英语语言学—中文版

一、绪论语言学的定义语言学的研究范畴几对基本概念语言的定义语言的甄别特征What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。

语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。

The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for "correct" behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high" written languageSynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic studyIn modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons: （1） speech precedes writing in terms of evolution（2） a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing（3） speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual useCompetence and performance 能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users' knowledge of the rules of his language Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language? 什么是语言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary （the fact different languages have different words for the sameobject is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."）Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1） arbitrariness 武断性2） productivity 创造性3） duality 二重性4） displacement移位性5） cultural transmission 文化传递性二、音系学语言的声音媒介什么是语音学发音器官音标……宽式和严式标音法英语语音的分类音系学和语音学语音、音位、音位变体音位对立、互补分部、最小对立几条音系规则超切分特征Two major media of communication: speech and writingThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。

将英语译成中文(简体)胡壮麟“语言学教程”课后答案定义以下条款：1。

设计特点：是他们的特点来定义，如任意性，双重性，创造性，位移，文化传播等，我们人类的语言，2。

功能：语言的使用ommunicate，思考，等anguage功能inclucle imformative 功能，人际功能，表演功能，人际功能，表演功能，情感功能，寒暄交流，娱乐功能和工具功能。

3。

客位：在与主位是从美国语言学家派克的语音和音位的区别源于长期的对比。

作为客位芒作出太多，以及behaviously无关紧要，鉴别，就像是多嚼不语言学与语音正确vx.phonemic分析实例。

4。

主位：在与客位的是从美国语言学家派克的语音和音位的区别源于长期的对比。

作者：主位言语行为和事件必须被作为一个有意义的资源，验证通过的最后一次演说communith本地成员，而不是通过qppeal到研究者的ingenuith或直觉孤单。

‘5。

同步：一类是描述以一个固定的瞬间（通常，但不一定，目前的）作为观察点。

大多数语法是这样的。

6。

历时：一种语言的研究是通过其进行的历史过程。

7。

规范：一种语言的研究是通过其进行的历史过程。

8。

规范：这类研究的语言，一切事都应该是如何规定的，ielaying下来的语言使用规则。

9。

描述：这类研究的语言，一切事都只是描述。

10。

独断性：一种人类的语言，这是指语言符号的脸，不承担任何形式的关系，其意义自然的设计特点。

11。

对偶：一种人类的语言，这是指有两对是二次元素组成的各级物业设计功能。

水平和两级各有自己的组织原则。

12。

排量：一种人类的语言，这意味着人类语言的设计特点，使他们的用户，象征着在目前的通信对象，事件和概念并不在时间和空间目前ç。

13。

寒暄交流：人类语言的一种功能，它是指语言的社会互动。

14。

元语言：语言符号或特定的分析和研究方面的某些种类的描述。

15。

macrolinguistics：他的语言之间的相互作用，如心理学，社会学，人种学，法学和人工智能等门类的macrolinguistics科学语言相关的学科研究，包括心理语言学，社会语言学，人类语言学，等16。

LinguisticsChapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. What is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.nguage is a systemA basic observation is that each language contains two systems, a system of sound and a system of meaning.B. Language is arbitraryThe relation between expression and content is not natural but conventional. And this conventional relation varies from language to language.e.g.It is called a “老鼠”in Chinese,while a “rat”or “mouse”in EnglishC. Language is vocalThe primary medium of language is sound rather than word. written forms came much later than the spoken forms; we speak more everyday; we learn to speak first.D. Language is symbolic 象征性的Language is symbolic in the sense that all the sounds people produce and the ideas, concepts, objects, etc. that these sounds can refer to are bounded up by convention. 惯例Linguistic units are conventional signs.E. Language is human-specificLanguage is possessed only by human beings, other communication systems as possessed by animals or many other life forms are not languages, i.e. they do not manifest such features as the so-called design features as possessed by human language.F. Language is for communicationThe main and primary function of language is to communicate. People say things to each other to express their communicational needs, and language functions to communicate general attitudes toward life and others.2. Design features of language(1) Arbitrariness:任意性there is no logical connection between meaning and sound.(2) Duality：双重性language is a system, which consists of two levels of structures, at the lower level there is the structure of sounds; at the higher level there is the structure of words.(3) Creativity：创造性Language is creative in the sense that users can understand and create sentences they have never heard before.(4) Displacement：移位性language can be used to communicate about things that are not present in our immediate communicational context.（5）Cultural transmission:文化传播the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. Language is not transmitted biologically from generation to generation.（6）Interchangeability交换性any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.3. Functions of language（1）Informative信息功能The use of language to record facts, to state what things are like, and to exchange information.（2）Interpersonal 人际功能The most important sociological use of language, which serves to establish and maintain people’s status in a society.（3）Performative施为功能Language can be used to do things, (Austin and Searl)to change the social status or the immediate state of affairs of people.（4）Emotive情感功能Language can be used to express the emotional state of the speaker.（5）Phatic communion寒暄功能Ritual exchanges, exchanges that have little meaning but help to maintain our relationships with other people.（6）Recreational 娱乐功能the use of language to have fun.（7）Metalingual元功能Language can be used to explain or describe itself or other languages.4. four principles for studying linguistics:（1）Exhaustiveness穷尽性（2）Consistency一致性（3）Economy经济性（4）Objectiveness客观性5. Main branches of linguisticssound:phonetics语音学phonology音系学form:morphology形态学syntax句法学meaning：semantics语义学pragmatics语用学Macrolinguistics宏观语言学Applied linguistics应用语言学Psycholinguistics心理语言学Neurolinguistics神经语言学Sociolinguistics社会语言学Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Computational linguistics计算机语言学6. Important distinctions（1）Descriptive 描述性If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use（2）prescriptive规定性If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using languageModern linguistics is mostly descriptive（3）Synchronic共时性It refers to the description of a language at some point of time in history（4）Diachronic 共时性It refers to the description of a language as it changes through time .（5）Langue言语It refers to the speaker’s understanding and knowledge of the language that he speaks.（6）Parole语言It refers to the actual speaking of language by an individual speaker.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.Langue is abstract, parole is concreteLangue is relatively stable, while parole varies from person to person, from situation to situation.（7）competence 能力It refers to an ideal speaker’s knowledge of the underlying 潜在的system of rules in a language.（8）performance 实行It refers to the actual use of the language by a speaker in a real communicational context.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. Speech communication involves three steps:speech production 产出speech transmission 传播speech perception 感知(1) Segment语段a linguistic unit in any sequence 顺序which may be isolated from the rest of the sequence no direct correspondence can be established between spelling and pronunciation.(2)Divergence分化the process of two or more languages or language varieties becoming less like each other.2. IPA: the International Phonetic Association3.Consonants辅音28The sounds in the production 生成of which there is an obstruction阻碍of the air-stream气流at some point of the vocal tract 声道Manners of articulation: 发音方式(1)Stop 爆破音：[p, b, k, g, t, d](2)Nasal 鼻音:[m, n, ŋ](3)Fricative摩擦音：[f, v] [θ, ð] [s, z] [ʃ, Ʒ] [ h](4)Approximant 浊音：[r, j, w](5)Lateral 无擦通音：[ l ](6)Affricate 塞擦音：4.Place of articulation:发音部位(1)Bilabial双唇音：[p, b, m, w] (2)Labiodental唇齿音：[f, v](3)Dental齿音：[θ, ð] (4)Alveolar齿龈音：[t, d, n, s, z, l, r] (5)Post alveolar齿槽音：[ʃ, Ʒ] (6)Retroflex卷舌音：[ r ](7)Palatal上颚音: [ j ] (8)V elar:软腭音：[k, g, ŋ](9)Uvular小舌音(10)pharyngeal喉音(11)glottal声门音Consonants can be described by the following three criteria: voicing (whether a consonant is voiceless or voiced), place of articulation, manner of articulation.e.g.[ p ] voiceless bilabial stop[ b ] voiced bilabial stop[ f ] voiceless labiodental fricative5.vowels元音the sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air-stream passes through the vocal tract without obstructionThe vowels are usually described with reference to the following four criteria:height; position raised; tenseness (length); lip-roundinge.g. [ i: ] high front tense unrounded vowel[ u ] high back lax rounded vowel[ ə] mid central lax unrounded vowel6. Coarticulation协同发音overlapping of adjacent articulations(1)anticipatory coarticulation:预期协同发音 e.g. team lamb(2)persevarative coarticulation:持续协同发音e.g. map meatthe sound displaying theinfluence of the preceding sound7. Nasalization鼻音化the vowel acquiring some quality of the of the following nasal sound8. Phoneme:音素the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.9. Allophones音位变体Coarticulation is the phonetic term for the phonological term assimilation.10. The main suprasegmental features 超音特征Syllable音节, tone音调, intonation语调, stress重读.Intonation :It refers to the change of pitch at sentence level.Tone:It refers to the Change of pitch of individual syllables.Chinese is a typical tone language.11. The syllable structure(((C)C)C) V ((((C)C)C)C)A syllable usually consists of three part: onset, the peak or rhyme and the coda. The vowels within the rime is the nucleus.12. Morpheme:词素the smallest meaningful unit in a language.Chapter 4 From word to text1. Syntactic relations句法关系language as “a system of signs”, each of which consists of two indispensable 不可缺少的parts: signifier (sound image) and signified (concept).Syntagmatic relation: 组合关系relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc.(also called horizontal or chain relation)3. Paradigmatic relation聚合关系specifically between an individual unit and others that can replace it in a given sequence. (also called vertical or choice relation)Grammatical constructions refer to any syntactic constructs that have certain syntactic functions.4. Immediate constituentsa term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit.Immediate constituents are constituents immediately, directly below the level of a construction.5. IC Analysis: the way of analyzing a construction into its immediate constituents.6. Other shortened form of different phrases or words are as follows:N = noun A = adjectiveP = preposition AP = adjective phraseV = verb PP = preposition phraseDet = determiner 限定词art. S = clauseadv = adverb conj = conjuction7. Three ways of IC Analysis:(a) bracketing (b) labeled tree diagram(c) Tree diagram8. the substitutability: 替代性whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure still remains the same.9. Endocentric and exocentric constructions（1）Endocentric construction 向心结构It is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence相等, to one of its constituents, which servers as the centre, or head, of the whole.e.g. poor boythe little match girlwill have finishedthe book on the shelfreally very lateTypical endocentric constructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases. The endocentric constructions can be further divided into two subtypes: subordinate construction 主从结构and coordinate construction 并列结构.Subordinate construction:It is one in which only one head is dominant and the other constituents dependent. Coordinate construction:It refers to be all equal in syntactic status, they are independent of each other（2）Exocentric construction:离心结构a group of syntactically related words where none of them is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable center or head inside the groupThe exocentric constructions are usually basic sentences, prepositional phrases, predicate (predicate + object)动宾关系and connective(be + complement) constructions.10. The phrase structure component has phrase structure rules as follows：S: NP + VPVP: V + NPNP: Det + NDet: the, a, etc.N: man, ball, etc.V: hit, take, etcLanguage can be seen as consisting of three parts: syntax句法学, semantics语义学and phonology 音系学.11. Recursiveness:递归性It is a phenomenon in which there is no limit to the number of embedding or conjoining one linguistic unit to another unit.ex:Xiao Lin’s teacherXiao Lin’s teacher’s husbandXiao Lin’s teacher’s husband’s parentsXiao Lin’s teacher’s husband’s parents’friend ...12. Conjoining: 连接It refers to a construction where one clause is conjoined with another. 并列句Ex:a. John bought a hat.b. John’s wife bought a bag.c. John bought a hat and his wife bought a bag.13. Embedding: 嵌入It refers to the process in which a clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination. 从句Ex: a. I saw the man.b. The man visited you last year.c. I saw the man who had visited you last year.The sentences can be linked either hypotactically or paratactically.Chapter 5 Meaning1.What is semantics?语义学Specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.2.Meanings of MEANINGone difficulty in the study of MEANING is that the term “meaning”itself has different meanings.--- intention--- inference--- a translation3.Kinds of meaning（1）The traditional approach 通用方法（2）The pragmatic approach 务实方法（3）The functional approach: 功能法4.Seven types of meaning by Leech(1)Conceptual meaning 概念A word or phrase can be used to express or evoke a state of mind which is cognitive, in this case the word or phrase expresses conceptual meaning.Conceptual meaning is central.5.Distinctions between denotation and connotation:(1)denotation: 外延It concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes(2)connotation: 内涵It refers to the properties of the entity a word denotesEx:human statesman politiciandenotation any person person who takes uppoliticsconnotation biped, commendatory derogatoryfeatherless, rationalAssociative meaning 联想(2) Connotative meaning 内涵What is implied apart from what is explicitly named or described. It is the subsidiary meaning of a word, usually associated with the nature or properties the word denotes.e.g.politician and statesman have different connotative meanings.(3) Social meaning 社会What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.E.g.Good morning, sir, and Y our honor.(4) Affective meaning 情感refers to the emotional connotation attached to utterancesE.g.vagrant vs. homeless.(5) Reflected meaning 反映What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.e.g.The woods are lovely, dark, and deep,But I have promises to keep,And miles to go before I sleep,And miles to go before I sleep.(6)Collocative meaning 搭配What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.e.g.black tea vs. black coffee;a strong horse vs. a strong nation.(7)Thematic meaning 主题What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.e.g.Authority I respect, but authoritarianism I deplore.Sense refers to the complex system of relationships that hold between linguistic elements themselves, it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations.6. Word sense relations(1)Synonymy同义词It refers to the sameness sense relations between words.Some semanticians maintain that there are no real synonyms, that is, no two words have exactly the same meaning.7. Five types of synonyms:i. Dialectal synonyms 方言同义词---- synonyms used in different regional dialects British English American Englishlift elevatorluggage baggagelorry truckpetrol gasolineflat apartmentwindscreen windshieldtorch flashlightii. Stylistic synonyms 文体同义词--- synonyms differing in styleEx:Old man, daddy, dad, father, male parentStart, begin, commenceKid, child, offspringKick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, decreaseiii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning 不同的同义词在感情或评价的意义Ex:collaborator: a person who helps another（劳经）合作者accomplice: a person who helps another （法律）共犯iv. Collocational synonyms 搭配同义词Ex:Accuse of sb. , charge sb. , rebukerotten tomatoesaddled eggsrancid bacon or buttersour milk.v. Semantically different synonyms 语义上不同的同义词程度amaze: to surprise(suggesting confusion and bewilderment )astound: to surprise(suggesting difficulty in believing )8. Antonymy 反义词It refers to the oppositeness sense relations between words, and three types of antonymy can be classified:(1) gradable antonymy 分级Cold, cool, lukewarm, warm, hot(2) complementary antonymy 补充Alive- dead(3) converse antonymy 相反e.g. husband / wife, borrow / lend.9.Hyponymy上下义关系Hyponymy indicates sense inclusiveness. The upper term in this sense relation is called superordinate, and the lower terms, hyponyms, members of the same class are calledco-hyponyms.Eg:In contrast to Chinese, there is only one word in English for thedifferent kinds of uncles: 伯父、叔叔、舅舅、姑父、姨父。

语言学术语中英对照writing system书写系统 word order 词序 word segmentation分词 word set 词集word segmentation unit 分词单位/切词单位word segmentation standard for Chinese 中文分词规范voice recognition 声音辨识/语音识别 vowel 元音 vowel harmony 元音和谐verb 动词verb phrase 动词组/动词短语 verb recitative compound 动补复合词verbal association 词语联想 oracle bone inscriptions甲骨文verbal phrase 动词组verbal production 言语生成vernacular 本地话V-O construction (verb-object) 动宾结构accent 口音/{Phonetics}重音Universal Grammar 普遍性语法transformation 变形[转换]Transformational Grammar 变形语法/转换语法nested structure 崁套结构text understanding 文本理解abbreviation 缩写/省略语text analyzing 文本分析 text coherence 文本一致性synonym同义词syntactic category 句法类别syntactic constituent 句法成分syntactic rule 语法规律/句法规则 structural transfer 结构转换structuralism 结构主义 stem 词干 stop 爆破音social context 社会环境 simple word 单纯词situation 情境sememe 义素 phoneme 音素 punctuation 标点符号part of speech (POS) 词类 particle 语助词 phrase 词组/短语phonemic stratum 音素层 rhetorical structure 修辞结构 rhetoric 修辞学proper name 专有名词polysemy 多义性 postposition 方位词negative sentence 否定句 multilingual translation 多语翻译Morphology 构词学 Montague Grammar 蒙泰究语法/蒙塔格语法mood 语气morpheme 词素 morphological affix 构词词缀modal 情态词 modal auxiliary 情态助动词 modal logic 情态逻辑modifier 修饰语 metaphor 隐喻M-D (modifier-head) construction 偏正结构locution 惯用语 linguistic unit 语言单位 loan 外来语lexical ambiguity 词汇歧义 lexical category 词类LAD (language acquisition device) 语言习得装置 language acquisition 语言习得intonation 语调interlingua 中介语言interlingual 中介语(的）innateness position 语法天生假说 inflection/inflexion 屈折变化inflectional affix 屈折词缀 indirect object 间接宾语immediate constituent 直接成份 imperative 祈使句 homograph 同形异义词homonym 同音异义词homophone 同音词 homophony 同音异义free morpheme 自由语素 duration 音长{语音学}/时段{语法学/语义学} disambiguation 消除歧义/歧义消除discourse 篇章 complement 补语checked 受阻的antonym 反义词apposition 同位语 ambiguity 歧义ambiguity resolution 歧义消解 affirmative 肯定（的；式）对外汉语术语中英对照音节syllable 字母alphabet 语言中的歧异现象ambiguity 发音pronunciation 广东话Cantonese 辅音consonant 声调tone 韵律rhyme声调语言tone language 押韵（v）rhyme 节奏rhythm 语调intonation语音speech of sound 词汇lexicon 语法grammar 语素morpheme构词法word-building/-formation 形态变化morphological change 音位phoneme声带vocal cords 发音器官organs of speech 呼吸器官respiratory organs音标phonetic alphabet 汉语拼音Chinese Phonetic Alphabet 属性attribute 发音articulation 甲骨文oracle bone inscriptions 笔画stroke 名词noun部首character component 表意文字ideograph 象形文字pictograph实词notional word 动词verb 形容词adjective 副词adverb代词pronoun 虚词function word 连词conjunction 语气词mood word 介词preposition 叹词interjection 助词auxiliary word 情态动词modal verb 主语subject 宾语object 定语attribute 补语complement谓语predicate 表语predicative 状语adverbial 修饰语modifier同义词synonym 反义词antonym 词组word group 时态tense专有名词proper noun 专业术语register 语境context 词尾ending后缀suffix 前缀infix 本义original meaning 基本义basic meaning引申义extended meaning 成语set phrase / idiom 方言dialect句法学Synt。

chinese english语言学定义语言学是研究语言的学科，它着眼于语言的结构、语言的使用以及语言的变化。

中英语言学是研究中文和英文两种语言的学科，它涵盖了这两种语言的音系、音韵学、语法、语义、词汇、语用学、社会语言学、翻译等多个方面。

中英语言学的定义可以从不同的角度来进行阐述。

从历史角度来看，中英语言学是研究中国和英国两个国家的语言和语言变化的学科。

中英语言学家会考察中文和英文的语音、语法以及语义的差异和共同点，分析两种语言的历史变迁，探讨语言混合和语言借用的现象。

从语音学的角度来看，中英语言学研究中文和英文的音系、音韵学和声调等方面。

例如，中英语言学家会比较中文和英文的音位系统，探讨两种语言的音位组合规则、音位变体以及发音的特点。

此外，中英语言学还研究中文和英文的声调系统，比较两种语言的声调发展历程以及声调对语音的影响。

从词汇学的角度来看，中英语言学研究中文和英文的词汇构词规则、词义以及词汇的演变等方面。

中英语言学家会比较中英两种语言的词汇结构和词义，分析两种语言的词义的差异和共性，并研究两种语言的词汇演变过程。

例如，中英语言学家会探讨中文和英文中的同源词、借词以及词义的变化规律。

从语法学的角度来看，中英语言学研究中文和英文的语法结构、句法规则以及语法变化等方面。

中英语言学家会比较中英两种语言的句法规则和语序，探讨两种语言的主谓宾结构、虚词使用、时态和语态等方面的差异。

此外，中英语言学还关注中英两种语言的语法发展，研究语法变异和语法化的现象。

从语义学和语用学的角度来看，中英语言学研究中文和英文的意义和语用规则等方面。

中英语言学家会比较中文和英文的词义的差异和共性，研究两种语言的语义关系和语用规则。

例如，中英语言学家会研究中文的兼类动词和英文的被动语态的使用方式，探讨两种语言中的表达方式的差异。

从社会语言学的角度来看，中英语言学研究中文和英文的社会语言变体、方言、族群语言、社会方言变体等方面。

新编简明英语语言学教程中文版导读：语言学家借此来描述和解释世界上各种语言的共同属性，这是英语中两个主要的句法移位，英语中WH词移至句首是将陈述句转变为特殊疑问句的必要条件，乔姆斯基和其他一些语言学家提出了普遍语法理论，普遍语法是人类所特有的语言知识体系，这一原则也解释了在英语中为什么动词和其直接宾语之间不能有其它的短语类插入，标准的英语句子必须要遵照毗邻条件，毗邻条件原则并不是在任何一种语言中都起重要作用，使得语言呈现出多样性x’ x Comp1这种高度抽象综合的X标杆理论可减少各个具体短语结构规则的繁杂，揭示所有短语结构规则的本质属性，语言学家借此来描述和解释世界上各种语言的共同属性。

6．句法移位和移位规则短语结构规则是难以用来描述句法移位现象。

当一个句子中的一个成分从其原位移向一个新的位置，就产生了句法移位。

句法移位是遵循一定的转换规则的。

6．1.名词词组移位和WH移位。

这是英语中两个主要的句法移位。

名词词组从原先所处的位置移至另一位置的句法现象叫作名词词组移位。

请看下面一组例子: A. The teacher taught the student. B. The student was taught by the teacher.一般认为B句是A句执行名词短语移位的结果。

在主动语态句中充当主语的名词词组和充当宾语的名词词组可以逆向移位，使句子转换成被动语态。

另一种常见的移位现象叫作WH-移位，即带WH词的成分从在句子中所处的原位移至另一位置。

英语中WH词移至句首是将陈述句转变为特殊疑问句的必要条件。

例如：A. He bought the book from the bookstore yesterday.a:. What did he buy from the bookstore yesterday? b. Where did he buy the book yesterday?c. When did he buy the book from the bookstore ?以上每个疑问句的产生，都是WH词向左移出了它们的常规位置，移到句首致使句子语气发生改变。

新编简明英语语言学教程中文版2简介《新编简明英语语言学教程中文版2》是一本系统介绍英语语言学的教材。

本教材由专业的语言学家和教育学家编写，旨在帮助学习者深入了解英语语言学的基本概念和原理。

本文档将简要介绍本教材的内容，并对其中重要概念进行概述。

第一章：语言学导论第一章主要介绍了语言学的基本概念和研究对象。

在本章中，学习者将了解什么是语言学，以及语言学的研究范围和方法论。

同时，还提供了一些语言学研究的历史背景和经典理论。

本章的目的是给学习者提供一个全面的语言学导论，为后续章节的学习做好铺垫。

第二章：语音学第二章主要介绍了语音学的基本概念和方法。

学习者将了解语音学的研究对象——音素以及音素的分类和描述方法。

在本章中，还将介绍音系和音位的概念，并讨论语音的产生和感知。

此外，还将讨论音位对语言的重要性以及音系和音位在不同语言间的差异。

通过学习本章内容，学习者将对语音学的基本理论和方法有一个初步了解。

第三章：音系学第三章主要介绍了音系学的研究内容和方法。

在本章中，学习者将学习语音学中的重要概念：音位、语音环境和音变规律。

此外，还将介绍音系学的研究方法，如音位的调查和描述。

通过学习本章内容，学习者将了解音系学在语言研究中的重要性，以及如何通过音系学方法来分析和描述不同语言的音系。

第四章：词汇学第四章主要介绍了词汇学的研究内容和方法。

在本章中，学习者将学习词汇学的基本概念，如词汇的定义和分类。

同时，还将介绍词汇的形态结构和词性。

本章还将介绍词汇的意义和语义关系，并讨论词汇的产生和变化。

通过学习本章内容，学习者将了解词汇学在语言研究中的重要性，以及如何进行词汇的分析和研究。

第五章：句法学第五章主要介绍了句法学的研究内容和方法。

在本章中，学习者将学习句法学的基本概念，如句子的组成和句子的结构。

同时，还将介绍句法分析的方法和理论，如短语结构文法和依存句法。

本章还将讨论句法的意义和句法的变化。

通过学习本章内容，学习者将了解句法学在语言研究中的重要性，以及如何进行句法的分析和研究。

汉英对比语言学陈德彰中文版汉英对比语言学是研究汉语和英语之间的差异和相似性的学科。

在这个领域里，陈德彰的研究尤为重要。

他的研究以中英两种语言的对比为基础，探讨了语音、语法、词汇以及文化等方面的差异和联系。

这些研究对于汉语学习者和翻译工作者有着重要的指导意义。

在语音方面，汉英对比研究揭示了两种语言之间发音的不同之处。

例如，发音“d”的英语音在汉语中没有直接的对应音，这就是为什么一些汉语学习者在发音上容易出现困难的原因之一。

陈德彰的研究指出，对于汉语学习者来说，学习英语的语音时，应该注意掌握英语语音系统与汉语语音系统的差异，减少发音错误。

在语法方面，陈德彰的研究发现了汉英两种语言之间的不同语法结构。

例如，在英语中，主谓宾语的语序是常见的，而在汉语中，由于没有单复数和人称的区别，语序更加灵活。

这些差异使得学习者需要灵活地调整语法结构。

陈德彰的研究提示，学习者可以通过比较汉英两种语言的语法规则，来提高自己在语法上的准确性。

在词汇方面，陈德彰的研究表明，汉英之间存在许多词汇的同义替换和表达方式的转换。

例如，“大”和“大的”在汉语中是同义词，但在英语中就需要转换成“big”和“large”。

另外，汉语借用了不少英语单词，例如“超市”和“电话”。

这些词汇的差异需要学习者注意，并在实际应用中灵活运用。

此外，汉英对比语言学还探讨了语言与文化之间的关系。

陈德彰的研究发现，语言是文化的重要组成部分，汉语和英语之间的差异反映了两种文化的特点和价值观。

例如，在礼貌用语上，汉语强调尊重和谦虚，而英语则注重直接和简洁。

这种差异在跨文化交际中需要学习者注意，以避免文化冲突。

总之，陈德彰的汉英对比研究为汉语学习者和翻译工作者提供了重要的指导。

通过比较汉英两种语言的语音、语法、词汇和文化差异，学习者可以更好地理解和掌握英语，同时还能够提高翻译的质量和准确性。

这些研究成果将对推动汉英语言交流和跨文化交际起到积极的促进作用。

1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。

语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。

为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。

1．2语言学的研究范畴:语言学研究有不同的侧重。

对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。

语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。

音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。

形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。

句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。

语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。

语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。

从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。

语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。

心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。

它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。

把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。

狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。

除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。

1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。

这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。

语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。

传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。