《耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡》(Open Yale course—Philosophy：Death)课程目录及下载地址(不断更新

耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡26OpenYalecourse—Philosophy：.txt每天早上起床都要看一遍“福布斯”富翁排行榜，如果上面没有我的名字，我就去上班。

谈钱不伤感情，谈感情最他妈伤钱。

我诅咒你一辈子买方便面没有调料包。

上次我们讲到自杀的道德问题Last time we turned to questions about the morality of suicide,我提到了两个and I started with two arguments that我称为草率随性的观点I called quick and dirty arguments.我认为公平地讲I suppose it would have been fairer to say它们其实都是神学观点that they were really theological arguments,或者说是某种程度上采用了神学前提的or they were moral arguments that used, in part,道德观点theological premises.我觉得至少这种I suggested that, at least if we look at them草率随意的观点in their quick and dirty versions,不足以说明问题they were inadequate,如果我们想仔细研究and if we're going to make a more careful argument自杀的道德问题about the morality of suicide,我们需要一些更系统化的we need to turn to a more systematic view道德理论about the contents of morality.我们需要根据We need to look at suicide基本的道德准则来评判自杀in terms of the basic moral principles.这不是我们有机会仔细探讨的事情Now, that's not something we've got the chance to do in detail,但我们至少能讲清楚but I think we can at least say enough一些基本的道德准则about a couple of basic approaches to the contents of morality,或是基本的道德尺度or the basic moral rules,让我们有个概念知道to get the beginnings of an understanding of更仔细地研究自杀的道德问题what might emerge about the morality of suicide会得到什么if we were to do that more carefully.先不谈自杀问题So, holding off on suicide for the moment,我们先问一下let's ask ourselves,是什么决定了一个行为what is it that makes an action是否符合道德morally acceptable or morally forbidden?毋庸置疑This is, unsurprisingly,不同道德理论对此存在争议something that different moral theories disagree about.但至少有一个要素或特征是所有But there's at least one factor or one feature that all,或者说大部分道德理论所接受的or almost all, moral theories agree about.那就是行为造成的后果很关键And that is that the consequences of your action matter.我们或许可以或许不可以That is, we might or might not只把行为的后果当作道德评判的标准think that consequences are the only things that are morally relevant 来考察行为是否道德when we think about the morality of your action,但行为造成的后果but surely it is one thing that's morally relevant--肯定是其中一个标准what are the consequences of your action going to be.因此下面我们从后果的角度So, let's think about the morality of suicide来思考自杀的道德问题with an eye towards consequences,因为我们讨论的是道德问题bearing in mind that since we're talking about a moral point of view 所以我们要考虑we need to take into account行为的后果对所有人造成的影响the consequences as they affect everybody.那么受自杀行为影响最大的人Now, the person who, of course, is most affected by suicide is,当然就是自杀者自己of course, the person who is killing themselves.似乎我们的第一印象很清楚And at first glance it might seem pretty clear自杀对其本人是不好的that the consequences of suicide are bad for that person.毕竟这个人之前活着而现在死了After all, the person was alive and now they're dead,我们通常将死亡造成的结果看做坏的and we normally would take death to be a bad result.假如我告诉你If I were to tell you,墙上有个开关"Oh, here's a switch on the wall.只要你按动开关If you were to flip the switch,一千个活着的人a thousand people who would otherwise be alive就会立即死亡would end up dead,"一般情况下你一定会同意you would normally take that to be a pretty compelling argument 不能按开关against flipping the switch.为什么呢因为结果是坏的Why? Because the result would be bad.为什么呢因为一千个人会死去Why? Because a thousand people would end up dead.也许一个人死亡的坏处Well, one person ending up dead并不比一千个人死亡的坏处更大isn't as bad as a thousand people ending up dead,但即便如此but for all that我们不是仍然可以说结果是坏的吗shouldn't we still say it's a bad consequence?由此我们不是可以说And as a result of that, shouldn't we say that无论结果在道德评判中的however far appeal to consequences goes作用有多大in terms of giving us our moral theory,我们难道不应认为从结果来看don't we have to say in terms of consequences,或者说考虑到结果or with regard to consequences,自杀是不道德的suicide is immoral?但先别急But not so quick!尽管死亡通常是坏事Even though it's true that normally death is a bad thing,但并非总是坏事it's not always a bad thing.我们在讨论死亡的主要坏处时This is the sort of thing that we've learned by thinking about 学习过这个问题what does the badness of death consist in.平常情况下Typical cases are ones in which死亡剥夺了人们the person's dying robs them of a chunk of life本来会有的幸福生活that would've been good for them overall,因此死亡对他们来说是坏事and because of that dying then is bad for them.但在我们后来的例子里But in the kinds of cases that we're thinking about,有理由自杀的那些例子里cases where suicide would be rationally acceptable,我们现在讨论那些自杀是否符合道德and we're now asking whether or not it's morally acceptable-- 在那些例子里至少在那些in those sorts of cases, at least the kind of paradigm examples 我们关注的例子里that we've been focused on,那些人死了会更好the person is better off dead.他们生不如死They're better off dead,生活给予他们的meaning that what life now holds out for them--也许并非一直是坏的although perhaps not negative through and through--但总的来说是坏的is negative on balance.总和是负数{\c他们最好不要再活下去they're not better off continuing to live.最好选择死亡They're better off dying.也就是说And that means, of course,死亡对他们来说不是坏事而是好事that dying isn't bad for them, but rather good for them,因此他们死亡造成的结果不是坏的and so their death is not a bad consequence,而是好的but rather a good consequence.假设你愿意相信有这种情况Provided that you're prepared to accept the possibility of cases 某些人早死比晚死in which somebody would be better off if their life ended sooner 会更好rather than later,我们便可得出结论we're led to the conclusion that--从道德上看from the moral point of view只关注于结果时as far as focusing on consequences goes--如果一个人自杀实际上the consequences might actually be good rather than bad结果可能是好的而不是坏的if the person were to kill themselves.或许他们能够They will free themselves, let's suppose,从痛苦中得到解脱of the suffering they would otherwise have to undergo.那么第一印象在说Well, that's--first glance said,从结果看自杀是错的consequences says suicide's wrong.第二个印象在说从结果看Second glance says, consequences says,自杀在某些情况下是对的as least in certain circumstances, suicide's right.当然第三印象便是Of course, third glance suggests,我们不能只关注自杀对we can't just focus on consequences for the person自杀者本人的影响who is contemplating suicide.因为从道德的角度出发Because from the point of view of morality应该考虑对所有人造成的影响we have to look at the consequences for everybody.哪些人会受到Who else might get affected这个人自杀的影响by the death or suicide of the person?我们最先想到的Well, the most obvious people for us to think about就是死者的家属和亲人at that point then are the family and loved ones--以及那些认识他the people who most directly know about并且关心他的人and care about the person who is contemplating suicide.然后我的印象快不够用了And again--I'm running out of glances,第一印象你会说but at first glance you might say,结果明显是坏的well, there the consequences are clearly bad.这个人自杀一般来讲When the person kills themselves that causes, typically,会对其家属和朋友a great deal of distress for the family造成沉重打击and friends of the person who has killed themselves.即便这是真的我们仍要问Even if that's true, we now have to ask,如何衡量这些结果how do the consequences weigh out?毕竟我们生存的世界没有一件事After all, we live in a world in which no single act typically只会导致好的结果has only good consequences,也没有一件事只会造成坏的结果or no single act has bad consequences and only bad consequences.我们的选择通常有利有弊Often our choices are mixed packages我们需要评估这样做或者那样做where we have to ask whether the good that we can do is greater than或者怎样做才能利大于弊the bad that we'd be doing with this act or that act or some third act. 但即便如此Even if there are, then,自杀对其家属negative consequences in terms of distress to the family,朋友或爱人的负面影响friends, and loved ones, of the person who kills themselves,仍可能超过that might still be outweighed对自杀者本人的好处by the benefit to the person himself or herself,如果自杀者if it was really the case死了真能更好的话that he or she would be better off dying.但值得注意的是But it's also worth bearing in mind当我们想到那些that insofar as we're thinking about people关心爱护他的人who love and care about the person who is considering dying,总的来说他们其实then they may actually overall, on balance,或许得到了解脱be relieved that the因他们的亲人不用再忍受痛苦了suffering of their loved one has come to an end.当然我们都很震惊和沮丧We will, of course, all be horribly distressed看到大自然that nature,或者说命运或者什么别的or the Fates, or what have you,导致人们面临的选择竟然是has brought it about that this person's choices或者杀死自己are now reduced to killing themselves on the one hand,或者继续活在病魔缠绕or continuing the terminal stages of some illness虚弱不堪的痛苦中where they're incapacitated and in pain.我们当然希望他有治愈的机会We will, of course, wish there was a serious prospect of a cure,重获健康的可能some chance of recovery,更希望他们从一开始就没生病wish they'd never gotten ill in the first place.而现在只有两个选择But given the limited choices,继续痛苦地活着continued suffering and pain, on the one hand,还是终结这种苦难的生活or having an end to that suffering and pain,如果这个人能理性地评估未来if the person can rationally assess their prospects并且合理地认为选择死亡会更好and reasonably come to believe they're better off dead,那么这一判断then that's a judgment会得到他们亲人的认可their loved ones can come to share as well.也许他们会懊恼They may well regret the fact--不止懊恼他们会咒骂more than regret, curse the fact--因为他们只有这些选择that these are the only choices they've got,但由于只有这些选择but still, given the limited choices they may agree,他们可能会同意结束痛苦会更好they may come to agree, better to put an end to the suffering. 所以当这个人自杀时And so when the person kills themselves,他们会支持这个决定they may second that choice.他们会说They may say,至少他不再忍受痛苦的折磨"At least they're not in pain and agony anymore."所以如果我们从结果的角度看So, if we look at it from the point of view of consequences-- 事实上有的道德观念认为in fact, suppose we had a moral view that said结果并不是衡量行为consequences aren't just one thing that was morally relevant 是否符合道德的唯一标准in thinking about what makes an action right or wrong.假设我们极端地认为Suppose we took the bold claim that结果是道德评判的唯一标准consequences are the only thing that's morally relevant.有一个道德观念便是如此There are moral views that take this position.我估计最著名的I suppose the best-known认为结果是道德评判的唯一标准example of this kind of consequence-only approach to morality 就是功利主义is utilitarianism.功利主义是一种道德学说Utilitarianism is the moral doctrine认为对与错that says right and wrong is取决于能否使a matter of producing所有人尽可能幸福as much happiness for everybody as possible,平等地计算每个人的幸福counting everybody's happiness equally.假如你无法获得幸福And when you can't produce happiness,那就至少应该将痛苦最小化then at least trying to minimize the misery and suffering,平等地计算每个人的痛苦counting everybody's misery and suffering equally.假设我们接受功利主义的立场So, suppose we accept this utilitarian position.我们可以对自杀的道德问题What conclusions would we come to得到怎样的结论then about the morality of suicide?我认为结论会是中立的I suppose the conclusion would be a kind of moderate one.一方面我们可以推翻极端的说法On the one hand, we'd be rejecting the extreme that says认为自杀绝对不符合道德suicide is never morally acceptable,因为要这样说because to say that,你就必须承认自杀总是you'd have to be claiming suicide always产生坏的结果has bad consequences overall.尽管这是经验之谈And that strikes me, although it's an empirical claim,但我不认可这种经验之谈it strikes me as a rather implausible empirical claim.因为很遗憾It's, sadly enough,很容易找出一个例子not too difficult to describe cases in which证明某人通过自杀the results may actually be better if the person kills themselves 以避免痛苦的折磨会更好rather than having their suffering continue.对其本人和家属都会更好It may be better for them and better for their family.另一方面也不应该On the other hand, we certainly wouldn't want--假如我们是功利主义者if we were utilitarians--我们也不应该走入另一个极端we also wouldn't want to go to the other extreme说自杀总是符合道德的and say suicide is always morally acceptable,因为要说自杀总是符合道德because, of course, to say that it's always morally acceptable就必须要说is to say that自杀的结果总是好的the consequences are never bad when you kill yourself.这点明显没有说服力And that's also pretty obviously an implausible thing to claim. 你们都很年轻很健康You guys are young, you're healthy,你们有光明的前途you've got a great future in front of you.如果你们自杀结果肯定是不好的If you were to kill yourself, the results wouldn't be good.自杀的结果肯定比The results would be worse overall不自杀的结果要坏than if you had refrained from killing yourself.因此功利主义的立场是中立的So, the utilitarian position is in the middle.它不认为自杀从来都是错的It doesn't say suicide's never acceptable,也不认为自杀从来都是对的doesn't say suicide is always acceptable.也许不出意料It says, perhaps unsurprisingly,它认为有些时候自杀是可接受的{\c这取决于现实情况it depends on the facts.取决于自杀的结果It depends on the results.取决于这个结果It depends on comparing the results of this action,和其它可能的结果的比较killing yourself, to the alternatives open to you.我们要问你真的生不如死吗We have to ask, is your life worse than nothing?有没有一些医疗手段Is there some medical procedure能够治愈你呢available to you that would cure you?如果有即使你现在过得生不如死If there is, and even if your life is worse than nothing,但就结果而言that still doesn't make it自杀仍然不是最好的选择the best choice in terms of the consequences.就结果而言医疗救治Getting medical help is a preferable choice是更好的选择in terms of the consequences.我们还可以想像We can even think of cases where假如你生不如死your life is worse than nothing,你死了会更好you'd be better off dead,而且任何医疗手段都无法治愈你and there is no medical alternative of a cure available to you, 但即便如此按照功利主义观点but for all that, it still isn't morally legitimate自杀仍然可能是不道德的to kill yourself in terms of the utilitarian outlook.因为一如既往Because, as always,我们还要考虑对他人造成的影响we have to think about the consequences for others.也许你的死亡对某些人And there may be others产生了非常不利的影响who'd be so adversely affected by your death其损害已经超过了that the harm to them outweighs你活着付出的代价the cost to you of keeping yourself alive.假设比如Suppose, for example,你的孩子们只有你一人抚养that you're the single parent of young children.在道德上你有义务抚养他们You've got a kind of moral obligation to look after them.如果你死了If you were to die,对他们来说会非常可怕they'd really have it horribly.毋庸置疑在这种情况下It's conceivable then, in cases like that,你自杀对孩子造成的痛苦the suffering of your children, were you to kill yourself,将超过你为孩子而活在世上would outweigh the suffering that you'd have to undergo所忍受的痛苦were you to keep yourself alive for the sake of your children. 因此这取决于实际情况So, it all depends on the facts.如果我们站在功利主义一边Still, if we accept the utilitarian position,我们会得到一个中立的结论we do end up with a moderate conclusion.在特定情况下自杀是符合道德的In certain circumstances suicide will be morally justified-- 大致说来就是在你死了会更好roughly speaking, in those cases where you're better off dead 并且对他人的影响不会过大的情况下and the effects on others aren't so great as to outweigh that. 那些就是典型的Those will be the paradigm cases in which从功利主义的角度来判断suicide makes sense or is legitimate,自杀是有意义的或者说是正当的例子morally speaking, from the utilitarian perspective.但当然这也不是说这时自杀But of course, that doesn't mean that suicide永远都符合道德is indeed ever morally legitimate.因为我们不一定必须Because we don't necessarily want接受功利主义的道德观to embrace the utilitarian theory of morality.大体上说当我们认为结果重要Utilitarianism is what you get, roughly speaking,而且只有结果重要时when we say consequences matter我们就得到了功利主义观点and they're all that matters.但大部分人倾向认为But most of us are inclined to think道德评判不应只关注结果that there's more to morality than consequences.大部分人倾向于认为Most of us are inclined to think that有些行为会导致坏的结果there are cases in which actions can have bad results--或者有些行为的结果是好的rather, actions can have good results and yet,但尽管如此仍然是不道德的for all that, be morally forbidden.或者说尽管有些行为结果是坏的Or actions could have bad results and yet,但仍然是道德的for all that, still be morally required.这并不是说结果对道德无关紧要{\c而是说结果it's to claim, rather, that consequences不是道德评判的唯一标准aren't the only thing that matters morally.结果可能因其它的道德标准而变得不重要Consequences can be outweighed by other morally relevant factors. 这是道德理论的一个分支Well, that's the position that's held义务论的观点by the branch of moral theory known as deontology.义务论者认为So deontologists say other除结果以外还有其它道德标准things matter morally besides consequences.要判断你的行为是否正确In deciding whether your action is right or wrong,你需要关注行为的结果you have to pay attention to the consequences,但还要关注一些别的事情but you have to pay attention to other things as well.什么事情呢不出所料What other things? Well, unsurprisingly,在这个领域不同的义务论者this is an area then in which different deontologists对这些其它的道德评判标准will disagree one to the next in terms of what else they want 抱有不同意见to add to the list of morally relevant factors.但有一个标准But there's one kind of additional factor是大部分义务论者that most of us in our deontological moods都同意的would want to add to the list,那就是无论如何我认为它and that's this--so one, at any rate, that's relevant I think, 和自杀话题直接相关most directly relevant for thinking about suicide.这个标准便是That factor is the factor不仅要关注行为的结果of not just what was the upshot of your action还要关注你如何达成这个结果{\c不仅是结果是什么not just what the results were,还有你达到这种结果的手段but what was your means of getting those results特别是and more particularly still,为了达到这个结果你是否必须伤害别人did you have to harm anybody to produce the results?大部分人认为伤害别人是不对的Most of us are inclined to think it's wrong to harm people,或者至少是无辜的人or at least innocent people.伤害无辜的人一定是错的It's wrong to harm innocent people即使这样做的结果是好的even if the results of doing that might be good.我特意强调无辜的人是因为Now, I threw in the qualification about innocent people because,我们大部分人倾向认为of course, it's also true that most of us are inclined to think that 自卫是正当的self-defense might be justified.伤害那些攻击你Harming people who are attacking you或者你的朋友or your friends或者你的同胞的人应该是正当的or your fellow countrymen--that may be legitimate.因此我们不是在说And so it's not as though we want to say伤害别人总是错的it's never legitimate to harm somebody.只要那些人有罪他们是侵略者{\c they're aggressors.在义务论中大部分人What most of us in our deontological moods都倾向认为are inclined to think is伤害无辜者总是不对的it's never legitimate to harm an innocent person.而且关键在于And the crucial point is即便这样做结果是好的that's true even if the results would be better.看一般情况下Look, there's no debate义务论者和功利主义者between deontologists and utilitarians about对不应伤害无辜者这点上没有争议harming innocent people in the normal case,因为正常情况下假设我because normally of course--you know, suppose I,举个例子用枪声结束这堂课to make an example--to end the class with a nice big bang,我拿着乌兹冲锋枪right--I brought my Uzi sub-machine gun.然后砰砰砰地杀了15个人I now take it and go rat-a-tat-tat, killing 15 of you.这不会是什么有好结果的事情Well, that would not be something that would have good results.很明显And so, clearly,功利主义者和义务论者the utilitarian is going都拒绝这种行为to reject that as well as the deontologist.他们看法一致They're in agreement about that.一般说来杀死无辜者的结果是坏的In the typical case, killing an innocent person has bad results,伤害他们是错误的毫无疑问harms them. It's wrong, full stop, we're done.但假如杀死无辜者But what should we say about cases会有好的结果又当如何where killing an innocent person has better results?现实中很难找到这样的例子In real life, it's hard to think of cases like that,但我们可以在but we can at least go"科幻实验室"里找到一个例子"Science-fictiony" And tell an example.这是个在伦理学中我最喜欢的例子So, here is one of my favorite examples in moral philosophy.假设有五个病人在医院快死了Suppose that we have five patients in a hospital who are going to die 都是因为各种器官损坏because of organ failures of one sort or another.一个人需要心脏移植One of them needs a heart transplant,另一个需要肾脏移植one of them needs a kidney transplant,还有人需要肝脏移植等等one of them needs a liver transplant, and so forth and so on.不幸的是由于排异问题Unfortunately, because of tissue incompatibilities,即使他们开始死亡even as they begin to die我们也无法用先死之人的器官we can't use the organs from the ones that have died来拯救剩下的人to save the others.与此同时约翰在医院进行例行体检Meanwhile, here in the hospital for a routine check-up is John.他非常健康John's perfectly healthy.在检查过程中你发现And as you're doing your exams on him you discover他的器官非常适合捐献给that he's exactly suitable to be an organ donor那五个病人for all five of the patients.你开始思考如果你能杀掉他And it occurs to you that if you were to find some way to kill him, 并且掩盖死因but cover up the cause of death让他看上去像死于突发疾病so it looked like he died of some unexpected freak seizure,你就能用他的器官去救那五个人you could then use his organs to save the five.这个人得到一个肾脏This one gets the kidney,另一个人得到另一个肾脏that one gets the other kidney,有人得到心脏that one gets the heart,有人得到肝脏有人得到肺that one gets the liver, and that one gets the lungs.所以你的选择大概是So your choice, roughly, is this.或者为约翰做完例行体检Just give John his routine medical exam,这样的话五个病人会死掉in which case the five other patients die,要么解剖了约翰or chop up John,杀死之后解剖了他kill him and chop him up,用他的器官救活五个病人using his organs to save the five patients.那么在这个器官移植的案例中Well, what should we say is the right thing to do我们怎么做是正确的the organ transplant case?就结果而言看起来In terms of consequences it looks as though,如果故事讲得没错if we tell the story right at least,杀死约翰似乎会更好the results would be better if we chop up John.毕竟是以一换五After all, it's one versus five.尽管约翰的死是很坏的结果And although the death of John is a horrible bad result,但五个人的死是更坏的结果the death of the five is a horrible bad result.因此杀死无辜的约翰And so the results would be better似乎会有更好的结果if we were to kill innocent John.好的假如有更多时间我们会讨论Well, if we had more time we could argue about结果是否真的会更好are the results really going to be better,这件事是不是真能发生或者什么is that a realistic story--what have you--是不是有些其它医学方面的问题are there other long-term effects on the healthcare profession 我们没有考虑周全that we haven't taken into account?但我们没时间考虑太多细节But we don't have time to really pursue this story in detail. 假设情况就是如此{\c杀死约翰结果会更好the results really would be better if we chopped up John.但这么做真的对吗Is that the right thing to do?也许功利主义者会说这么做没错Well, maybe utilitarianism says it's the right thing to do,但我们大多数人but it's precisely for that reason对此都会说that most of us would then say,还存在功利主义之外的道德原则you know, there's more to morality than what utilitarianism says. 那么这个反对理由是否成立Now, whether that objection is a good one是一个非常非常复杂的问题is a very, very complicated question,如果你想了解更多and if you want--if you'd like to pursue it--如果你想更深入地探讨它我建议你if you want to pursue it--then I invite you可以选择一门伦理学的导论课to take an introductory class in moral philosophy.就我们而言我们假设大部分同学For our purposes, let's just suppose that most of us都站在义务论一边are on board with the deontologists认为的确有超出功利主义之外的when they say there's more to morality道德标准than what the utilitarian has,这个例子就说明了这一点and this example brings it out.杀死无辜者是错的即使It's wrong to kill somebody who is innocent even though以一换五的结果是好的by hypothesis the results would be better--it's five to one.人有生存权有不被杀死的权利People have a right to life, a right not to be killed.在我们决定如何做符合道德时And that right weighs in when we're deciding要考虑这个权利what to do morally,所以杀死无辜者是错的so that it's wrong to kill an innocent person即使结果真的会更好even if the results really would be better.好吧假设我们同意这个观点All right, let's suppose we agree with that--accept that.其实在内容更丰富的伦理学课上Again, in a fuller class on moral philosophy我们还要问这个权利的基础是什么we'd have to ask ourselves what is the basis of that right,在义务论中人还有什么其它权利what other deontological rights do people have,这些权利的权重又是多少what exactly are the contours of that right?但现在我们只要问But here we can just ask,假设我们接受这种权利suppose we accept a right like that,它对自杀的道德问题有何影响what are the implications of that for the morality of suicide? 现在似乎我们只好说And now, it seems what we have to say is,自杀是错的suicide is wrong.自杀是不道德的Suicide is morally unacceptable.因为当我自杀时Because when I kill myself,我就杀了一个人well, I'm killing somebody.我刚才不是说根据义务论者的说法And didn't we just say as deontologists杀死一个无辜者that killing an innocent person--现在我就是无辜者and I'm an innocent person--杀死无辜者是不道德的killing an innocent person is morally wrong?那么我就是所以杀死我不道德Well, I'm a person. So, killing me is morally wrong.再回头说什么And it's not really any help to come back and say,看我们已经假设了but look, we've stipulated that this is a case他死了会更好也无济于事where the person is better off dead.如果他自杀总体来讲结果会更好The results will really be better overall if he kills himself. 好的这没错也许这是对的Yeah, that's right. Maybe that is right.但无关紧要因为义务论者认为It doesn't matter--because as deontologists we said生存的权利已经超越了所有结果the right to life is so powerful it outweighs consequences.就像说杀死约翰不对Just as it was wrong to chop up John,。

PHIL 176 Death Professor Shelly Kagan（第一课没什么实质内容，可以略过）教授在第一课列举了这门课将要讨论的一些问题：1．人能否幸免于死2．人是什么？“我”是什么？3．有没有来生？4．自杀一定是恶的吗？……然后他摆出了自己的观点：1．不存在灵魂2．永生并不是好事情3．对死亡的恐惧是很正常的4．自杀在特定情境下有可能是理性的，并且在道德上是正当的……他希望通过这门课：学生能够自己独立思考。

他不是要灌输给学生这些观点，而是要引导学生运用自己的理性，无论是支持还是反对这些观点，都要有合理的根据，给出论证。

第二课要回答“我能否幸免于死”“我死后我是否还存在”，就需要先回答：“我”是什么？或人是什么？什么叫“幸免于死”？什么叫“活着”？一个人过了一段时间仍然是这个人，这是怎么一回事？……反驳：有人认为这个问题是混淆概念造成的，根本毫无意义，因为1．如果“死亡”的意思是生命的结束的话，那么2．“是否来生”就相当于“生命结束之后是否还有生命”，这就好比“碗里的饭吃完后碗里还有饭吗”，那么3．“是否有来生”或“我能否幸免与死”的答案当然就是否定的（因为很明显这些提问自相矛盾），这能从问题里直接得到答案。

△回应：1．如果，“死亡”指的是身体的死亡（即一系列的生理过程）；那么，2．之前的问题将变成“我的身体死后我是否还存在”，这和“生命结束之后是否还有生命”不同，不能从提问中直接得到答案。

YYets3．所以，在这个意义上提问和回答“我能否幸免与死”是有意义的。

要回答“我能否幸免于死”（在上面的那个理解下），就需要先弄清楚：“我”是什么？“我”是什么东西组成的？或者人是什么？人由什么组成？一般来说，有两种主流观点：一、二元论(Dualism)◎1．人是由身体和心灵（灵魂）两部分组合而成严格说来，人的本质是灵魂，它与某具肉身密切联系着；“我”就是指我的灵魂，尽管与我的身体紧密联系着。

2．身体和心灵是完全不同的两种东西，身体是物质的，灵魂是非物质的（不是由原子、分子构成的）3．心灵指挥身体，“身体反作用于心灵”4．死亡就是指身体的死亡，灵魂离开肉体（?）二、物理主义(Physicalism)○1．人只有身体，尽管2．这个身体能够实现多种功能3．人就是一个物理对象，一个纯物质的存在4．谈论心灵，实际上就是谈论大脑（或大脑的功能），正如微笑就是特殊的肌肉运动5．死亡就是指身体丧失了正常功能第三课二元论与物理主义的分歧：是否存在灵魂？证明事物存在的方法：1．通过五感获得的经验证据来证明但是，灵魂是非物质的（如果二元论正确的话），我们无法通过感官来感觉到灵魂。

耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡22OpenYalecourse—Philosophy：.txt什么叫乐观派？这个。

就象茶壶一样，屁股被烧得红红的，还有心情吹口哨。

生活其实很简单，过了今天就是明天。

一生看一个女人是不科学的，容易看出病来。

上节课Last time,我提到了对于死亡性质的思考I distinguished between two ways in which thinking about可能影响我们行为方式的the facts about the nature of death两种不同途径could influence our behavior.一方面它可能给我们理由On the one hand, it could give us reasons让我们改变行为方式另一方面to behave or respond differently, and on the other hand它本身就使我们改变行为方式it could merely cause us to behave differently.如果这种改变Insofar as it just happens to be只不过是人类心理学中的some fact about human psychology一些现象而已that we behave this way or that way,或许面对死亡最恰当的方式就是perhaps the appropriate way to deal with the facts of death would be完全忽略它to simply disregard them.但我总是认为I'm inclined to believe, however,思考这些事情that there are ways in which thinking about the facts并不仅仅改变我们的行为方式would not merely cause us to behave one way rather than another而是给我们理由but give us reason让我们改变行为方式to behave one way rather than another.这就是我现在想探讨的问题And that's the question that I want to then explore from here on out.在什么情况下通过什么途径In what circumstances, or in what ways,我们应该改变行为方式should we behave one way rather than another?所以我不仅要研究So, I'm not merely going to draw on我们的行为会怎样facts about how, as it happens, we behave.有可能你想到死亡的时候It could be that if you dwelled upon the facts about death,会一直尖叫不已直到死亡you would scream interminably until the moment you died--借用托尔斯泰的说法taking a tip from Tolstoy.但这一行为本身But that doesn't itself说明不了它是恰当的行为{\c也许它仅仅出于我们的本能that might just be a mere causal fact about how we're built.我想问的是如何才是恰当的The question I want to ask is, how is it appropriate,有什么理由in what ways is there reason,做出这种反应而不是另一种反应to react one way rather than another?我之前提到过Now as I say,我们大部分人都认为the thought seems very compelling for most of us that有令人信服的理由说明there are ways in which it makes sense死亡影响了我们的生活方式for the facts about death to influence how we live,我们的观念我们的情感what our attitudes are, what are emotions are.例如卡夫卡说过Kafka, for example, said生命的意义在于其终将陨落the meaning of life is the fact that it ends.隽永的警句卡夫卡经典风格Nice little cryptic saying, as is typical of Kafka.但它的含义我想却很平常But the suggestion, I suppose, is a fairly common one,我们必有一死生命最终会抵达终点that it's something deep about how we should live,对我们如何生活有着深刻的影响that we're going to die, that our life will come to an end.那么我们下面的问题就是And the question we want to then explore is how should the fact,意识到自己必有一死how should recognizing the fact, that we're going to die,会怎样影响我们的生活方式influence how we live?我们应该如何应对这一事实How should we respond to that fact?实际上最初的一种行为Now actually, the very first kind of behavior,带引号的行为quote/unquote behavior, that I want us to think about或许严格说来不能算作一种行为perhaps isn't strictly speaking a form of behavior at all.我认为只是一种情绪反应I rather have in mind our emotional response,因为实际上because indeed one of对死亡最平常的反应我认为the most common reactions to death, I suppose, is就是惧怕死亡fear of death."惧怕"在很多时候词义偏弱Indeed, fear may in many cases be too weak a term一种程度很深的惧怕an extremely strong form of fear--对死亡的畏惧我认为terror of death is, I suppose,是对死亡最常见的反应a very common emotional response to death.我接下来要做的是And what I want to do next让我们想一想is have us ask ourselves, well,惧怕死亡是一种理性的is fear of death a rationally恰当的反应吗appropriate response?这里的关键词是"恰当的"Now, the crucial word here is "Appropriate."我不否认经验告诉我I don't want to deny at all what I take to be the empirical fact 很多人都害怕死亡that many people are afraid of death.这种反应有多平常How common a reaction that is,这种恐惧有多强烈我认为这是and how strong the fear is, I suppose that would be something 心理学家或社会学家研究的课题for psychologists or sociologists to study.我对这个问题不感兴趣And I'm not interested in that question.我认可恐惧死亡很普遍I take it that fear of death is very common.我想弄清楚的是I want to know,对死亡的恐惧是不是恰当的is fear of death an appropriate,理性的情绪a reasonable emotion?提出这个问题我已经假设了Now, in raising that question, I'm obviously presupposing更多的哲学理论说明the larger philosophical thesis that可以将情绪分为it makes sense to talk about emotions as being恰当的或者不恰当的appropriate or inappropriate.我们不仅可以探讨一个人有什么情绪We can ask not only what emotions does somebody have,也可以探讨一个人该有什么情绪but we can also ask what emotions should they have?这一点也许不那么明显Now, this point perhaps isn't an obvious one, so所以花点时间研究一下也是值得的maybe it's worth dwelling on for a moment or two,然后我们再探讨对死亡的恐惧before we turn to fear of death per se.还有什么别的例子What's another example of an emotion对情绪有恰当性要求that's got some appropriateness conditions?过一会儿我再分析So, in a moment I'll turn to asking,在什么情况下what are the conditions under which it's害怕某事是恰当的appropriate to be afraid of something?但从宽泛的角度来说but to make the more general point,比如说自豪吧自豪是一种情绪{\c pride's an emotion.在什么情况下Under what conditions does it make sense为一些事感到自豪是合理的to be proud of something?我认为至少有两个条件首先Well, I suppose at least two conditions jump out. First of all,你为之自豪的事情是某种成就the thing that you're proud of has to be some kind of accomplishment. 如果你现在告诉我If you were to say to me right now,我很自豪我正在呼吸"I'm really proud of the fact that I'm breathing,"我会不解的看着你I'd look at you in a noncomprehending fashion因为我没觉得because it doesn't seem to me呼吸是件多么困难的事that breathing is difficult in any way,不能称为一种成就doesn't count as an accomplishment,所以我不能理解你如何以及为何and as such I can't understand how or why you would be proud对能呼吸感到自豪of the fact that you're breathing.不过也许你是位哮喘患者Now, maybe if you suffered from asthma and你必须经受极度痛苦的物理疗法you had to have gone through excruciating physical therapy才能在意外发生后in order to learn how to use学会用自己的肺呼吸{\c如果我们听到类似的情况maybe if we told a story like that我们就会了解为什么平平常常we could see how breathing naturally自然流畅的呼吸是一项成就and normally would be an accomplishment,是件值得自豪的事情something to be proud of.但对全体同学来讲我估计But for all of us, I presume,这算不上一项成就{\c所以为它感到自豪是不恰当的hence it's not something that it's appropriate to be proud of.即使我们获得了成就Even if we've got an accomplishment,也不一定就能自豪that may not be enough.一件事成为For something to be something一件你可以为之自豪的事that it makes sense for you to be proud of it,它必须是某种it's got to be in some way包含了你贡献的成就an accomplishment that reflects well on you.最容易举出来的例子就是Now, the most straightforward cases are cases那些你自己的成就where it's your accomplishment,为何你会自豪呢and the reason that pride makes sense因为你是那个攻克难关的人is because you're the one who did this difficult thing.比如你的哲学作业得了ASo, you got an A on your philosophy paper你告诉我你很自豪and you tell me that you're proud我可以理解{\c哲学作业得A是一项成就getting an A on a philosophy paper is an accomplishment,如果是你写的作业and if you wrote the paper我理解你为什么会感到自豪then I understand why you're proud.当然如果你上互联网Of course, if what you did was go on the Internet找到那些网站花钱雇用枪手and go to one of those sites where you pay money and somebody else 写了一篇作业得了Awrites an A paper for you, well,那我可以理解那些枪手会自豪I understand why maybe they should be proud因为他们写了完美的that they've written a great哲学作业但我看不出来philosophy paper, but I don't see how this这会对你造成何种正面影响reflects especially positively upon you.所以自豪需要某种恰当性条件So again, there's a kind of appropriateness condition for pride,那个目标或者事件where the object or the event或者你为之自豪的行为or the activity that you're proud of,或者一些特色是出于你的贡献or the feature, has to somehow reflect on you.这里并不是说一定要是你的成就Now, that's not to say that it's got to be your accomplishment,至少不这么狭隘at least not in any straightforward, narrow sense.同样合理的是比如你对It makes sense, for example, to be proud of你孩子的成就感到自豪因为your children's accomplishments because你们之间存在恰当的联系there's the right kind of connection between you and your children. 所以在某种意义下So, in some sense这项成就和你相关it's connected to you.而在某些情况下And we can have cases where我们会考虑这份联系是否足够紧密we wonder about whether or not the connection is tight enough或者这种联系的性质到底是什么or what exactly the nature of the connection has to be.或许作为美国人你很自豪Perhaps as an American you took pride美国人赢得奥运冠军when the Americans win some event at the Olympics或者环法冠军你说or the Tour de France or what have you, and you say to yourself,虽然我不是骑手"Well look, I didn't ride the bicycle但作为美国人but for all that I'm an American美国人赢了我很自豪and an American won, I'm proud."这说得通{\c我们可以理解we can understand为什么你认为这份联系足够紧密how you think the connection there is tight enough.另一方面如果你说On the other hand if you say,看德国人在"Look, the Germans won the奥运比赛里赢了我很自豪event in the Olympics and I'm really proud,"那我会问你是德国人吗and I ask, well, are you yourself German,你有德国血统吗do you have German heritage,你为德国奥运代表团做过后勤工作吗did you contribute to the German Olympics support team?如果不符合以上条件If none of that's true,那就不满足恰当性条件then again the appropriateness condition doesn't seem to be satisfied. 你感到自豪是不合理的It doesn't make sense to be proud.好了我们还可以花更多的时间探讨All right, look, we could spend more time worrying about the感到自豪需要的条件conditions under which it makes sense to feel pride.但这当然不是我的目的But of course that's not really my purpose here.我引入这个讨论的目的My purpose of bringing that in was是要解释清楚just to try to make good on the thought情绪确实需要条件{\c并不是非要存在这些条件not necessarily requirements for what你才能够感到这种情绪you have to have in place in order to feel the emotion.这是个更艰深的问题It's a harder question是不是这些条件都要满足whether all these things need to be in place才能感到这种情绪in order to feel the emotion.但是至少这些条件都要满足But at least these things need to be in place你产生这种情绪才是有意义的in order for it to make sense for you to have the emotion, 才是合理的in order for it to be rational产生这种情绪才说得通or reasonable to feel the emotion,这种情绪反应也才是in order for that emotional response to be对你所处境况的恰当反应an appropriate response to your circumstances or situation. 所以让我们问问自己So, let's ask ourselves, then,恐惧需要什么恰当性条件what are the appropriateness conditions for fear?了解了这些条件Because armed with that set of conditions,我们就能进一步思考we'll then be able to go on and ask,对死亡的恐惧是否恰当is it appropriate to feel fear of death?当我思考这个问题时Now, three conditions come to mind我想到了三个条件when I think about this question,我已经思考这个问题好多年了when I've thought about this question over the years.第一个条件是我认为The first is this--and I suppose第一个条件最没争议this first one's going to be fairly uncontroversial要惧怕某事--in order to be afraid of something--即使我没有严格地讲even though I slipped in this, to talk about你需要什么条件才会感到害怕what you need to have in order to feel fear,我真正的意思是what I really mean is为了使害怕成为合理的情绪in order for it to make sense to feel fear--你害怕的事情一定要是件坏事the thing that you're afraid of has to be bad.如果有人告诉我If somebody were to say to me,我害怕下课后"I'm afraid that after class有人会给我圆筒冰淇淋somebody's going to give me an ice cream cone",再一次我会不解的看着他们说again I'd look at them in noncomprehension. I'd say,你为什么害怕呢"Why are you afraid of that?这件事怎么会让你害怕呢How could it make any sense to be afraid?"当然有些人可以给你答案And again, it's not that somebody couldn't give you an answer. 他们会说哦我正在减肥They'd say, "Oh I'm trying to lose weight但我意志薄弱but I'm so weak如果他们给我圆筒冰淇淋and if they give me an ice cream cone我就会吃的then I'll just eat it我这周就白节食了and that'll ruin my diet for the week,"那么我就懂了Well, then I'd understand.从这个角度来讲From that point of view圆筒冰淇淋是件坏事an ice cream cone is a bad thing所以产生恐惧的第一个条件就满足了and so that first condition on fear would be satisfied.但如果你没有做出这样的解释But if you don't have a story like that,如果你和我们大家一样if you're like most of us,大多数时间冰淇淋都非常不错most of the time, and an ice cream cone's a pretty good thing, 乐趣有点短暂但确实不错a source of some passing but at least genuine pleasure,你会说你怎么会害怕then you say, "How can you be afraid of享用或者吃一个圆筒冰淇淋呢having or getting or eating an ice cream cone?"这说不通害怕某事It doesn't make sense. To be afraid of something,这件事必须是坏事it's got to be bad.这就是其中一个原因为什么我们It's one of the reasons why we有时另眼看待那些sometimes look askance at people who have患上各种恐惧症的人害怕蜘蛛various kinds of phobias-- fear of spiders or或者灰尘或者什么别的东西fear of dust or what have you,害怕兔子fear of bunnies--你会想这怎么说得通and you think, how does this make any sense?这个可爱的小兔子{\c它一点也不危险it's not dangerous.或许有的蜘蛛有毒And maybe there are poisonous spiders,但大多数but most of the spiders在康涅狄格州这里的蜘蛛都没毒we run across here in Connecticut are not poisonous.害怕蜘蛛并不恰当Fear of spiders doesn't seem appropriate.并不是说人们不能有这种情绪反应It's not that people can't have this kind of emotional reaction, 而是说这种反应不合理it's that it doesn't make sense.但如果你在澳大利亚情况就不同了Maybe it's another matter if you live in Australia,那里四处都是毒蛇where there's poisonous snakes毒蜘蛛和其它昆虫and spiders and other insects everyplace.所以条件一All right. So, condition number one:惧怕的事情需要是坏事Fear requires something bad, as the object of your fear.我会害怕偏头痛I can fear getting a migraine,如果我被它折磨着if I'm subject to migraines.我不会害怕欣赏落日I can't fear the pleasure of looking at a beautiful sunset.这就是条件一That's condition number one坏事情造成伤害的事情-bad object, something harmful.条件二Condition number two is,应该有不可忽视的可能性there's got to be a nonnegligible chance这些坏事会发生of the bad state of affairs happening,会对你造成伤害of the bad object coming to you.只有逻辑上的可能性并不足以It's not enough that it's a logical possibility说明恐惧是合理的反应for fear to be a reasonable reaction.如果认为我最终可能死于There's nothing logically inconsistent or logically incoherent 被孟加拉虎撕成碎片about the possibility that I will face my death这在逻辑上没有不一致或不连贯的地方by being ripped to pieces by Siberian tigers.这不是件自相矛盾的事情It's not as though that's an inconsistent state of affairs.在逻辑上当然有可能It's certainly logically possible,但太难发生了but it's so unlikely,可能性太小了it's so negligibly small a chance,如果在座诸位有谁that if anybody here害怕自己被老虎撕成碎片is afraid that they'll be ripped to pieces by tigers,那我只能说then I can only say这种害怕不合理不恰当the fear doesn't make any sense, it's not appropriate.当然我们可能会听到些特殊的情况Again, we can tell special stories where that might be different. 假如你告诉我你来上学以前Suppose you tell me that, oh, when you're not a student,勤工俭学的工作是your work study program, what you do is,一名驯兽员you work as an animal trainer,或者你打算去马戏团工作or you're planning to work in the circus训练老虎那么我会说好的where you'll be training tigers, then I'll say, all right,现在你被老虎撕碎吃掉的可能性now I suppose there's a nonnegligible chance you'll be mauled不可忽视and killed by tigers.我理解这点I understand it.但对我们其他人我认为But for the rest of us, I suppose,被老虎杀死的可能性the chance of being killed by tigers is, well,就算不是零也接近零it's not literally zero, but it's close to zero,可以忽略不计it's negligible.所以害怕被老虎撕咬吃掉And so, fear of being eaten by tigers or mauled to death by tigers 不合常理doesn't make any sense.当你了解了这一点And once you get the point,就很容易探讨of course, it would be easy to talk about其它一些小概率事件a variety of other things that the chances are so small害怕被半人马座阿尔法星的生物劫持fear of being kidnapped by space creatures from Alpha Centauri,被带回实验室他们用针扎我where I'll be taken back to the lab and they'll prod me before然后不打麻药把我活体解剖they dissect me alive without anesthetic.我承认存在这种可能性Yes, I suppose there's some possibility of that.逻辑上这不是不可能的It's not logically impossible.但这种可能性太小了But again it's so vanishingly small a chance,谁要真的为此感到害怕and anybody who actually is afraid of that,那我们合适的说法就是the appropriate thing for us to say is他们的恐惧不恰当that their fear is not appropriate.好了所以坏事必须有可能发生All right, so you need to have a chance of the bad thing,而且要有足够大的可能性and it's got to be a large enough chance.当然我认为我们有空间去探讨And I suppose again there would be room for us to argue about多大的可能性才够大how large a chance is large enough,但如果可能性接近于零but when you have vanishingly small chances then那么恐惧就没有意义the fear doesn't make any sense.这就是第二个条件That's condition number two.第三个条件我认为会有些争议Condition number three, I think, is somewhat more controversial, 但不管怎么说我认为它是对的but for all that it still seems correct to me,它说的是and that's this.需要有足够的不确定性We need to have a certain amount of uncertainty恐惧才会是恰当的in order to have fear be appropriate.你需要一些You need to have some--不一定是多少it's not clear how much--但至少要有不少的不确定性but at least some significant amount of uncertainty不确知那件坏事是否会发生about whether the bad thing will occur,以及/或者它会坏到什么程度and/or how bad the bad thing will be.注意第三个条件和前面的关联To see the point, to see the relevance of this third condition, 假设一件坏事imagine that a bad thing有不可忽视的可能性发生was going to happen to you with a nonnegligible chance.实际上不是那种可能性很小Indeed, far from being so small that小到不值得考虑的事情it's virtually not worth even considering,假设它必然会发生imagine that it's guaranteed这件坏事一定会发生that the bad thing is going to happen.所以一件坏事一定会发生So, there's a bad thing that's going to happen,而且你确切知道它有多坏and you know precisely how bad it is.所以你很确定So you've got certainty with regard to the fact这件坏事会发生that the bad thing is going to happen,也确知它有多坏and certainly with regard to the size of the bad thing.我希望你们同意在这种情况下I put it to you that in circumstances like that,恐惧不是恰当的情绪反应fear is not an appropriate emotional response.假设事情是这样的Suppose that what happens is this.每天你来上学上班如此这般Every day you come to school, to the office, whatever it is,你带着便当and you bring a bagged lunch,你把它放进办公室的冰箱里and you put it in the office refrigerator.连同午饭你还带了And you include, along with your lunch,一块甜点比如一块饼干{\c let's say a cookie.每天中午一点钟And every day at one o'clock,你从冰箱里取出午饭when you go to grab your lunch out of the refrigerator,你打开一看you look inside发现有人偷了你的饼干and you see somebody has stolen your cookie.这是件坏事{\c不是世界上最坏的事it's not the worst thing in the world,但有人偷了你饼干仍然是件坏事but it's a bad thing to have somebody steal your cookie.不光如此And furthermore,这种事发生的几率不容忽视this is more than a negligible chance.所以我们满足了条件一条件二So, we've got condition one, condition two in place--坏事情以及不可忽视的可能性bad thing and a nonnegligible chance of it happening.但实际上还不仅是In fact, not only is it不可忽视的可能性not a negligible chance that it's happening-这件事天天发生肯定发生-guaranteed, it happens day after day after day after day. 坏事情肯定发生Bad thing, guaranteed.而且你非常清楚它有多坏And you know precisely how bad it is.我希望你们同意I put it to you,在这种情况下恐惧不合情理请注意fear in that case doesn't make any sense. Mind you,这时其它负面情绪或许合情合理there are other negative emotions that probably make sense, 比如愤怒以及怨恨like anger and resentment.这个可恶的贼甭管他是谁Who does this thief, whoever it is,以为他/她是谁竟敢偷我的饼干think that he or she is, to be stealing your cookie?他们没权利这样做你可以愤怒They don't have the right to do that! You can be angry,你可以怨恨you can be resentful.你天天吃不上甜点可能会沮丧You can be sad that you don't have a dessert, day after day after day. 但你不会害怕But you can't be afraid,因为没有事情because there's nothing here让你有理由害怕that it makes sense for you to be afraid of.当然我们可以假设Again, being a little sloppy,你会感到害怕maybe you are afraid,但如果这样这种害怕不合理but if so, fear doesn't make sense,当你确知这件坏事会发生when you know for a certainty that the bad thing is coming而且知道它有多坏and how bad it is.假设这个贼随意行窃Suppose that the thief strikes at random,从不同人的饭盒里偷甜品taking different people's desserts from different bags在一周不同的时间里行窃at different times of the week,你根本不知道and you never know who他或是她下一个偷谁he or she is going to steal from.那么你可能害怕自己成为下一个Then you might be afraid that you'll be the person饼干被偷的人whose cookie got stolen.如果你们觉得饼干的例子太傻了Or if cookie seems to you too silly an example,那么假设有人闯入宿舍imagine that what happens is somebody breaks into dorm rooms.有个贼在校园宿舍间游逛There's been a thief going around various dorms on campus从宿舍里偷计算机and stealing the computer from the dorm room.那么这时恐惧是有道理的{\c你会害怕他们下一次偷你的计算机you're afraid that they'll steal your computer.坏事情不可忽视的可能性Bad thing, nonnegligible chance,以及不确定性and lack of certainty.但是如果事情是这样的On the other hand, suppose what happens is,就像你在电影里经常看到的一样this is one of those thieves like you always have in the movies, 他是个神偷或者她是个神偷where he's such a master thief, or she's such a master thief,他们为自己的工作感到自豪that they take pride in their work,所以他们提前预告and so they announce it.他们在耶鲁日报上刊登声明他们说They take out an ad in the Yale Daily News and they say,四月27日星期三我会去偷"On Wednesday, April 27th, I shall steal某某房间里的计算机the computer from so-and-so's room."然后不管你做了多少预防准备And it doesn't matter what precautions you take,该发生的总是发生something always happens,那个人的计算机被偷了and that person's computer gets stolen.那么你可以愤怒Well, again, you could be angry,你可以怨恨你可以发火you can be pissed, you can be annoyed,你觉得自己没做好防备真是愚蠢you can feel stupid that you didn't take adequate precautions. 但是当声明登出But when the ad appears,上面有你的名字时间with your name, and that date,而且这个贼全年都按照and all year the thief has always carried through声明行窃on the announced theft,我希望你们同意恐惧就没有道理了I put it to you, fear doesn't make any sense,因为如果你确知because if you know exactly伤害有多大what the size of the harm is going to be,而且你确知伤害将会发生and you're guaranteed that the harm is coming,恐惧就不再是恰当的fear is no longer appropriate.假设我有一个小型拷问机Suppose that I have a little torture machine,小型疼痛产生仪a little pain generator,我把你的手放进去where I put your hand down把它连上电极and I hook it up to the electrodes我转动手柄打开开关and I crank the dial and I pull the switch,你会感到一阵电击and you feel an electric shock.如果每次电击的强度都不一样It makes sense to feel fear你担心下一次电击会多难受what the next shock is going to feel like,是合情合理的if the shocks vary in their intensity.但如果这台机器只有一档But if the machine's only got one setting,开或者关on and off,每次电击造成的痛楚都一样and all the shocks feel exactly the same,而且我让你尝试过看and I've done it for you, "So look, okay,让你试一下电击的滋味就这样{\c it feels like that."哦不舒服Oh, not comfortable.让你试一下电击的滋味就这样{\c一遍一遍五六七八次{\c我们在做一些古怪的心理学实验we're doing some sort of weird psychology experiment here.你明确知道下一次电击会怎样Well, you know exactly that it's coming,你明确知道会有什么感觉you know exactly what it's going to feel like.我希望你们同意Fear, I put it to you,这时恐惧是没有道理的doesn't make any sense.假设当实验结束Suppose the experiment's over now,你得到了十块钱报酬and you think--you've gotten your ten dollars但我不让你走我说and I refuse to let you go and I say,我还会再做一次"I'm going to do it one more time,不会比前面的更疼no worse than before."你可能信不过我Well, you might not believe me那么这时会出现不确定性and that might introduce the element of uncertainty那么这时产生恐惧就是恰当的and then perhaps fear would be appropriate.但如果你信任我But if you believe me that你会感到和前面一模一样的疼痛one more pain exactly like the ones you felt before is coming,这时愤怒是合理的fear--anger makes sense,怨恨是合理的resentment makes sense,又要忍受疼痛让你感到沮丧是合理的sadness that you're going to feel this pain perhaps makes sense-- 但是恐惧不合理but fear doesn't make sense.所以三个条件So, three conditions.这件事必须是坏事You need to have it's something bad.这件事一方面You need to have on the one hand需要有不可忽视的可能性发生nonnegligible chance that the bad thing's going to happen,一方面需要有一定的不确定性and you have to have a lack of certainty.如果你明确这件坏事的性质If you've got certainty as to the nature of the bad以及它肯定要发生and certainty that it's coming,那么恐惧就没有道理then fear doesn't make sense.有个观点在这里值得一提One of the points probably worth mentioning in passing-- 即使恐惧是合理的even when fear does make sense,这里还有一个程度合适的问题there's a kind of proportionality condition我们也需要注意that we need to keep in mind as well.即使伤害有不可忽视的可能性发生Even if there's a nonnegligible chance of the harm coming, 那么恐惧是恰当的and so fear is appropriate,但怕的要死it doesn't make fear appropriate if it's obsessive fear, 惶惶不可终日也不恰当horrendous fear, tremendous fear.或许"稍微注意"是对Maybe some mild concern is all that's appropriate低概率事件的适度反应if the chances are small.同时恐惧程度要符合Similarly, the amount of fear needs to be proportioned to 事情糟糕的程度the size of the bad.这就是为什么饼干的例子That's perhaps why the cookie example,你们会认为恐惧过度是不恰当的you might think a lot of fear there's not appropriate因为即使发生了because even if it comes,能有多糟糕丢了块饼干而已how bad is it? Loss of a cookie.好了所以需要满足一些条件All right, so there are some conditions that need恐惧才是恰当的to be met before fear is appropriate at all,。