Toward domain-independent formalization of indirect interaction

contribution more informative than is required.te closure:wherever possible, we prefer to attach new items to thecurrent constituent to reduce the burden on working memory during parsing.(E.g.: Tom said that Bill had taken the cleaning out yesterday. ) 26.cohort model:in word comprehension,words are analysed by hearers frombeginning to end.27.Selectional restrictions--- a restriction on the combining of wordsin a sentence resulting from their meaning form part of theword-processing system28. Hierarchical Structure----Our representation od complex words isorganized in terms of hierarchical morphological structure.what．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．1. Acculturation(同化过程） is a process in which members ohere is an agreement in number between boy and goes.5.articulators（发音器官): the tongue,lips,and velum, which change the shape of the vocal tract to produce different sp eech sounds.6.aspect(体）: the grammatical category representing distin ction in the temporal structure of an event. English has tw o aspect construction---the perfect and the progressive.(完成体和进行体)7.aspiration(吐气）; the puff of air that sometimes followspart of a large unit within a sentence; typical constituen t types are verb phrase, noun phrase, prepositional phrase and clause.12.case(格)：the grammatical category in inflectional langu ages by which the form of a noun or noun phrase varies forgrammatical or semantic reasons. English has only one case distinction in nouns—the genitive case(所有格), but Englis h pronouns have three forms that correspond to three of the six cases in Latin.13.clause（小句）: a grammatical unit that contains a subjees where the truth of one(the second) is inferred from the truth of the other.19.euphemism（委婉语）: a word or phrase that replaces a ta boo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or s ubjects,e.g. powder room for toilet.20.garden path sentence（花园小径句）: a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or a phrase but later discovers that the assumption was incorr ect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentence.n a particular form. E.g. a preposition or a verb requires that the pronoun following it be in the objective form,as i n with me,to him.nguage universal (语言共性): any property that is shar ed by most,if not all, human lanugages.25.lingua franca: ( 通用语) A language variety used for com munication among groups of people wo do not otherwise share a common language. For example, English is the lingua fran ca of the international scientific community.26.macrosociolinguistics; The study of the effect of languaNature purifies the mind.Beauty purifies the mind.Love purifies the mind.Honesty purifies the mind.29.syntagmatic relation: (横组合关系) The relation betweenany linguistic elements which are simultaneously present in a structure. E.g. in the word bit, b, i,t are in syntagmat ic relation, so are nature, purifies, the, mind, in the sen tence Nature purifies the mind.30.presupposition（预设）: implicit assumptions about the wconsidered inappropriate for “polite society”, thus to be avoided in conversation.35.selectional restriction(选择限制): a restriction on the combining of words in a sentence resulting from their meani ng.36.linguistic universal:(语言共性) The linguistic universal s are principles that enable children to acquire a particul ar language unconsciously, without instruction in the early years of life. As a whole they are referred to as Universapproaching equivalence, to one of its constituents. The t ypical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases a nd adjective phrases.40.exocentric construction(离心结构或外心结构) the opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are exoce ntric.41.politeness can be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person’s public self-image.sks during communicative exchanges.46.Conversion（转类构词）is a change in the grammatical fun ction of a word without adding or removing any part of it.A word belonging to one part of speech is extended to another part of speech. It is also called functional shift or ze ro derivation.47.lexical meaning VS grammatical meaning(词汇意义与语法意义)The meaning of a sentence is carried by the words proper asimultaneously by the hearer. Paralinguistic meanings are th ose attached to the verbal expressions by quality of voice, tempo of speech,posture,facial expression and gestures. Non -linguistic meanings are those indicated by non-verbal noises such as cough, sigh, tongue-clicking, various kinds of b ody languages and different contexts of situation.49.denotation VS connotation (外延与内涵)Denotation is a straightforward, literal meaning of the wor d every member of the language speaking community will agrere is no limit to the structural diversity of languages. Linguistic determinism refers to the idea that the language we use determines, to some extent, the way in which we vie w and think about the world around us. This concept has two versions; strong determinism and weak determinism. The strong version, which has few followers today, holds that lang uage actually determines thought, whereas that weak version, which is widely accepted today, merely holds that language affects thought.。

BIOINFORMATICS DISCOVERY NOTE Vol.21no.82005,pages1301–1303doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/bti206 Sequence analysisThe G5domain:a potential N-acetylglucosamine recognition domain involved in biofilm formationAlex Bateman∗,Matthew T.G.Holden and Corin YeatsThe Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute,Wellcome Trust Genome Campus,Hinxton,Cambridge CB101SA,UK Received on October22,2004;revised and accepted on December2,2004Advance Access publication December14,2004ABSTRACTSummary:Biofilms are complex microbial communities found at sur-faces that are often associated with extracellular polysaccharides. Biofilm formation is a complex process that is being understood at the molecular level only recently.We have identified a novel domain that we call the G5domain(named after its conserved glycine residues), which is found in a variety of enzymes such as Streptococcal IgA peptidases and various glycosyl hydrolases in bacteria.The G5 domain is found in the Accumulation Associated Protein(AAP),which is an important component in biofilm formation in Staphylococcus aureus.A common feature of the proteins containing G5domains is N-acetylglucosamine binding,and we attribute this function to the G5 domain.Contact:agb@INTRODUCTIONIn nature,a large fraction of bacteria are found to be associated with surfaces.Bacteria attached to a surface form a biofilm(O’Toole et al., 2000;Sauer,2003)that protects the bacteria from harsh physical conditions and forces.Biofilms also provide protection from attack by antibiotics and the immune system.The formation of biofilms occurs in several steps.Initially adherence to a surface(adhesion)is followed by microcolony formation(growth and recruitment)lead-ing to maturation(structures).Biofilms are also medically important since they lead to chronic infection of implants and recalcitrance to antimicrobial therapy.Here,we discover a novel domain found in a wide variety of proteins including some involved in biofilm formation that may help to dissect the function of these proteins. METHODS AND RESULTSThe G5domain wasfirst noticed as a family in the Pfam-B database.Pfam-B is an automatically generated clustering of proteins that is supplemental to the Pfam resource of protein family alignments and profile hidden Markov models(HMMs)(Bateman et al.,2004).Pfam-B is directly derived from PRODOM and entry Pfam-B_921corresponds to PRODOM entry PD005454 in2002.1release(Corpet et al.,2000).This Pfam-B family contained35 members found in a wide variety of different domain architectures in proteins associated with bacterial pathogenesis and antibiotic resistance.To detect further members of the family HMMs were built using the HMMer software (/)from the Pfam-B alignment in both global(ls)and local(fs)modes and iteratively searched against Swiss-Prot and TrEMBL until no new sequences were found.Inclusion E-value thresholds of0.1and To whom correspondence should be addressed.0.01were set for global and local HMMs,respectively.This resulted in the detection of90copies of the domain,which was added to the Pfam database with accession number PF07501.PSI-blast searches were carried out from a number of starting points to validate the alignment and the membership of the original Pfam-B alignment.This region ranges in size from76residues in the beta galactosidase protein from Streptococcus pneumoniae(Q8L3E9)to84residues in the Methicillin-resistant surface protein from Staphylococcus aureus(P80544). The alignment of the G5domain contains a few highly conserved residues, see multiple sequence alignment shown in Figure1.None of these conserved residues is the polar types of amino acids found in active sites,hence it seems unlikely that this region has an enzymatic function.However,in nearly all cases the G5domain is associated with a known enzymatic domain.There-fore,the G5domain may confer localization or substrate specificity on the proteins in which it is found.Other alternative functions could be allosteric regulation of the enzymatic domain or co-factor binding.The Pls protein from S.aureus(Swiss:PLS_STAAU,P80544)contains five copies of the G5domain.(Fig.2).The Pls protein is found to be cleaved between residues387and388by plasmin(hence the Pls name after Plasmin sensitive)(Savolainen et al.,2001).The pls gene is carried on a mobile genetic element(SCC mec type I)containing theβ-lactam resistance gene,mecA,that are associated with some methicillin resistance S.aureus(MRSA)strains(Ito et al.,2001).Staphylococcus epidermis also contains a number of proteins related to Pls(Hussain et al.,1997)that contain between four and seven G5 domains.These proteins have been called accumulation-associated proteins and they appear to have a role in biofilm formation.It has been suggested that these proteins bind to PIA,theβ-1,6-linked glucosaminoglycan that is the key matrix component of biofilms in S.epidermis.The biofilm-binding capacity of the Pls may therefore be crucial for the ability of S.epidermidis cells to be recruited and integrated into a maturing biofilm.As a corollary to this, the presence of the pls gene on the SCC mec type I element may enhance the antibiotic resistance by promoting biofilm formation in some MRSA strains. Some strains of S.aureus also contain a homologue of Pls,SasG,that contain seven G5domains.In addition to the G5domains,both Pls and SasG contain an N-terminal domain that has been demonstrated to be involved with host ligand-binding(Roche et al.,2003).We have found that this region is likely to be a lectin domain.Adherence assays have demonstrated that both SasG and Pls promote binding to human desquamated nasal epithelium cells, and that it is the N-terminal domain that binds an as yet unidentified ligand on the epithelium cells(Roche et al.,2003).Recombinant protein studies have demonstrated that G5domain containing region of the SasG is not involved in adherence to the host molecule.In addition to its ability to promote host–cell interactions,the SasG protein also causes bacteria cell–cell interaction. Expression of sasG in recombinant Lactococcus lactis caused aggregation, whereas aggregation was absent in the wild-type cells lacking sasG(Roche et al.,2003).IgA1peptidases are important proteins for pathogens that colonize mucosal surfaces.To evade the host immune defences,these bacteria produce a peptidase that cleaves IgA1—the predominant immunoglobulin of mucosal©The Author2004.Published by Oxford University Press.All rights reserved.For Permissions,please email:journals.permissions@1301A.Bateman et al.Fig.1.An alignment of representative G5domains.The alignment was generated using MAFFT(Katoh et al.,2002)with manual adjustment.The alignment has been coloured using Chroma with the default colouring scheme(Goodstadt and Ponting,2001).The Swiss-Prot accession numbers for the proteins in the alignment are as follows:PLS_STAAU(P80544),BGAA-STRPN(Q8DQP4),Y ABE_BACSU(P37546),TTE2691-THETE(Q8R6U3),BL0658-BIFLO (Q8G6I2),STRH_STRPN(Q8DRL6),SPR1403-STRPN(Q8CYI8),ENDD-STRPN(Q93HW0),IGA-STRPN(Q97QP7),SCO3150-STRCO(Q8CJX5)and V ANW-CLOPE(Q8XKT0).Fig.2.A schematic view of the domain architectures of G5domain containing proteins.Domain names are shown in the key with Pfam(Bateman et al.,2002) accessions.See Figure1for protein accession numbers.Thisfigure can be viewed in colour on Bioinformatics online.1302The G5domainsurfaces.This activity has evolved independently multiple times,since IgA1 peptidases from different classes of bacteria are unrelated.The IgA1pep-tidase from streptococci are metallopeptidases that belong to family M26 (Rawlings et al.,2002).The G5domain is found in a number of S.pneumoniae glycosyl hydro-lase enzymes.These enzymes are thought to help the organism break down oligosaccharides in its environment to provide a carbon source.β-N-Acetylglucosaminidase known as StrH(Swiss:STRH_STRPN,Q8DRL6) contains two G5domains as well as two domains of the glycosyl hydrolase 20family,which catalyse the hydrolysis of terminal non-reducing N-acetyl-d-hexosamine residues in N-acetyl-β-d-hexosaminides(Clarke et al.,1995). EndoD(endo-β-N-acetylglucosaminidase)from S.pneumoniae cleaves the di-N-acetylchitobiose structure(a1–4linked disaccharide of N-acetyl-glucosamine)in N-linked oligosaccharides and generally acts on complex oligosaccharides after the removal of external sugars byβ-galactosidase and β-N-acetylglucosaminidase.The catalytic activity of this protein residues in the N-terminal region that belongs to glycosyl hydrolase family85. Muramatsu et al.(2001)noted that the C-terminus of EndoD was related to S.pneumoinaeβ-galactosidase in the region,which contains the G5domain. The G5domain seems likely to bind to the N-acetylglucosamine residues of di-N-chitobiose providing substrate specificity for the enzyme.In other proteins,this binding function could lead to a more general localization to the cell surface and provide an adhesive function.The G5domain is found at the C-terminus of some members of the VanW protein family.VanW is found as part of the Vancomycin resistance gene cluster,but the function for these proteins has not yet been identified.Vanco-mycin is often seen as a drug of last resort because some bacterial strains have become resistant to so many other antibiotics.Vancomycin action occurs by binding to the peptide component of unlinked peptidoglycan and blocking the action of transpeptidase enzymes.If VanW does have a direct or indirect role in Vancomycin resistance then the potential function of the G5domain in binding NAG could provide localization to the NAG component of pep-tidoglycan.VanW may bind to other Vancomycin resistance proteins and help to localize them to unlinked peptidoglycan chains.The G5domain containing VanW proteins are specific to clostridial species and Deinococcus and are not found in the clinically important enterococci strains. CONCLUSIONSThe G5domain is currently found widely distributed in both high-and low-GC gram positive eubacterial genomes.It is particularly expanded in the streptococcal genomes,with many of the domain architectures only seen in this group of bacteria.Based on the ability of AAP to bind PIA as well as the appearance of G5domains in StrH and EndoD that act on N-acetylglucosamine-related substrates,we have suggested that this domain may bind NAG.Thus,we suggest that G5domain is an important molecular component in a variety of biological situations including cell wall degradation as well as biofilm formation.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe would also like to thank Neil Rawlings and David Studholme for useful comments on the manuscript.A.B.is supported by the Wellcome Trust.SUPPLEMENTARY DATASupplementary data for this paper are available on Bioinformatics online.REFERENCESBateman,A.,Birney,E.,Cerruti,L.,Durbin,R.,Etwiller,L.,Eddy,S.R.,Griffiths-Jones,S., Howe,K.L.,Marshall,M.and Sonnhammer,E.L.L.(2002)The Pfam protein families database.Nucleic Acids Res.,30,276–280.Bateman,A.,Coin,L.,Durbin,R.,Finn,R.D.,Hollich,V.,Griffiths-Jones,S.,Khanna,A., Marshall,M.,Moxon,S.,Sonnhammer,E.L.et al.(2004)The Pfam protein families database.Nucleic Acids Res.,32,D138–D141.Clarke,V.A.,Platt,N.and Butters,T.D.(1995)Cloning and expression of the beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase gene from Streptococcus pneumoniae.Generation of truncated enzymes with modified aglycon specificity.J.Biol.Chem.,270,8805–8814. Corpet,F.,Servant,F.,Gouzy,J.and Kahn,D.(2000)ProDom and ProDom-CG:tools for protein domain analysis and whole genome comparisons.Nucleic Acids Res.,28, 267–269.Goodstadt,L.and Ponting,C.P.(2001)CHROMA:consensus-based colouring of mul-tiple alignments for publication.Bioinformatics,17,845–846.Hussain,M.,Herrmann,M.,von Eiff,C.,Perdreau-Remington,F.and Peters,G.(1997)A 140-kilodalton extracellular protein is essential for the accumulation of Staphylococ-cus epidermidis strains on surfaces.Infect.Immun.,65,519–524.Ito,T.,Katayama,Y.,Asada,K.,Mori,N.,Tsutsumimoto,K.,Tiensasitorn,C.and Hiramatsu,K.(2001)Structural comparison of three types of staphylococcal cas-sette chromosome mec integrated in the chromosome in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.Antimicrob.Agents Chemother.,45,1323–1336.Katoh,K.,Misawa,K.,Kuma,K.and Miyata,T.(2002)MAFFT:a novel method for rapid multiple sequence alignment based on fast Fourier transform.Nucleic Acids Res.,30, 3059–3066.Muramatsu,H.,Tachikui,H.,Ushida,H.,Song,X.,Qiu,Y.,Yamamoto,S.and Muramatsu,T.(2001)Molecular cloning and expression of endo-beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase D,which acts on the core structure of complex type asparagine-linked oligosaccharides.J.Biochem.(Tokyo),129,923–928.O’Toole,G.,Kaplan,H.B.and Kolter,R.(2000)Biofilm formation as microbial develop-ment.Annu.Rev.Microbiol.,54,49–79.Rawlings,N.D.,O’Brien,E.and Barrett,A.J.(2002)MEROPS:the protease Database.Nucleic Acids Res.,30,343–346.Roche,F.M.,Meehan,M.,Foster,T.J.,Massey,R.,Peacock,S.J.,Day,N.P.,Visai,L., Speziale,P.,Lam,A.and Pallen,M.(2003)The Staphylococcus aureus surface protein SasG and its homologues promote bacterial adherence to human desquamated nasal epithelial cells.Microbiology,149,2759–2767.Sauer,K.(2003)The genomics and proteomics of biofilm formation.Genome Biol., 4,219.Savolainen,K.,Paulin,L.,Westerlund-Wikstrom,B.,Foster,T.J.,Korhonen,T.K.and Kuusela,P.(2001)Expression of pls,a gene closely associated with the mecA gene of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus,prevents bacterial adhesion in vitro.Infect.Immun.,69,3013–3020.1303。

政治英语试题题库及答案一、选择题1. The concept of "sovereignty" in political science refers to:A. The supreme power of the stateB. The highest authority within the stateC. The right to govern the stateD. The right to self-determination of the state答案：A2. Which of the following is a fundamental principle of the United Nations?A. Peaceful resolution of international disputesB. Non-interference in the internal affairs of statesC. Promotion of economic, social, and cultural cooperationD. All of the above答案：D3. The term "democracy" in political science is often associated with:A. Rule by the peopleB. Rule by the fewC. Rule by the militaryD. Rule by a single individual答案：A二、填空题4. The political system in the United States is based on the principle of _______.答案：checks and balances5. The phrase "one country, two systems" is associated with the policy of the People's Republic of China towards _______.答案：Hong Kong and Macau6. The concept of "rule of law" implies that laws are applied _______.答案：equally to all三、简答题7. Explain the difference between a parliamentary system anda presidential system.答案：A parliamentary system is characterized by a fusion of powers where the executive branch derives its legitimacy from, and is accountable to, the legislative branch. In contrast, a presidential system features a separation of powers where the executive branch is independent of the legislative branch and is not accountable to it in the same way.8. What are the key features of a federal system?答案：Key features of a federal system include division of powers between a central government and constituent political units, a written constitution that delineates the powers ofeach level of government, and a judiciary that can interpret the constitution and resolve disputes between the levels of government.四、论述题9. Discuss the role of international organizations in promoting global peace and security.答案：International organizations play a crucial role in promoting global peace and security by providing platformsfor dialogue and negotiation, mediating conflicts, implementing peacekeeping missions, and enforcing international law. They also facilitate cooperation on a wide range of issues such as arms control, disarmament, and the prevention of nuclear proliferation.10. Analyze the impact of globalization on national sovereignty.答案：Globalization has a complex impact on national sovereignty. On one hand, it can erode sovereignty by creating interdependencies and requiring states to comply with international norms and agreements. On the other hand, it can also strengthen sovereignty by enabling states to address global challenges collectively and by providing them with access to global markets and resources.。

胡壮麟《语言学教程〉名词解释课后答案Define the following terms:1. design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,c reativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2. function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think , functions inclucle imformative funct ion,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,e motive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which origina tes from American linguist Pike’s distincti on of phonetics and etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,diff erentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast wit h etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distincti on of phonetics and emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meanin gful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to t he investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of grammars are of this kind.:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, do wn rules for language use.: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic si gns bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two l evels of are composed of elements of the and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement : one design feature of human language,which means human language enable thei r users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at t he moment of communication.communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,soc iology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence of macrolinguistics include psych olinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21．Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulatio ns are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and per severative coarticulation.22． Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the voca l cords.23． Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcriptionis called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called bro ad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referre d to as narrow transcription.24． Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tra ct at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. 25． Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a partic ular language.26． Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/ t/.27． Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a tot al stopping of the air can be perceived.28． Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refe rs to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29． Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30． Distinctive features: a term of phonology, property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31． Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32． IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the In ternational Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of is a comprised syst em employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete lett ers,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33． Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34． Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound principle sup rasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression a nd content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastic ally altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as clas sroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of in flectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the gra mmatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a example,in English the plural mortheme i s but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world i t is added to,. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word.”dog in the manger”)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categorie s and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions, articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,a ction and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as no uns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but t he meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which hasa heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived b y deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent soun d,which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect pop ular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms m istakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of function s of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more wo rds in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements w hich are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each oth er at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent. 64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constitue nts of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equiva lent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equiv alent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a constru ction, underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,wh ich closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two gov ernment relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relatio ns: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by languag e itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and an other..74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and w ith features of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the enti ty a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,. to talk about things in con text.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational con text.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,f at;thin,etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not co nstitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations, temporal and spatial are always two entities presupposes the other. The shorter,better; are i nstances of relational opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superord inate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy, class superordinate usually has several animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,< +human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sente nce depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90. selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular le xical item can take, requires a human subject.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of sim ple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which featu res of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistio n element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements m atching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process co ntinues until only one remains active.96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the reced ing words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an o rdinary sense, a specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that wo rd in encountered.100. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,si ght.101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and wr ite in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and wr ite in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings: of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.106. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or compon ents,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accid ents,traditionally pupils learning lat in grammar.108. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a is a proper ty of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological real ity of linguistic can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all w ith making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar, a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to c riteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized. 113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or contin uing developmeng.114. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventi ons, the skilled use of language in a by in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of compet ence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden differ ence”116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, determines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis, no limit to t he structural diversity of languages.118. linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context. 120. sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we t ry to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship be tween speakers’social starts and phonolo gical variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as appo sed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be tr ue or false.124. locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal mean ing by means of syntax,lexicon,and .,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and ref erence.125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical wit h the speaker’s intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s t he consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128. entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communica tes the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131. relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must, in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132. Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale, your contribution necessary ,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expres sion when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134. constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135. third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136. I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137. direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its ful lest form.138. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its f ullest form.139. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140. narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in whi ch a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.141. narrator”srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech exa mple,,she considered his unpunctuality.142. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect example,she thought that he wo ule be late.143. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of dire ct speech and indirect speech features.144. narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech spent the day thinking.145. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts o f their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect example,she thought that he wo uld be late.146. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of dire ct speech and indirect speech features.147. narrator”s representation of thought: the categories used by novel ists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech spen t the day thinking.148. free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts o f their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech, was bound to be la te.149. direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their cha racters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk dr ives,programs,etc.151. computer literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.152. computer linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processi ng of human language.153. Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154. programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.155. local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156. CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stor ed on one disk with quich access to the and teachers can access information quickly and effici ently for use in and out of the classroom.157. machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate tex ts from one language to another.158. concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of perha ps even a part of speech in a computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usua lly in a context,which is a further aid to the can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw sta te of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic in formation,160. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw st ate of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic i nformation.161. informational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,appli ed to the type of actrvity discussed in this information retrieval system does not infor the k nowledge of)the user on the subject of his merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)an d whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162. document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relatio nships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval covers speci fically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.163. precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164. recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign lan guage learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,e tc166. communicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167. syllabus:the planning of course of is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.168. interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learne rs who are still in the process of learning a language, language system between the target lang uage and the learner’s native language169. transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second structures of the two lan guages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two languages are diff erent in structures,negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170. validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to are four kinds of validity, validity,construct validity,empirical valiodity,and face validity.171. rebiability: can be defined as are two kinds of reliability, reliability,and equir alence reliability.172. hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features,in terms of both frequen cy, the speakers of higher social status,and overshooting the target, the use of a form inaling uistic environment where it is not expected to occur,For example,pronouncing ideas as[ai’dier], extending pronouncing post-vocalic/r/ in an envorienment where it’s not supposed to occur. 173. discrete point test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are furt her divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.174. integrative test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis。