流派的观点，并作简单评价：语言学流派：采用语言学途径研究翻译，认为翻译是比较语言学的一个分支，重点是比较原文与译文的语言成分，强调意义的构成特征以及源语和译语在语言结构方面的差别，即在语音结构、句法结构和语义结构的对比关系，如英语与汉语的明显不同之处，有复数、时态、词形变化等，英语是圆周句，形合，等等。
这样两种语言在语码转换中就必须按照两种语言的对应规则进行。
文艺学派：文艺途径，文艺学派翻译理论，是运用文艺理论研究翻译、解释翻译中出现的问题，并提出翻译的文艺学理论。
该理论，在20世纪50年代前较盛行，是再现内容与形式统一体中所反映的艺术真实，侧重从原文的文学特征着眼，特别是比较原文和译文的主题结构、风格特色和艺术效果，多照顾原文及原文作者方面的因素。
这种翻译的关键是如何准确传达原文的内容信息，其争论的焦点是：在不可调和的情况下，原文作者和译文读者哪个更重要? 是忠于原作的内容而不顾读者能否接受，还是变通原文而迁就读者?翻译的核心不是讲求字面意思的真实，而是要体现艺术真实，即精神上的真实，所以在翻译时抵制字对字的死译。
这种途径的具体研究对象主要包括语言的使用域、作品的修辞手段和语言的创造力等方面的问题交际翻译：交际理论学派把翻译看作交流活动，看作是两种语言之间传递信息和交流思想的一种方式，比较原文和译文在各自语言里的交际功能，并重点从研究信息源、信息和信息接受者、媒体等方面研究翻译问题，认为应该突出信息接受者的作用，强调信息交流而非语言对等，其代表人物包括德国莱比锡学派的卡德和纽伯特等。
在任何交际场合里，信息的内容都会包括三个因素：言语因素即言语表达形式、副语因素即非言语表现的语言相关因素、超语因素即非语言的文化和场合等因素。
交际性翻译的特点是必须使译文在译文读者身上产生出原文对原文读者所产生的那种反映，译者的服务对象是译文读者，因为必须把外来的东西译成地道的译文，搬进译语文化，而不使读者造成理解上的困难。
翻译题复习提纲1.与以英语为母语的人交谈是非常有益的体验，从中我们能学到许多东西。
（communicate with）(Unit 1, Page 12,下同)Communicating with native English speakers is a very rewarding experience from which we can learn a lot. (or: Communicating with native English speakers is a very rewarding experience, and from it we can learn a lot.)2.如今，越来越多的人可以利用互联网查找他们所需要的信息。
（have access to）Today/Nowadays, more and more people have access to the Internet through which they look for the information they need.3.他要她放弃工作在家照顾孩子，但是她觉得这个要求太过分了。
（give up）He wants her to give up working and stay (at) home to look after the children. She feels, however, that this is too much for her.4.酒吧的老板一直在看那个姑娘跳舞，一面却假装没有看。
（Use “while+V-ing”structure）(Unit 2, Page 38，下同)The owner of the bar kept watching the girl dancing while pretending not to.5.桑迪如此喜欢摇滚音乐以至不顾父亲的反对而将音量放大。
（appeal to）Rock music appealed to Sandy so much that she turned it up, paying no attention to father’s objection.6.像往常一样，当他的父母不喜欢他的穿着时，便开始唠叨他。
翻译概论期末复习1.基本概念（互译）补偿compensation不可译性untranslatability （untranslatable）达/ 易'懂intelligibility/expressiveness等效原则principle of equivalent effect等值翻译equivale nt tran slation动态对等dynamic equivalence读者反映论reader's response读者为中心的翻译标准reader-centered for translation 对等物（词语）equivalent对应（部分对应 / 完全对应）（partial/full ） correspondence翻译程序 /步骤translation procedures翻译体/翻译腔translationese翻译学translatology/Translation Studies风格style佛经Buddhist Scriptures/sutra符际翻译intersemiotic translation改变说法rewording功能对等functional equivale nee归化domestication/naturalization/adaptation/endogenization/target-accommodating translation 机器翻译machine translation （MT）交际翻译communicative translation 交替口译consecutive interpreting 解码decode 可译性translatability （translatable）理解understanding/comprehension 流畅fluency 舌L译 / 胡译excessively free translation 明析化explicitation 模仿imitation 目的论skopostheorie 诗学poetics 视点转换shift of perspective 释义法 /解释法explanation/paraphrase 死译/ 硬译mechanical translation 套译/仿译/仿拟imitation通顺smoothness同声传译simultaneous interpreting透明（度）transparency歪译（意义扭曲）distortion伪译pseudotranslation文本text 文本等值textual equivalence 文本为中心的翻译标准text-centered criteria for translation 文化沟（空缺/非对应）cultural gap误译mis・translation 信/ 忠实faithfulness/fidelity 形合hypotaxis 形式对等formal equivalence 形式对应formal correspondence 雅/ 优美elegance/gracefulness 异彳匕foreignization/alienation/exoticization/ exogenization/source-oriented translation 译本 / 译著translated text/translational work 译借（语义转借）calque（loan translation）译文target text, translation, target version, rendering, rendition译语 / 译入语target language（TL）, receptor language, receiving language 译语读者target-language reader/TLreader/receiving audienee 译语文彳匕target-language culture/target culture/receiving culture 译者为中心的翻译标准translator-centered criteria for translation 译者隐形translator * s invisibility 意合parataxis 意识形态ideology意译free translation/liberal translation/semantic translation 音译法transliteration 语际翻译interlingual tran slati on 语境con text语内翻译intralingual translation 语义翻译semantic translation 原文 / 原著source text (ST), SL text, original text, original version/original work 原彳乍者SL author, original author 源语 / 译出语source language(SL), original language 源语读者source-language reader/SL reader 源语文化source・ language culture/source culture 纟勺定俗成conve ntion 再现reproduction/representatio n 赞助patron age 直译literal translation/direct translation 逐字译word-for-wordtranslation/worcMoword substitution/verbatim translation 注释性翻译armotated/commented translation 专业人士professionals 转换transformation 自然naturalness/idiomaticity 综合法mixture of methods2.翻译理论家及其理论信达雅faithfulness 、 expressiveness and eleganee长期被我国广大译者视为翻译标准。
翻译学导论真题及答案解析翻译作为一门特殊而重要的语言交流工具，在全球化的时代变得越来越重要。
无论是学术研究还是商务交流，翻译都起到了桥梁的作用。
因此，翻译学导论这门课程对于翻译专业的学生来说至关重要。
既然提到了翻译学导论，那么接下来我们就来深入探讨一下翻译学导论的真题及答案解析。
真题一：什么是翻译学？请简要说明。
翻译学是研究翻译现象规律的学科，它研究翻译的定义、翻译的原则和翻译的方法。
翻译学包括比较研究、积累研究、分析研究和实验研究等不同的研究方法和领域。
翻译学作为一个学科，旨在揭示翻译的本质和规律，为翻译实践提供理论指导，并为培养合格的翻译人才提供基础。
真题二：简述翻译的定义和翻译的基本原则。
翻译的定义是指通过语言、文字或符号等形式的转换，将一种语言的表达内容转化为另一种语言的表达内容的过程。
翻译的基本原则包括忠实原则、通顺原则、信达原则和美观原则。
忠实原则指翻译应忠实于原文的内容和意图，准确传达原文的信息。
通顺原则指翻译应符合目标语言的语法规则和表达习惯，使译文流畅易懂。
信达原则指翻译应达到与原文相近的语境效果和交际目的，使译文在目标语言的文化背景中得以接受和理解。
美观原则指翻译应注重译文的文学性和艺术性，使译文具有审美价值。
真题三：分析其中一个翻译理论的基本观点。
以函数对等理论为例，它表明翻译是一种功能性的语言活动，旨在实现某种特定的语义等价关系。
函数对等理论认为翻译是一种详细的函数关系，将源语言中的输入值（原文）映射到目标语言中的输出值（译文）。
在这一理论中，翻译被视为是一种无损转化的过程，要求译文与原文在语义上保持等价，即传达相似的语义信息。
这一理论强调语言层面的功用性，将翻译视为一种对等关系，并强调在翻译过程中保持语义的一致性。
真题四：通过一个案例分析翻译中的文化因素。
举一个例子，中国传统的“寿”一词，在英语中通常直接翻译为“longevity”，但这并不能完全传达其文化含义。
在中国文化中，寿是一种吉祥的象征，代表长寿和幸福。
翻译课期末复习资料一．词组翻译（10*1`）二．改错(5*2`)三．句子翻译(10*2`)四．Cloze(10*2`)五．段落翻译(1*50`)一．词组翻译（10*1`）•浓茶•strong tea•美术馆•art gallery•展览馆•exhibit hall•打的•take a taxi•白卷•unanswered test paper•红茶•black tea•假钞•counterfeit money; forged note •礼仪小姐•ritual girl•基本工资•basic salary •基本设施•infrastructure•浓烟•dense smoke•美术馆•art gallery•展览馆•exhibit hall•打水•fetch water•白丁•illiterate person•红利•bonus•假钞•counterfeit money; forged note •假花•artificial flower三．句子翻译•我愿与你共甘共苦。
•I want to share your ups and downs.•如此恶毒的谎言不啻暗箭伤人。
•Such a vicious lie could be nothing but a stab in the back.•对他那号人你还是敬而远之为妙。
•You’d better give a wide berth to a guy of his sort.•我没有添油加醋，我说的都是事实。
•I didn’t spice up. All I said is true.•他在会议上的讲话有点喧宾夺主了。
•His speech at the meeting seemed to have stolen the show.•那个歌星也只是昙花一现，除了两张唱片就销声匿迹了。
•That singer was only a flash in the pan. He disappeared into the air after having released two albums.•他试几次都失败了，所以现在也只能听天由命了。
“翻译学导论”期末考试题型及课程复习提纲考试题型：I. Match the following translation theorists with their representative works. [10 points, 1 point each]II. Interpret the following terms. [20 points, 5 points each]III. Interpret the following concepts. [40 points, 20 points each]IV. Analyze and comment on the following translated version(s) by applying any translation theory you are familiar with. [30 points]复习提纲一、作者和代表作的搭配1. Roman Jakobson On Linguistic Aspects of Translation (1959)2. E.A. Nida Toward a Science of Translating (1964)3. E.A. Nida & Taber The Theory and Practice of Translation (1969)4. James Holmes The Name and Nature of Translation Studies (1972)5. George Steiner After Babel (1975)6. Susan Bassnett Translation Studies (1980)7. Peter Newmark Approaches to Translation (1981)8. Wolfram Wilss The Science of Translation (1982)9. Theo Hermans The Manipulation of Literature (1985)10. Peter Newmark A Textbook of Translation (1988)11. Mary Snell-Hornby Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach (1988）12. Christiane Nord Text Analysis in Translation (1989)13. Susan Bassnett & AndréLefevere Translation, History and Culture (1990)14. Andre Lefevere Translation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame (1992)15. Edwin Gentzler Contemporary Translation Theories (1993)16. Gideon Toury Descriptive Translation Studies (1995)17. Lawrence Venuti The Translator’s Invisibility (1995/2008)18. Christiane Nord Translating as a Purposeful Activity (1997)19. Luise Von Flotow Translation and Gender (1997)20. Maria Tymoczko Translation in a Postcolonial Context (1999)二、解释以下术语1. word-for-word/literal translation and sense-for-sense/free translation2. metaphrase, paraphrase, imitation3. Formal equivalence and dynamic/functional equivlence4. Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation5. documentary translation and instrumental translation6. translational action7. skopo theory8. polysystem theory9. norms10. equivalence11. foreignization and domestication12. translation/translating13. Prescriptive Translation Studies and Descriptive Translation Studies三、理解以下观点1. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of thesource-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. (Nida & Taber, The Theory and Practice of Translation, 1969: 12)2. 翻译（translating）即解释，具体地说，翻译的过程就是，在跨文化的历史语境中，具有历史性的译者使自己的视域与源语文本视域互相发生融合而形成新视域，并用浸润着目的语文化的语言符号将新视域重新固定下来形成新文本的过程。
（朱健平，2003; 2007）(Translating is interpreting. More specifically, translating is the process in which the translator with his history fuses his horizon with that of the source text in an across-cultural historical context and forms a new horizon, and then he constructs a new text, namely, the target text, by using the newly acquired horizon in the target language soaked with the target culture. )3. And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and forms,or as one might say, the ‘figures’ of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing, I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. (Cicero, 46 BC/1960:364)4. Translation is just like the TL taking over the sense of the ST. Translation is like the originaltext being marched into the TL like a prisoner by its conqueror. (Jerome, qtd. in Robinson, 1997: 26)5. You must ask the mother at home, the children in the street, the ordinary man in the market andlook at their mouths, how they speak, and translate that way; then they’ll understand and see that you’r e speaking to them in German. (Martin Luther1530)6. Dryden reduces all translation to three categories:1) metaphrase: ‘word by word and line by line’ translation, which corresponds to literaltranslation.2) paraphrase: ‘translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator,so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense’. This involves changing whole phrases and more or less corresponds to faithful or sense-for-sense translation.3) imitation:‘Forsaking’ both words and sense. This corresponds to Cowley’s very freetranslation and is more or less adaptation. (Dryden, 1680/1992: 17)7. Dryden dismissed the ‘servile, literal’ translation with a simile: ‘’Tis much like dancing onropes with fettered legs –a foolish task.’ (Dryden, 1680/1992: 18)8. Dryden changed to a point between paraphrase and literal translation in 1697.I thought fit to steer betwixt the two extremes of paraphrase and literal translation: to keepas near my author as I could, without losing all his graces, the most eminent of which are in the beauty of his words. I may presume to say … I have endeavored to make Virgil speak such English as he would himself have spoken, if he had been born in England, and in this present age. (Dryden, 1697/1992: 26)9. A ‘good translation’ should be that in which the merit of the original work is so completelytransfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (A.F. Tytler, 1797: 14)10. Tytler’s three general ‘laws’ or ‘rules’:1) The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.2) The style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.3) The translation should have all the ease of original composition.(A.F. Tytler, 1797: 15)11. The two paths open for the ‘true’ translator:Either the translator leaves the writer alone as much as possible and moves the reader toward the writer, or he leaves the reader alone as much as possible and moves the writer toward the reader. (Schleiermacher, 1813/1992: 41-2)12. The surface structure of the ST is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; theseelements are ‘transferred’ in the translation process and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the TT. (Nida & Taber: 1969)13. Formal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content … themessage in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language. (Nida, 1964:159)Dynamic equivalence is based on ‘the principle of equivalent effect’, which means that ‘the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message’. (Nida, 1964: 159)14. The success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is oneof the ‘four basic requirements of a translation’, which are:1) making sense;2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original;3) having a natural and easy form of expression;4) producing a similar response. (Nida, 1964: 164)15. Ress’s Theory on the relationship between translation methods and text type:According to Katharina Reiss (1977), different methods should be adopted when translating different types of text:(1) The TT of an informative text should transmit the full referential or conceptual content of the ST. The translation should be in ‘plain prose’, without redundancy and with the use of explicitation when required.(2) The TT of an expressive text should transmit the aesthetic and artistic form of the ST. The translation should use the ‘identifying’ method, with the translator adopting the standpoint of the ST author.(3) The TT of an operative text should produce the desired response in the TT receiver. The translation should employ the ‘adaptive’ method, creating an equivalent effectamong TT readers.16. Holz-Mänttäri’s translational action modelInterlingual translation is described as ‘translational action from a source text’ and as a communicative process involving a series of roles and players (Holz-Mänttäri, 1984: 109-11):1) the initiator: the company or individual who needs the translation.2) the commissioner: the individual who contacts the translator.3) the ST producer: the individual within the company who writes the ST, not necessarily always involved in the TT production.4) the TT producer: the translator(s) and the translation agency or department.5) the TT user: the person who uses the TT, for example as teaching material or sales literature.6) the TT receiver: the final r ecipient of the TT, for example the students in a TT user’s class or clients reading the translated sales literature.These players each have their own specific primary and secondary goals.17. The basic underlying ‘rules’ of skopos theory (Reiss and Vermeer 1984: 119).1) A translatum (or TT) is determined by its skopos.2) A TT is an offer of information (Informationsangebot ) in a target culture and TL concerning an offer of information in a source culture and SL.3) A TT does not initiate an offer of information in a clearly reversible way.4) A TT must be internally coherent.5) A TT must be coherent with the ST.6) The five rules above stand in hierarchical order, with the skopos rule predominating.18. Even-Zohar’s Polysystem Theory:If the highest position is occupied by an innovative literary type, then the lower strata are likely to be occupied by increasingly conservative types. If the conservative forms are at the top, innovation and renewal are likely to come from the lower strata. Otherwise a period of stagnation occurs. (Even-Zohar, 1978: 120)If translated literature assumes a secondary position, then it represents a peripheral system within the polysystem. It has no major influence over the central system and even becomes a conservative element, preserving conventional forms and conforming to the literary norms of the target system. This secondary position is the ‘normal’ one for translated literatures. (Even-Zohar, 1978: 203)19. Even-Zohar gives three major cases when translated literature occupies the primary position:1) when a ‘young’ literature is being established and looks initially to ‘older’ literatures for ready-made models;2) when a literature is ‘peripheral’ or ‘weak’ and imports those literary types which it is lacking. This can happen when a smaller nation is dominated by the culture of a larger one.3) when there is a critical turning point in literary history at which established models are no longer considered sufficient, or when there is a vacuum in the literature of the country. Where no type holds sway, it is easier for foreign models to assume primacy.。
