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我们今天要做的是So what we're doing today继续情感这一主题is continuing on the theme of emotions.情感这课分两次讲"Emotions" Is a two-part lecture我们会继续一些话题and we're continuing along certain themes.首先我想先回答一个问题I want to begin by responding to a question这是上节课提出的关于微笑which was raised in the last class concerning smiling和非人灵长类动物and nonhuman primates.这个问题非常好It was a very good question.问题是The issue was:我们知道人类有不同种类的微笑we know that humans have different sorts of smiles传递不同种类的信息to convey different sorts of information.问题是非人灵长类动物The question was, "Do nonhuman primates,像黑猩猩和长臂猿like chimpanzees or gorillas or gibbons,也像人类一样有这么多种微笑吗have the same many sorts of smiles?"我联系了世界第一的微笑研究专家So, I contacted the world's expert on smiling,他没回我邮件who did not return my e-mails.于是我联系了世界第二微笑研究专家So, I contacted the second world's expert on smiling这位专家告诉我答案是否who told me that the answer is "No,"非人灵长类动物的微笑that primate--nonhuman primate smiles其实基本全都是用来安抚及缓和情绪的actually correspond almost entirely to appeasement smiles.像是别伤害我的微笑They're "Don't hurt me" Smiles.还有像人类一样害羞地微笑They're equivalent to the "Coy smile" that we saw on humans.但非人灵长类动物不会用微笑打招呼But that nonhuman primates do not use smiles for greetings;它们没有像问候式微笑或空姐式微笑there's no equivalent to the "Greeting smile" Or "Pan Am smile";也不把微笑当作是对幸福的真情流露nor do they use them as genuine expressions of happiness. 也没有杜乡式微笑[完全真实的微笑]There's no equivalent to the "Duchenne smile."这就是我目前所知道的That's as far as I know.如果世界第一那位专家给我回复了If the world's expert gets back to me若不同的内容我会告诉你们的and says something different, I'll keep you posted.还有件事Another thing.回到情感的开课主题Going back to the beginning theme of the class,回顾一下当时讲的内容what we started--just to review,我们讲了感情的不同功能we talked about the different functions of emotions.然后是微笑和面部表情And then we talked about smiling and facial expressions.然后讲了And then we turned to some--恐惧这一非社会性情感to a nonsocial emotion, the case of fear.又讲了社会性情感And then we shifted to social emotions.然后我们讲了对亲属的社会性情感And we talked about social emotions towards kin和使这种情感发生进化的and the special evolutionary reasons特殊原因that would lead them to evolve.快下课的时候And as we were ending,我们讲了动物和we were talking about the relationship它们的子女之间的关系between an animal and its children,重点讲了人类鸟类哺乳类动物particularly in cases like humans and birds and mammals与他们子女的关系尤为亲近where there tends to be a close relationship with our children.我们注重子女质量而非数量We invest in quality, not quantity.我可能一辈子生不了几个孩子I might produce very few children in my life.而进化的作用使得我对他们非常关注And my evolutionary trick then is to focus very intently on them确保他们都能存活and make sure they survive.如果我生了一百个孩子If I were to produce 100 children,那失去几个我也能受得了I could stand to lose a few,但如果我一辈子就生了五个或两个或一个but if I just produce five in my lifetime or two or one,对我而言他们就十分珍贵了they become very precious to me.因此在像人类这样的物种进化过程中And so, the story of the evolution of a species like us包含着父母和孩子之间形成的长期依赖和involves a long period of dependence and deep, deep bonds很深很深的情感纽带between the parent and the child.这是我所讲的父母是如何对待孩子的And that's part of what I talked about,其中的一部分内容how parents respond to children.我想在这堂课的开头放部有关父母如何And I want to begin this class by giving an illustration 对待子女的纪录片并以此为例from a documentary about parental response to children,但我想用非人类物种but I want to give it in a species that's not us.原因为何我将会用类比来解释And here is why. I'll explain why with an analogy.我有一个研究宗教心理学的朋友I have a friend of mine who studies the psychology of religion. 他研究人们信仰宗教的原因He studies why people hold religious beliefs.他告诉我当他跟一个非专业人士And he tells me that when he's talking to a non specialist,一个不是该领域的人说话时somebody not in the field,他从来不会说he doesn't ever tell them,为什么人类相信圣经里的话"Yeah, I'm really interested in why people believe in the Bible为什么人们在安息日点蜡烛or why people light the candles on Sabbath人们为何去教堂我对这些特别感兴趣or why people go to church"因为周围的人都信仰宗教because these are religions that people around here hold,如果你告诉他们你在研究这些问题and if you tell people you study them他们就会有点儿诧异they'll sort of be puzzled,为什么你会研究这些"Why would you want to study something like that"或者感觉遭到了冒犯Or offended.如果你想跟这样的听众If you want to talk about the psychology of religion讨论宗教心理学to an audience like this,那你应该以异域风情为话题what you do is you start with the exotic.给他们讲讲那些把黄油So, you start by talking about people放在头上的人who put butter on their heads.丹·斯珀伯谈到这样一种文明Dan Sperber talks about a culture那儿的人夏天把黄油放在头上where the men put butter on their heads in the summer.黄油就会融化And it kind of melts这是他们的风俗之一and that's part of--one of the things that they do或者你说有一种文明or--you talk about a culture他们相信鬼神相信树能说话that believes in spirits or that trees can talk.你说你在研究这个他们就会说You say you're studying it and they say,真有趣"Oh, that's interesting.我想知道他们为什么会相信那些I wonder why they believe that?"你用这种方法能看到And you use that as a way to look at more general facts我们文明中一些更加普遍的事实that exist even in our culture.用我们不熟悉的异域文化You use the fact that we don't take the exotic for granted促进我们熟悉的as a way to motivate the scientific study科学研究of things we do take for granted.这点当然更加普遍And this is, of course, true more generally.这是威廉·詹姆斯一段话中的观点This was the point in the William James quote他说有些事对人类而言很自然when he talked about things that are natural to us and noticed并注意到有些奇怪的事情that some very odd things对其它物种而言也很自然are equally natural to other species.我认为的确如此尤其是And it's true, I think, in particular当我们谈到when we talk about things比如说我们对自己孩子的爱时like the love we have for our children.一种科学看待So, one way to look at the love we have我们爱孩子的方式for our children scientifically,就是不感性地直接看待isn't to look at it head-on,因为我们对孩子的爱是神圣的because the love we feel towards our own children feels sacred, 我们觉得这种爱是独有的it feels special,但其他物种呢but look at it in other species.对舐犊之情最好的例证之一And so, one of the nicest illustrations of this就是帝企鹅is the Emperor penguin,有人将帝企鹅对子女的爱护which was--which--whose和交配拍成了一部childcare and mating practices were dramatized精彩的电影帝企鹅日记in a wonderful movie called "March of the Penguins."非常有趣And this is interesting因为它们生育照顾子女的方式because they had this incredibly elaborate异常精细复杂and quite precarious system of generating并且还非常危险and taking care of offspring.我想给你们看一小段电影So, I want to show you a brief clip of the movie看看其中一些部分to illustrate some parts of this.它们在开始所做的What they do at the beginning,生育子女的准备which is not--which leads up to this,就是从水中进行长途的艰苦跋涉is they take a very long trek from the water去它们的繁殖地to their breeding grounds.它们的繁殖地是一个不受风雨侵害的地方Their breeding grounds is--are protected from the wind它们在一快很厚的冰上and they're on a firm piece of ice这样它们就能完成整个生育过程了so they could hold the whole pack.它们在那里繁殖They do the breeding there在那里孕育了帝企鹅蛋and it's there that the eggs are created.电影就是从这儿开始的So, this is where the movie begins at this point.帝企鹅日记是"March of the Penguins" Was the second best--有史以来第二受欢迎的纪录片second most popular documentary of all time,仅次于华氏九一一beaten only by "Fahrenheit 9/11."人们对该片反映不一And people responded to it in different ways,值得注意的是当我们想到普遍的爱时which are informative when we think about the generalizations就能从动物行为联想到人类行为you could make from animal behavior to human behavior.一些保守的评论家把这视为Some conservative commentators saw this对家庭价值的颂扬as a celebration of family values,如爱信任一夫一妻制such as love and trust and monogamy.一些厌恶一切美好真实事物的自由主义者Some liberals, who hate everything that's good and true,回应道responded by saying,对它们是在一个交配季节一夫一妻"Well, yeah, they're monogamous for one breeding season. 这只是一年It's a year.第二年它们就分道扬镳另找配偶Then they go and find another mate.如果把这些年份加起来那相当淫荡If you add it up, it's pretty slutty."我想这更多说明了I think more to the point,这些动物表现出来的people were impressed and stunned by the rich丰富清晰并且系统化的行为and articulate and systematic behavior令人们印象深刻叹为观止that these animals were showing.显然它们的这些行为并不是从电视Plainly, they didn't pick it up from television,电影文化学习movies, culture, learning,学校等地方学到的schooling, and so on.从某种程度来说To some extent,这种复杂的行为是天生的this sort of complicated behavior came natural to them.那么就可以理解为什么智力设计论And it's understandable或是神造论的支持者that some proponents of intelligent design,将此视为上帝造物的例证or creationism, pointed to this as an example上帝创造了这些非常细致无比精巧的生命of how God creates things that are deeply, richly intricate影响了不同动物的生存so as to perpetrate the survival of different animals.从达尔文主义者的立场来说From a Darwinian standpoint,他们同意神造论者的这个观点the Darwinian would agree with the creationist这些精巧生命的形成并非偶然that this couldn't have happened by accident,这简直太复杂了但他们会认为这是this is just far too complicated, but would appeal to the--生物学适应性的非凡典范to this as an exquisite example of a biological adaptation,尤其是这一生物适应性in particular a biological adaptation即父母关怀子女是因为regarding parental care to children shaped by the fact子女继承了父母的基因that children share the parents' genes因此父母就会逐渐以各种方式and so parents will evolve in ways使其子女生存下来that perpetrate the survival of their children.还有其他研究方向Then there's the other direction,关于孩子如何对待父母which is how children respond to parents,年幼的孩子怎样以不同方式how the young ones are wired up to resonate响应周围的成年者与他们产生共鸣and respond in different ways to the adults around them.对此我们简单讲了一些理论And we quickly talked about some different theories of this.回顾一下上节课我们讲的内容And I'll just review what we talked about last class.婴儿会对与他最亲近的人产生依恋Babies will develop an attachment to whoever is closest.他们通常更喜欢他们的妈妈They'll usually prefer their mothers因为妈妈一般是because their mothers are typically他们最亲近的人those who are closest to them.他们喜欢她的声音They'll prefer her voice,她的面容她的微笑her face, her smell.人们常常认为It used to be thought当婴儿出生时会有某种that there is some sort of magical moment of imprinting神奇的铭记时刻that when the baby is born,婴儿必须看到他们的妈妈嘭的一下the baby must see his or her mother and "Boom,"母婴之间的联系就生成了a connection is made.如果婴儿没有这么做If the baby doesn't,以后这种依恋关系就会产生很严重的问题terrible things will happen with attachment later on. 这种说法很傻This is silly.那些什么特别时刻是没有道理的There is no reason to believe there's some special moment什么特别五分钟或是特别一小时or special five minutes or special hour.只是在适当的时间It's just in the fullness of time婴儿会对于他们babies will develop an attachment最亲近的人产生依恋to the animal that's closest to it.他们会以暗示的方式They will recognize it as, at an implicit level,下意识地将那个人视作他们的亲属at an unconscious level, as their kin.那么这是怎样形成的呢Well, how does this work?婴儿的大脑是怎样形成How does the baby's brain develop--一种对那个生物的情感依赖呢come to develop an emotional attachment to that creature?你们记得斯金纳[行为主义心理学家]Well, you remember from Skinner他的操作性条件理论会作出很好的解答that operant conditioning could provide a good answer to this.这被称为碗柜理论And this is known as the "Cupboard Theory,"婴儿爱他们的妈妈因为妈妈给予他们食物which is babies love their moms because their moms provide food.这就是规律效应操作性条件的作用It's the law of effect. It's operant conditioning.他们接近他们的妈妈They will approach their mothers从她们那里得到食物to get the food from them.而后他们会对母亲产生依恋And they will develop an attachment因为妈妈提供食物because their mother provides food.这与鲍尔贝那更具本土主义者风格And this is contrasted with a more nativist,在心理上更根深蒂固的理论截然相反hard-wired theory developed by Bowlby鲍尔贝称有两件事相关which claims that there's two things going on.对婴儿来说妈妈安慰他与他进行There is a draw to mom for comfort社会互动但他也对陌生人心存恐惧and social interaction and afraid of strangers.在现实世界中Now, in the real world,很难将这两种情况分开it's difficult to pull apart these two means of attraction因为给予你安慰的那个女人because the very same woman who's giving you comfort同样为你提供母乳and social interaction is also the one giving you milk.但是在实验中就能将两者进行区分了But in the laboratory you can pull them apart.这正是亨利·哈洛在你们And that's what Henry Harlow did上周看的那部电影里所做的in the movies you saw last week.哈洛揭示了灵长类动物的两种不同的妈妈So, Harlow exposed primates to two different mothers.一种是铁丝代母斯金纳理论的妈妈One is a wire mother. That's a Skinnerian mother.给予食物的妈妈That's a mother who gave food.另一种是绒布代母The other is a cloth mother手感很好这样抱上去很舒服set-up so that she'd be comfortable并且给予婴儿温暖和拥抱and give warmth and cuddling.问题是婴儿喜欢哪个妈妈And the question is, "Which one do babies go for?"你能从电影中回忆起来的话And as you can remember from the movies,结果是很明确的the results are fairly decisive.婴儿去铁丝代母那里要食物Babies go to the wire mother to eat--正如其中一位研究员所言as one of the characters said,你要活着就得吃饭"You've got to eat to live."但是他们发现他们更爱绒布代母But they viewed the--they loved the cloth mother.他们对给予温暖和拥抱的代母产生依恋They developed an attachment to the warm, cuddly mother.当他们遇到威胁时她就是他们的依靠That's the one they used as a base when they were threatened.当他们开始探索世界时That's the one they used as a base她就是他们的港湾from which to explore.好的那实际上Okay. And that actually--那是我有张照片Oh, that's just--I have a picture.我马上就会讲到And that actually takes me to the--还有一件事Oh, except for one thing,我马上就要讲完it almost takes me to the end我们对亲人的感情问题of the question of our emotions towards kin.你们可能会问一个问题One question you could ask is,如果什么交流也没有怎么办"What if there's no contact at all?"你可以想象Now, you could imagine the effects of很多人对这个问题的答案感兴趣how--A lot of people are interested in the question孩子早期与周围的成年人的关系of the effects of the child's early relationship会如何影响孩子的未来to adults around him or her in how the child turns out later.这与很多社会讨论This becomes hugely relevant如日托关系巨大for social debates like daycare.比如很多心理学家So for instance, a lot of psychologists非常关心一个问题are interested in the question,孩子被父母通常是母亲"Is it better for a child to be raised by a parent,养大是否更好usually a mother,把孩子送到托儿所是否会造成什么差别or does it make a difference if the child goes to daycare?如果孩子六个月就被送到托儿所会怎样What if the child goes to daycare at six months?如果孩子岁两再送到托儿所会怎样What if the child goes to daycare at two years?这会如何影响孩子How does this affect the child?"简单的答案是没人知道The short answer is, nobody really knows.针对是否会有微妙差异的讨论There's a lot of debate over whether or not一直存在并且争议巨大there are subtle differences and it's deeply controversial.但是我们能确定的是差异并不大But we do know that it doesn't make a big difference.我们知道如果你被妈妈养大We do know that if you got raised by mom,或者妈妈和爸爸或者只有爸爸or perhaps mom and dad, or maybe just dad直到你去上学而我all through your life until going off for school and I--父母在我三个月的时候就把我送到托儿所my parents threw me in a daycare at age three months--这不会使我们存在巨大的差异it's not going to make a big difference for us,也许会有细微的差异maybe a subtle difference但是并不能确定是哪方面的差异though it's not clear which way it would go.反正不会有很大区别But it won't make a big difference.但是如果完全没有联系呢But what if there's no contact at all?如果在某些可怕的情况下What if--What about terrible circumstances人们失去绒布代母where people get no cloth mother,没有任何人可依赖they get nobody for attachment?这当然存在于现实生活中This is a really--In the real world, of course,你不能拿这个做实验you can't do experiments on this.在人类的现实生活中And in the real world with humans,这只会在悲惨的情况下发生this only happens in tragic cases.但是这已经有人研究过But this has been studied.哈洛又是他So Harlow, again,他将猴子隔离raised monkeys in solitary confinement喂养在铁笼中so they were raised in steel cages只有一个铁丝代母with only a wire mother.换言之In other words,他们能够获得所需的营养they got all the nutrition they needed但是没有母亲抚育but they got no mothering.最后你会发现猴子们疯了It turned out that you kind of get monkey psychotics.他们孤僻不会玩耍甚至咬伤自己They're withdrawn. They don't play. They bite themselves.他们缺乏性能力They're incompetent sexually.缺乏社交能力They're incompetent socially.缺乏做母亲的能力They're incompetent maternally.在一个实验中一只隔离喂养的猴子In one case, one of these monkeys raised in solitary confinement被人工受精was artificially inseminated.她生下孩子后拿孩子的头撞地板When she had a child she banged its head on the floor最后将它咬死and then bit it to death.所以你需要这表明So, you need to be--you need--This shows--这残酷地证明This is kind of a stark demonstration that某些早期关系某些早期依赖some early connection,some early attachment对灵长类动物的生长十分重要is critical for the developing of a primate.显然你不会用人类做这样的实验Obviously, you don't do these experiments with people但是有现实情况but there are natural experiments,在某些严苛的孤儿院长大humans raised in harsh orphanages没有社会接触的人with little social contact,这些孩子换言之and these children--If the--In other words,他们仅能吃饱they get fed, barely,但是没人会抱起他们拥抱他们but nobody picks them up and cuddles them.这些孩子如果时间足够长These children, if this happens for long enough,他们的社会和情感发展会出现严重问题they end up with severe problems with social and emotional development.从情感观点说他们总是无法满足From an emotional point of view, they're often insatiable.他们非常需要拥抱和支持They really need cuddling and support否则他们就会很冷淡完全不关心or they're apathetic, they don't care at all.但是有些好消息Now, there's some sort of good news,如果能够早些给人们或者猴子一些改变which is if you get these people or these monkeys early enough就能转变这一不良发展的影响you can reverse the effects of this bad development.猴子治疗师做了些研究So, there's some research done with monkey therapists.他们所做的是选一个猴子So then, what they do is they take the monkey,把他养在铁笼中等猴子出来they raise it in a steel cage, the monkey comes out,他有些神经质the monkey is kind of psycho,然后他们将一个小猴子送进笼子and then they send in a younger monkey小猴子四处闲逛who is just goofing around,在笼子里上蹿下跳jumping all around the place and everything.小猴子跟着他们And experience with this younger monkey紧挨着他们这些与小猴子相处的经历who just follows them around and clings to them使他们逐渐改善leads to gradual improvement.使孤僻的猴子得到改善It makes the solitary monkey become better.这对人类可能有相似的效果There might be a similar effect with humans.有个故事是个真事不是实验So one story more about--of an anecdote than an experiment一群一岁半的孩子was a situation where at the age of one and a half,被从一个不给孩子任何交流的children were taken away from a really harsh orphanage严苛的孤儿院带出来where they had no contact送到一个收留精神失常妇女的收容所中and brought into a home for mentally retarded women 在这女人们给予他们很多交流和拥抱where these women gave them plenty of contact andcuddling结果我们知道and apparently, from what we know,使他们恢复正常brought them back to normal.关于我们对亲人And this is all I want to talk about,孩子和父母的感情问题about the emotions we feel towards our kin,我就说这些towards our children, and towards our parents.谁有问题或者想法Any questions or thoughts?请讲Yes.孤儿院的孩子互相安抚吗Do children in orphanages comfort each other?这个问题很好Professor Paul Bloom: It's a good question.孤儿院的孩子互相安抚吗Do children in orphanages comfort each other?我不知道I don't know.可能不存在这样的条件The situation probably wouldn't be there--问题在于遭遇这种情况的The problem is children in orphanages孤儿院孩子who are in these terrible situations一般都是婴儿或者很小tend to be babies and very young他们可能不会被聚集到一起and they wouldn't be thrown together in situations有机会互相安抚where they could comfort each other.这是个很有意思的问题It's a really interesting question.如果在一种情形下孩子虽然What if it was a situation where children没有绒布代母were raised without a supportive cloth mother at all,不能抱起他们拥抱他们would not be able to pick them up and hold them,但是他们是否能够一起玩互相支持but they could play amongst themselves and support each other?我不知道这个问题的答案I don't know the answer to that.助教:可以Teaching Assistant: Yes.可以吗有依据吗Professor Paul Bloom: Yes? Is there evidence on that?助教:有Teaching Assistant: Yes, there is.有Professor Paul Bloom: Yes.答案是有依据The answer is there is evidence,众所周知as everybody knows,这种幼儿之间的that this sort of--amongst the young,互相支持可以帮助猴子和孩子support can actually help the monkey and the children.还有人有问题吗Somebody else had a question here?请讲Yes.中间情况会怎样What does that tell us about the middle ground,如果父母只给与很少的安抚if the parent is comforting just a little bit却不够多会怎样and then not that much好的问题是Professor Paul Bloom: Right. So this is--The question is,中间情况会怎样"What does that tell us about the middle ground?"前面说的是极端情况So this is an extreme case那中间情况会怎样but what do we know about the middle case?假设你的父母你不是被养在笼子里Say your parent--You're not raised in a cage,也不在罗马尼亚的孤儿院you're not in a Romanian orphanage,但是你的父母就是不怎么抱你but your parents just don't pick you up very much.他们不太爱你They don't love you very much.暂时没有充足证据证明There's no good evidence that这会对一个人产生任何影响that has any effect on a person.问题是几周以后我们会The problem is, and we're going to talk about this详细地讲这个问题in much more detail in a couple of weeks,确实有不太亲近的父母is it's true that parents who aren't affectionate孩子也不太近人have kids that aren't affectionate but it's not clear但是还不清楚这是由于遗传原因this is because of a genetic connection还是环境原因or an environmental connection.能确定的是在中间情况下The one thing we do know is that in the middle ground,影响不太明显effects tend not to be dramatic.除非在极端情况下So when you get away from extreme cases,否则影响很难观察effects are hard to see需要仔细的实验来梳理结论and require careful experimental research to tease out.我认为对很多对所有事情来说I think what it's safe to say for a lot--for everything可以确定的是除非是极端情况but the severe conditions否则我们不知道会有什么样的影响is we don't know what kind of effects there are.即使有影响也不会很大很明显But if there are effects they are not big and dramatic ones.好的Okay.动物的好感Animals' good feelings,动物对亲属的感情吸引animals' emotional attraction to their kin,从进化论观点看并不特别费解is not a huge puzzle from an evolutionary point of view.进化是由你的后代遗传和复制了Evolution is driven by forces that operate on the fact of多少你的基因所决定的how many genes get reproduced and replicated among your descendants. 所以不难理解为什么动物热衷于So, it makes sense that animals would be wired-up会照顾他们的孩子to care for their kids.也不难理解It would make sense that kids得以存活的孩子who are wired-up to survive会对他们的父母产生依赖would develop attachments to their parents.但是令人疑惑的是动物What's more of a puzzle though is that animals,包括人类including humans,与非亲属也有微妙复杂的关系seem to have exquisitely complicated relationships with non-kin. 确切地说动物对非亲属很好In particular, animals are nice to non-kin.你也会对完全没有关系的人很友善You are nice to people that you're not related to.这有很多例子There are a lot of examples of this.动物们互相照顾Animals groom one another.你会把虱子和虫子从你朋友的身上抓走You go, you pick off the lice and the bugs off your friend;他们也会帮你抓走they pick it off you.动物会发出危险警告They give warning cries.危险警告很多动物会发出危险警告So, warning cries--All sorts of animals give warning cries. 假设你是我不知道You are--I don't know.假设你是个小动物大的敌人来了You're a little animal and a big animal comes charging你会喊喂and you say, "Hey!"你会喊叫然后大家闻风而逃Oh. You may sort of cry and everybody runs away.这对你很危险And that's very risky for you但你还是会做but you do it anyway,为了保护跟你没关系的人often to protect people you aren't related to.动物们还会互相照顾孩子Often animals share childcare.如果从一个冷血的自然选择And from a cold-blooded, natural selection,保存自身基因的观点来看survival-of-the-gene point of view,你可以想象you would imagine that假如你将孩子交给我白天照顾if you lend me your kid for the day我会将他吃掉以获得营养I would eat him for the protein这不是我的基因and "It's not my genes这样对我的孩子有好处and actually it gives more for my kids."实际上并不是这样的That's not quite how it works though.动物们分享食物Animals share food.事实上那种动物In fact, that animal,及其丑陋的吸血蝙蝠就分享食物hugely ugly, the vampire bat, shares food.吸血蝙蝠会What happens is the vampire bat--吸血蝙蝠住在洞穴中飞出去觅食vampire bats live in caves and they fly out.经常会有一只蝙蝠收获丰厚And what they do is often a bat will strike it big.比如说她发现了一匹马咬了它She'll find a horse, for instance, bite the horse,吸取了大量的鲜血然后飞回来pump in tons of blood and then fly back.她不会自己全部留下And what it does is it doesn't keep it to itself.取而代之她飞遍整个洞穴Rather, it goes around the whole cave将血吐给所有的吸血蝙蝠and vomits blood into the mouth of all the other vampire bats这样所有蝙蝠都会受益so everybody benefits.难道这不好吗Isn't that nice?现在你会说Now, what you're tempted to say is,这很好所有蝙蝠都能受益"Well, that's really nice. Everybody benefits,"但是从进化论角度but this raises a puzzle这产生了一个问题from the evolutionary point of view.记住这样动物获益更多Remember, animals benefit more,在这种情形下and to this situation,动物们共同工作比单独工作获益更多animals benefit more by working together than by working alone.益处超过代价The benefits outweigh the costs.这被称作互惠利他主义This is known as "Reciprocal altruism"指我对你的行为meaning my behavior to you,我对你的帮助对你的利他主义my good behavior to you, my altruism for you,是建立在互惠的基础上is predicated on the idea of reciprocation,我也会受惠于你"I'll benefit from you."假设吸血蝙蝠比如说And you imagine how vampire bats, for instance,为什么这样合情合理why this makes sense.假设你是一只吸血蝙蝠This is--If you're a vampire bat,。
耶鲁心理学导论07中英文摘要：1.耶鲁大学公开课：心理学导论2.课程概述3.情感与理性的关系4.情感的作用5.婚姻关系的破裂标志6.相互尊重与微笑的重要性正文：1.耶鲁大学公开课：心理学导论在本次课程中，我们将讨论心理学的基本概念和原理。
心理学是一门研究人类行为和心理过程的科学，它旨在解释和预测人们在各种情境下的行为。
课程将涵盖演化、情感、理性之情感等内容，帮助我们深入了解人类行为的动机和原因。
2.课程概述课程分为多个部分，第一部分重点讨论演化对心理学的影响。
演化理论认为，人类行为受到基因和环境的共同影响，从而适应环境的变化。
在这一部分中，我们将探讨人类行为的演化基础，以及演化如何影响我们的心理过程和行为。
第二部分将探讨情感与理性之间的关系。
情感和理性是决策过程中的两个重要因素，它们之间存在一种动态平衡。
我们将通过科学研究来探讨情感和理性如何共同作用，影响我们的行为和决策。
3.情感与理性的关系情感和理性在决策过程中起着重要作用。
情感是我们对外部事物的直接反应，它帮助我们快速做出决策。
然而，情感并非总是正确的，有时会导致我们做出错误的决策。
在这种情况下，理性就发挥了作用。
理性是一种基于逻辑和事实的思考方式，它能帮助我们更准确地评估情境，做出更好的决策。
然而，科学研究发现，情感和理性之间的关系并非简单的对立。
相反，它们在决策过程中相互影响、共同作用。
当我们失去大部分情感时，我们将失去对事物的关心和优先级排序能力，最终导致理性的丧失。
因此，情感是我们生活中的基本机制，它帮助我们设定目标和事物的优先级。
4.情感的作用情感在我们的生活中起着多种作用。
首先，情感是我们对外部事物的直接反应，它能帮助我们快速做出决策。
其次，情感是我们行为的动力来源。
当我们感到快乐时，我们会更愿意参与各种活动，而当我们感到悲伤时，我们可能会选择逃避现实。
最后，情感还能帮助我们建立人际关系。
通过分享彼此的情感，我们能更好地理解他人，建立深厚的友谊和亲密关系。
回顾一下上节课我们讲到这Just to review, here's where we left off.上节课和这节课的一半The discussion from last lecture and for about half of this lecture都将讨论社会心理学is going to be social psychology.我们首先谈论了某些基本偏见And so, we started off by talking about certain fundamental biases关于我们如何看待自己然后我们转向讨论in how we see ourselves. We then turned to talk about a bias如何看待他人的偏见都是基本归因错误and how we see other people, the fundamental attribution error.现在我们谈论一些And now we're talking a little bit about some aspects of我们如何看待他人的问题how we see other people.我们上次课快速地讲了我们喜欢他人的几个因素So, we quickly talked about certain aspects of why we like other people包括邻近性相似性吸引力including proximity, similarity, and attractiveness,上次课讲到马太效应and where we left off was a discussion of the Matthew effect,就是一般好的事物会趋向于更好which is basically that good things tend to compound.如果你有钱你会得到更好的教育If you're rich you'll get a better education,如果你很聪明别人会更喜欢你如果你很有吸引力等等if you're smart people will like you more, if you're attractive and so on.现在不要交论文Nobody bring up their papers at this point.下课会有人来收They'll collect them at the end of class.我要说的是What I want to talk to--好吧你除外就到此为止Okay, except for you. Just ending it now.看来我要让教学助理I'm going to ask the teaching fellows to阻止任何人接近这区域才行stop anybody from approaching that area.我想先开始讨论印象形成I want to begin by talking about impression formation,我们是如何对他人产生印象的how we form impressions of others,告诉你们一些关于印象形成的有趣事情and tell you a couple of interesting things about impression formation.首先第一印象非常重要The first one is, first impressions matter a lot.因为不同原因而重要They matter a lot for different reasons.他们很重要可能因为人类有They might matter a lot because humans have,一般来说都有证实偏差in general, a confirmation bias such that比如一旦你相信某样事物once you believe something other information其他与喜欢相关的信息就会被编码来支持你所相信的is then encoded along the likes to support what you believe.凯利进行了一个经典实验So, the classic study here was done by Kelley当一位演讲嘉宾进来的时候一些学生收到的简介是描述嘉宾where a guest speaker comes in and some of the students received a bio很热情的其他人describing the speaker as very warm, the other as--迟到的同学现在不要交你的论文do not bring your paper up if you're coming in late.下课再交Just--at the end of class, yeah.另一些人拿到的个人简介是谢谢艾里克Others got a bio saying--thanks, erik--简介是说嘉宾相当冷酷后来结果表明the speaker was rather cold and then it turned out later on当学生们被问到对嘉宾的印象时when they're asked for their impressions of the speaker他们很大程度地受第一印象的影响people are very much biased by what they first assumed.如果我被描述成一个活泼富有创意的人If I'm described to you as a vivacious and creative person当你看到我浑身是劲跳来跳去时and you see me and I'm all kind of bouncing around and everything,你就会加强对我的第一印象"他真是活泼可爱头脑灵活啊"you could then confirm this as, "Look how vivacious and creative he is."如果我被描述成整天泡在酒缸里If I'm described as somebody who drinks too much,你可能会想他是个酒鬼you might think he's an alcoholic.如果我被描述成一个紧张不安的人If he's described as somebody who's insecure and nervous, 你会把我的活动理解成是紧张抽搐you could interpret my activity as nervous twitches.第一印象给你设置了一个框架通过框架去理解其他事情Your first impression sets a framework from which you interpret everything else.这是一部出色电影的主题This was the theme of an excellent movie就是彼得·塞勒斯主演的《妙人奇迹》called Being There starring Peter Sellers.这部讽刺喜剧《妙人奇迹》的主角And the running joke of the movie "Being There" was that the main character,仓西·加德纳the character Chauncey Gardner,意外地被认为是一名天才somehow through accident had the reputation for being a genius but while,但实际上他是个轻度智障他会四处走动in reality, he was actually mildly retarded. But he would go around and人们就会问他一些政治上的看法他就会说些类似people would ask him his opinions on politics and he would say things like"我喜欢呆在花园里"的话因为他天才的盛名"Well, I like being in the garden." and because of his reputation as a genius人们就会说"真是深奥我想知道他是什么意思"people said, "Wow. That's very profound. I wonder what he means."人们就会说"真是深奥我想知道他是什么意思"And--or people would talk to him and he'd just stare at them and say--人们就会被他冒失鲁莽地盯着看吓到and people would say--would be intimidated by his bold and impetuous stare而实际上他完全不知道发生什么事when actually he just totally didn't know anything.所以第一印象能塑造后续印象So, first impressions can shape subsequent impressions而不仅仅塑造当下的印象不久前有个狙击手not just when dealing with people. A little while ago there was a sniper,实际上是一对狙击手在华盛顿杀人actually a pair of snipers killing people in Washington有一件大家都知道的事情是犯人开了一辆白色小货车and the one thing everybody knew about it was there was a white van involved.后来发现根本就没有白色小货车It turned out there was no white van at all但第一件案子里有人看到白色小货车but in the first incident somebody saw a white van,新闻媒体都大肆报道this was reported in all the newspapers,然后其他同类案件中人们都开始看到白色小货车then every other incident people startedseeing the white van.于是他们开始寻找白色小货车开始注意它们So, they started looking for them and they started to attending--attend to them.因此第一印象在人际交往中非常重要So, first impressions matter hugely when dealing with people因为它为我们如何理解事物奠定了基础because it sets the stage for how we interpret everything else.第二个发现就是A second finding building on the first is that我们的印象形成非常迅速we form impressions very fast, very quickly,这里有个文献资料叫《片刻解读》and this is a literature known as "Thin slices."观点是我们形成对他人的印象The idea is you don't have to see much of a person并不需要观察很久对此最早的研究to get an impression of what they are. The first studies done on this其实是针对教师和大学教授们were actually done on teachers, on university professors.大学教授有教学评估So, university professors have teaching evaluations可以利用这方法来粗略评估and you could use this as a rough and ready approximation of学生们对教授的看法what students think of them.接下来你们要做的就是两位社会学家So, what you do then is--the question that these people were interested in,罗森塔尔和安巴蒂感兴趣的问题是Rosenthal and Ambady, two social psychologists,就是需要观察教授多久时间were how long do you have to look at a professor才能猜测出教授的受欢迎程度to guess how popular a teacher he is?他们给学生看了一整节课的剪辑录像So, they showed these clips for a full class.你们需要看一整节课吗Do you have to see them for a full class?你们需要看两节课吗Do you have to see them for two classes?还是需要看半个小时呢Do you have to see them for a half hour?你需要在他周围观察多久How long do you have to be around a person to see him,才能评价讲课人呢答案是五秒钟to estimate how good a lecturer that person is? And the answer is five seconds.看剪辑录像五秒钟后人们就能很好地预料到So, after clips of five seconds people are pretty good at predicting演讲者的某种评价还记得大五人格模型吗what sort of evaluations that person will have. Remember "The Big Five,"我们如何用大五人格模型来评价他人你们都有室友how we evaluate people on "The Big Five?" well, you have a roommate你们可以用大五人格模型来评价你的室友and your roommate you could evaluate on "The Big Five."你们曾经和他或她有很多的经历你需要多少时间You've had a lot of experience with him or her. How much time do you need来评估他们人格的五个维度呢to evaluate somebody on the five dimensions of personality?再次强调答案是根本不需要很多时间在很简短的接触后The answer is, again, not much time at all. After very brief exposures to people,人们就可以非常准确地运用大五人格模型来评价他们people are very accurate at identifying them on "The Big Five."另一个更惊奇的发现是One of the more surprising findings is--关于性取向或同性恋雷达这不是一个科学术语concerns sexual orientation or "Gaydar." that's not a scientific term这两位心理学家很有兴趣研究but the same psychologists were interested in studying你能多快需要多久how quickly you can--if at all how long does it take to能看出某个人的性取向他们所做的是figure out somebody's sexual orientation? Now, what they did was--他们都是聪明的心理学家他们设计了一个研究实验they were clever psychologists so they set it up in a study研究中被试并不知道性取向是研究的问题where the people did not know sexual orientation was at issue.例如他们可能像你们这样填一张表格So, for instance, they may be people like you who filled in a form,在非常长的问卷中只有一题是问你性取向的one question along a very long form was your sexual orientation,然后你就坐下来接受访谈and then you're sitting down being interviewed by somebody访谈过程都被拍了下来然后拿给其他人看and your interview is being filmed, and then other people are shown--给那些不认识你的人看录像研究表明who don't know you are shown the film. And the finding is that人们片刻就能较准确地判断出性取向people based on thin slices are quite good at detecting sexual orientation.每个人都很擅长同性恋者做得比异性恋者更好Everybody's good at it, gay people are better at it than straight people,再次说明你不需要太多的时间你仅需要约一秒钟and, again, you don't need much time. You just need about a second.你用一秒钟去观察某个人你就能做出猜测You see somebody for about a second, you could make a guess.但并不总是对的其实你只是比乱猜好一些You're far from always right. In fact, you're just a bit better than chance但在判断性取向时比乱猜要好but you are better than chance at telling sexual orientation.综合这两方面So, these two facts taken together,片刻解读和第一印象thin slices and the power of first impressions,意味着仅仅短暂接触某个人means that just by a brief exposure to somebody就能决定你将来对他们的看法it shapes so much of how you're going to think about them in the future.现在我们从另一个方向来看这问题Now, we can look at this from the other direction.我们谈论对他人的看法We're talking about the perceptions of other people,我们如何理解他人但社会心理学家同样感兴趣的是how we perceive other people, but social psychologists are also interested in当我们对他人产生特定看法时the question of what happens to other people他人会有什么反应因此一个问题是as a result of being perceived in a certain way. So, one question is,"是什么影响着我认为他人是聪明或愚蠢的"What would cause me to perceive somebody asintelligent or stupid,同性恋或是异性恋焦虑或是冷静的"gay or straight, anxious or level-headed?"第二个问题是"当受到这种方式的评价后会有什么影响"A second question is, "What are the effects of being judged that way?"心理学家创造了一个术语关于自我实现预言And psychologists have coined a term, talk about self-fulfilling prophesies,更确切地说这就是众所周知的"皮格马利翁效应"and the claim here more specifically is what's known as "The Pygmalion effect."皮格马利翁效应就是如果我相信你有某种特点And the Pygmalion effect is if I believe you have a certain characteristic这可能会使你表现得好像你就有这个特点this might cause you to behave as if you have that characteristic.这名字出自一部戏剧萧伯纳的皮格马利翁The name comes from the play by George Bernard Shaw Pygmalion,引用里面的一句话"淑女和卖花女之间的区别and the quote here is "The difference between a lady and a flower girl不是她的举止而是她受到的对待is not how she behaves but how she's treated.我在希金斯教授前总是卖花女I shall always be a flower girl to Professor Higgins因为他总是把我当卖花女来看待一直这样"because he always treats me as a flower girl and always will,"改编成为一部广为人知的电影《窈窕淑女》但我觉得同样的主题made into a better known movie, my Fair Lady. But I think that the same theme有一个更好的电影当例子《尼基塔女郎》is better exemplified in a far better movie, La Femme Nikita,当一名冷血杀手受到尊重和爱戴时where a cold-blooded killer is treated with respect and affection她变得更温和平易近人and then she becomes a much more warm and accessible person,即使她还是杀了很多人但它仍然很好地阐明这个效应and then she kills a lot of people but that-- but still it illustrates the point.这一效应被大量实验论证And this point has tons of empirical validity.罗森塔尔和杰克逊设计的经典实验中The classic experiment was by Rosenthal and Jackson他们告诉老师们一些学生非常聪明where they told teachers that some of their kids were really smart但另一些学生就不是那么的聪明and other kids were less-- were not really smart,不要期待他们在智商上会得到大幅提升they weren't expected to show a huge jump or spurt in their IQ,这个当然是瞎掰的这些孩子是随机抽样的and this was of course trickery. The children were chosen at random但那些被说成非常聪明的孩子but the children who were described as showing--预期在智商上会得到提升的孩子他们的智商真的提高了as expected to show a jump in IQ, in fact, did show a jump in their IQ scores这不是魔法一般来说如果有人告诉我你是个天才and this isn't magic. It's basically--if I am told that you're a genius你将在这堂课里才华横溢and your genius is about to be in full-flower throughout this class这个班本来人就不多我会更多地关注你and it's a small class as these classes were, i'll focus more on you,更加地注意你如果有人告诉我"这学生不行"I'll give you more of my attention. If I'm told "Not so much for you,"你就会被我无视you'll suffer relative to him.皮格马利翁效应说明我们期望的影响有多大And so the Pygmalion effect shows how our expectations can really matter.这引出了最后关于期望的问题以及我们如何去评价一个人This brings us to the final-- the issue of expectations and how we judge people这不仅在个体中存在is a story that could be told about individuals还在群体中存在but it's also a story that could be told about groups.我想以社会心理学中群体讨论And this is where I want to end this section on social psychology 作为本次课的结尾by talking about groups.很多社会心理学家都关注着一个问题 A lot of social psychology is concerned with the question of我们是如何看待人类群体的how we think about human groups我们已经在道德那节课上谈论过and we've already discussed this in the lecture on morality when we talked about人类动力促使我们去思考术语"我们"和"他们"的区别the human dynamic pushing us to think in terms of "Us" Versus "Them"罗伯斯山洞实验中说明过这一点as shown in the Robber's Cave study塔杰菲尔的最小群体实验同样体现这一点and also shown in the minimal group research by Tajfel从动机和情感上的立场来看showing that from a motivational, emotional standpoint我们不难区别"我的团体"和"你的团体"it's not difficult for us to think in terms of "My group" Versus "Your group."这种思维方式确实有影响到And this way of thinking has real consequences我们的感情生活情感生活for our emotional life, our affective life,影响到我们在分配资源上的抉择但是这里我想讨论and how we choose to distribute resources. What I want to talk about here though我们对人类群体看法的不同方面is a different aspect of how we think about human groups.我要讲下刻板印象I want to talk a little bit about stereotypes.现代英语里"刻板印象"通常是个贬义词Now, "Stereotypes" In English often just is a bad word.有刻板印象说明你有些问题To have a stereotype is to be-- is to have something wrong with you. 你会觉得有刻板印象不是件好事You might say it's not good to have stereotypes.心理学家倾向于把这词使用在更广泛意义上Psychologists tend to use the term in a broader sense.我们倾向于将这个词用在关于典型性的We tend to use the term to refer to information we have about categories分类和直觉上and intuitions we have about the typicality,我们经常认为的特定类别的特征our frequency of certain features of categories.我们发现收集类别的信息And it turns out that collecting information about categories对我们的生存至关重要我们每时每刻都接触新鲜事物is essential to our survival. We see novelthings all the time and如果我们不能学习和推测if we were not capable of learning and making guesses,对这些新事物做出可靠的猜测我们就不能生存下去educated guesses, about these novel things we would not be able to survive.当你在这里看到这个物体你把它归类为一张椅子So, when you see this object over here you categorize it as a chair然后你认识到你应该可以坐上去and you recognize that you could probably sit on it.这苹果大概可以吃的那条狗可能会吠有尾巴会咬我This apple is probably edible, this dog probably barks and has a tail and eat me咬我且不会说英文的eats me and doesn't speak English.这些都是我们对椅子苹果和狗的刻板印象These are all stereotypes about chairs and about apples and about dogs.这在逻辑上并不一定是正确的也许是条吃素的狗It doesn't mean they're logically true. This could be a vegetarian dog,有毒的苹果会爆炸的椅子但它们通常是正确的a poison apple, an explosive chair, but they're typically true.如果你突然失去归纳的能力And if you were suddenly stripped of your ability to make generalizations,你会不知所措你不知道吃什么不知道怎么与人交往you'd be at a loss. You wouldn't know what to eat, how to interact.所以记录信息和归纳能力So, some sort of ability to record information and make generalizations在我们生活中必不可少is absolutely essential to making it through life.有趣的是我们也会对人类进行归类What's interesting though is we also categorize types of people.我们有各种刻板印象男人女人So, we have stereotypes in our heads about men and women,儿童青少年成人白人黑人亚洲人等等about children, adolescents or adults, whites, blacks, Asians and so on.但刻板印象不都是坏事情下面有两个原因Now, this is not essentially a bad thing for a couple of reasons.第一有些刻板印象是积极的First, some of these stereotypes are positive.你可能对某些群体有积极的刻板印象You might have positive stereotypes about certain groups. 你可能会认为某些群体比较有创造力或是聪明You might believe some groups are unusually creative or intelligent.你可能对自己的群体有特别积极的刻板印象You might have a particularly positive stereotype about your own group即使你的群体是耶鲁学生或是来自法国的人even if your own group is Yale students or your own group is people from France或是某某大学的人or your own group is people from such and so college.你会有积极的刻板印象更重要的是You might have positive stereotypes. More importantly,我们对群体的刻板印象的方式we collect stereotypes about groups of people和我们对物品归类的刻板印象through much the same way we collect stereotypes about categories如椅子苹果和狗的方式是相同的刻板印象大多是准确的like chairs and apples and dogs. Andso they're pretty often accurate.有些实验中问到人们谁更有可能成为一名律师When there are studies which ask people who is more likely to be a lawyer,犹太人还是西班牙人呢谁可能更高点someone who's Jewish or someone who is Hispanic, who is likely to be taller,日本人还是瑞典人呢人们可以回答这些问题somebody from Japan or somebody from Sweden, people can answer these things.他们的刻板印象影响着他们的回答They have their stereotypes that guide their answers,而这些回答都不是任意或随机的and the answers are not arbitrary or random.他们的回答通常都是正确的刻板印象通常可以让我们Their answers are often correct and often possessing stereotypes lets us更合理更正确地概括归纳这个世界make reasonable and correct generalizations about the world.这对刻板印象来说是个好消息不过也有坏消息That's the sort of good news about stereotypes but there's also bad news.其中一个问题就是它们并非总是准确的One problem is that they're not always accurate这里有两个因素导致它们容易犯错and there's a couple of factors that could lead them away from accuracy.其中一个就是我们之前谈论的第一印象One is what we talked about before regarding first impressions,就是一种证实偏差which is a confirmation bias.如果你认为同性恋者都是女人气的男同志都是女人气的If you believe that homosexuals are effeminate, that gay men are effeminate,这就会影响到你以后对同性恋者的看法then this is going to shape how you see future gay men. 如果你看到一个娘娘腔的男同性恋者你可能会说If you see an effeminate gay man, you'll probably say,"证明我理论的又一实例" 如果你看到一个不怎么娘娘腔的"Ah, more evidence for my theory." if you see a man who is not effeminate,你可能会无视他或者觉得这家伙同性恋得不够彻底you might ignore it or say maybe he's not really gay after all.如果你认为黑人都是犯罪分子If you believe black men are criminals,当你看到一个黑人罪犯时你会把他列为支持证据then when you see a black man who is a criminal you'll chalk it down as support但你很少注意白人罪犯but you'll pay less attention to evidence that white men are criminals还有某些不是罪犯的黑人and some black men are not criminals.你不会用科学客观地去审视得到的数据You won't look at this as a scientist objectively scanning data.相反地你会带偏见看问题Rather, you'll be biased in certain ways.你会偏向于注重那些能够证明你理论的案例上You'll be biased to put extra weight on the cases that support your theory而忽略那些相反的案例此外我们的数据并不总是可靠的and diminish cases that refute it. Furthermore, our data is not always reliable.所以这就是刻板印象的一个例子So-- oh, and this is actually an example of this at work.在古典音乐界里有刻板印象It turns out in the world of classical music there's a stereotype of那就是女性不如男性精通音乐她们演奏水平不如男性women being simply less proficient than men: they play smaller than men,她们不够有力量技术更弱they don't have the same force and they have smaller techniques,她们容易喜怒无常等等they're more temperamental and so on.如果你问一个评审人评审人就会说If you asked somebody who was a judge, the judge would say,"看事实就是这样我根本就没对她们有成见""Look. This is just the way things are. I'm not being biased at all."匿名试听的测试就是The test of this then is to have blind auditions让人们在屏幕背后试听演奏where people do their auditions behind a screen这样你就不知道演奏者是男还是女so you can't tell whether they're man or a woman,是白人还是黑人甚至是亚洲人或其他什么的or for that matter, white or black or Asian or whatever.结果显示这样女性更多被雇佣说明It turns out when you do that women get hired far more suggesting第一刻板印象是不正确的that the stereotype is a, incorrect第二对人们的雇佣有消极和不公平的影响and B, has a real negative and unfair effect on people getting hired.刻板印象的第二个问题就是我刚刚讲过的\NA second problem is –what I was talking about immediately before this –我们接受到的一些信息具有误导性is some of our data are misleading我们从媒体上获得大量关于这世界的信息so we get a lot of the information about the world from the media.媒体包括电视电影The media would include television and movies也包括戏剧书籍和故事but would also include plays and books and stories.某种程度媒体描述了And to the extent these portray一个对世界不切实际或不公平或带偏见的看法an unrealistic or unfair or biased perception of the world我们构建的刻板印象忠于我们所获得的信息we could construct stereotypes that are faithful to the data we're getting但这信息没有代表性but the data is not representative.比如人们And so people, for instance,反感意大利裔美国人在电视上露面object to the fact that when there's Italian Americans on TV 认为他们通常是黑道家族的成员they're often members of the Sopranos, a mobster family.纵观历史犹太人一直很苦恼Throughout history Jews have been upset《威尼斯商人》里对夏洛克的描述里他不是个好人at the portrayal of Shylock in "Merchant of Venice," not a very nice guy.相应的那些想培养积极观点的人And often in response people who want to foster more positive views会尝试会把其他群体的代表加入进来will often try to-- will often put in representatives from other groups以独特的方式来达到目的in unusual ways to make that point.这里有谁看过电视剧《银河战星》的Anybody here ever see the television show Battlestar Galactica?好的他是谁《银河战星》的主角Okay. Who's that? He's the star of "Battlestar Galactica."你们不知道是因为你们太年轻了在原版的《银河战星》You don't know because you're too young. In the original "Battlestar"--我讨厌你们在原版的《银河战星》中他是个主角and I hate you. In the original "Battlestar Galactica," This was the star.这个主角叫星巴克This was the main character known as "Starbuck,"在最新版里改变成一个女人了who got transformed into a woman in the more recent one,一个关于描述如何有趣的改变的例子 a sort of example of how portrayals are shifting in interesting ways.当然刻板印象上还有道德问题There's also, of course, moral problems over stereotypes.基于刻板印象去评价椅子苹果和狗是可以的So, it's fine to judge chairs and apples and dogs based on the stereotypes.甚至评价狗的品种也是可以的It's even fine to judge breeds of dogs.如果我告诉你我要买条灵缇犬而不要比特犬If I told you that I decided to buy a greyhound instead of a pit bull因为我想要条性情温顺的狗because I wanted a dog of a gentle temperament,没人会尖叫着说我是个狗种族歧视者nobody would scream that I'm a dog racist involving--说实话这就是一个刻板印象and--but honestly, it's a stereotype.人们认为灵缇犬比比特犬温顺得多Greyhounds are supposed to be more passive and gentle than pit bulls.我认为这是一个正确的刻板印象但它仍然还是刻板印象I think it's a true stereotype but it's a stereotype nonetheless.针对狗品种的刻板印象是没有问题的But we have no problems when it comes to things like breeds of dogs一旦我们用于评价人们时就是有严重问题了with stereotypes. We have serious problems judging people this way.例如这是个道德原则我们中的一些人坚持认为So, for instance, it's a moral principle that some of us would hold to that即使刻板印象是正确的even if stereotypes are correct但把它们应用在日常的生活上仍是不道德的it is still immoral to apply them in day to day life. 这里有个术语叫心理画像The term for this would be "Profiling."现在情况变复杂了因为在某些情况下Now, it gets complicated because there are some cases我们确实允许刻板印象发挥作用where we do allow stereotypes to play a role.当你们考取了驾照或者已经拿到驾照的同学When you all go and get driver's licenses or when you did get driver's licenses你们比起我来要付更高的汽车保险费you have to pay higher auto insurance premiums than I do.我认为这很公平因为像你们这种年轻人I think this is perfectly fair because young people like you抽大麻或是喝酒后开车会发生更多的事故get into a lot more accidents with your reefer and your alcohol现在你们有人就会说这是刻板印象and so it is--now, some of you are saying "That's a stereotype."它的确是刻板印象但这是有统计学意义的And it is a stereotype but it's a statistically robust one。
这节课将会比平时短点This lecture will be a some slightly shorter lecture than usual.首先我想What I first want to do is先结束上节课finish off the discussion有关临床心理学的讨论of clinical psychology from last lecture再稍微探讨一下and then have a little brief discussion一些有关幸福的研究而且很有意思about some very interesting research on happiness.上节课我们讨论了We talked--we ended last lecture with a discussion of some一些治疗精神疾病的历史early--some of the history of treating mental illness从中可以看出这段历史非常恐怖and we saw that it was rather gruesome,并不成功而且有些武断unsuccessful, and arbitrary.如今绝大部分情况已有所改善For the most part, we do better now,诺兰霍西玛博士回顾了一些and Dr. Nolen-Hoeksema reviewed some of the therapies有关抑郁症的治疗with focus on therapies for depression.教材中详细介绍了The textbook talks in针对不同障碍性疾病的治疗方案detail about therapies for different disorders包括精神分裂焦虑性障碍等等including schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, and so on.大家都感兴趣的问题是The question which everyone is interested in"治疗有效吗"is, "Does therapy work?"事实证明这个问题出乎意料地难以解释And this proves to be surprisingly difficult to tell.一部分原因是因为Part of the problem is如果你问接受了治疗的人if you ask people who go into therapy,"治疗后感觉好点了吗""Did you get better after therapy?"绝大部分情况下他们会说好点了for the most part they'll tell you that they did但问题是这种情况可能是but the problem is this could be a statistical byproduct所谓的回归平均值造成的统计产物of what's called "Regression to the mean."所以事情是这样的So, the idea looks like this.这条线反映了你从This line plots how you feel感觉很好到一般到很糟的过程from great through okay to awful它波动不定事实上生活中and it goes up and down and in fact in everyday life你有几天会感觉一般you're going to some days are going to be average,有几天感觉好于平均值some days will be better than average,有几天低于平均值some days worse than average.你可以记录你的周期状况You could plot your semester.你可以每天早上醒来记录You could do a plot every morning when you wake up或者晚上睡觉前记录or every night before you go to bed.把它制成一张图You could put yourself on a graph它会呈现出上下波动的趋势and it'll come out to some sort of wiggly thing.从统计上来讲Statistically,如果某些数据围绕平均值上下波动的话if something is above average or below average那就是趋于平均it's going to trend towards average这是统计学上的必然性just because that's a statistical inevitability.人们何时开始寻求治疗When do people go to therapy?只有当人们感觉非常崩溃时才会去治Well, they go to therapy when they're feeling really crappy.感觉异常糟糕时才会去治They go to therapy when they're feeling unusually bad.即便治疗完全不起作用Even if therapy then has no effect at all,但如果人们情绪起伏波动if it's true that people's moods tend to go up and down而之前感觉非常糟糕after you feel really bad你会觉得是改善了而非恶化you'll probably improve rather than get worse.所以这样的曲线就会出现And so this could happen--the normal flow could happen即便治疗完全不起作用just even if therapy has no effect at all.所以仅仅在治疗后感觉好转And so, simply getting better after therapy这并不能说明问题doesn't tell you anything.你这辈子最糟的那天On the worst day of your life你可以在你们教学楼的楼顶上you could do naked jumping jacks跳十分钟的裸体开合跳on the roof of your college for ten minutes.我保证你第二天会感觉好转I guarantee you your next day would probably be better.这并不能说明裸体开合跳有用That doesn't mean naked jumping jacks are helping you.相反它仅仅说明Rather, it just means过了你这辈子最糟糕的那天that the day after the worst day of your life第二天就不会那么糟了usually is not as bad as the worst day of your life.病情可能会恶化但通常是趋于平均It can get worse, but usually it just trends to average.你要做的是What you've got to do then对比数值相同情况下得到治疗is you have to take people at the same point和没得到治疗who would get treatment and compare them to people或者称之为对照组的两拨人who do not get treatment or what we call a "Control group."比如And this is an example of this.这是抑郁的人So, this is for people who are depressed.数据上都是对等的他们开始接受治疗This is statistically equal. They start off pre-therapy.他们都去接受治疗但在这个例子中They all go for therapy but because in this example治疗师的人数有限there's a limited number of therapists,有些人需要等待some of them are put on a waiting list其他人先接受治疗and others get a therapist.这是任意的随机的It's arbitrary. It's random,这就成了一个很棒的实验which is--which--making it a very good experiment.在这个例子中你能看出And in this example, you could see接受认知训练的人们有所好转those who received cognitive training were better off.他们抑郁程度的得值They had lower depression低于那些不接受治疗的人scores than those that received no therapy at all.总的来说事实上In general, in fact,关于治疗我们能得出一些概括性结论we could make some general conclusions about therapy.治疗很管用Therapy by and large works.接受治疗的人People in treatment do better比没接受治疗的人有改善than those who are not in treatment这不仅仅因为and that's not merely because他们选择去治疗they choose to go into treatment.更重要的是这些身处绝望的人Rather, it's people who are in desperate straits来寻求帮助who seek out help.相对于那些没有得到帮助的人Those who get help are likely to be better off得到帮助的人会好转than those that don't get help.治疗大多都有疗效Therapy for the most part works.我们不能治愈许多疾病We can't cure a lot of things但我们能缓解病情but we can often make them better.治疗需对症下药Different sorts of therapy works best for different problems,抑郁症的治疗就很能说明这点and again, depression proves to be an illustrative example.如果你患有单向抑郁症If you have everyday unipolar depression,就是说你感到很悲伤that is, you feel very sad且伴有并发症and you show other symptoms associated with depression,对你有效的治疗an excellent treatment for you就是将认知行为治疗和抗抑郁药治疗相结合is some combination of cognitive behavioral therapy这样的药物有选择性血清素再摄取抑制剂and possibly antidepressant medications like SSRIs.如果你患有双向抑郁症If you have bipolar depression,认知行为治疗就没用the cognitive behavioral therapy is useless但药物却是最好的选择but medication is your best bet药物对其它不适症状也有效and so on for all of the other disorders.每种症状都有最好的治疗方式Each disorder has some sort of optimal mode of treatment.如果你患有焦虑症If you suffer from an anxiety disorder,认知行为治疗很管用cognitive behavioral therapy can be of help.但如果你是精神分裂症患者If you're a schizophrenic it's就没什么用probably not going to be of much help at all.所以不同症状And so, different disorders对应不同的治疗方式go best with different sorts of therapies.最后治疗师之间水平有别Finally, some therapists do better than others.由于一些不为人知的原因So, for reasons that nobody fully understands,有好的治疗师也有优秀的治疗师there are good therapists and then there are better therapists 还有一些庸医and there are bad therapists.治疗师的疗效之间And there's great individual differences存在巨大的个体差异in the efficacy of an individual therapist.最后抛开治疗方式Finally, putting aside then the difference in therapies和治疗师的差异性and the difference in therapists,治疗总体来说真的有用吗does it make sense to say that therapy, in general, works?答案是有用And the answer is "Yes."很大一部分是由于And this is in large part because of临床心理学上所谓的不确定原因what clinical psychologists describe as "Nonspecific factors."这只是个术语叫法And what this just is a term meaning事实上所有治疗的特性properties that all therapies, or virtually all therapies,都包含两点share and I've listed two of them here.其一是"支持"One of them is "Support."不论你接受的是何种治疗No matter what sort of therapy you're getting involved in,来自于精神分析学家行为治疗师be it a psychoanalyst or a behavior therapist认知治疗师或者精神科医生or a cognitive therapist or a psychiatrist他们给你开药who prescribes you medication or带你做不同练习或者记录病历someone who makes you go through different exercises or keeps a journal,你得到的都是一种支持you have some sense of support,接受同情鼓励指导some acceptance, empathy, encouragement, guidance.你得到是人与人之间接触You have a human touch.有人在一段时间内You have somebody who for真的关心你at least some of the day really cares about you并且希望你好起来有巨大的转变and wants you to be better and that could make a huge difference.你还拥有希望Also you have hope.特别是治疗背后的热情Typically, there's an enthusiasm behind therapy.有一种这也许真的会让我好起来的想法There's a sense that this might really make me get better希望可以极具力量and that hope could be powerful.有时这是安慰剂作用下产生的观点Sometimes this is viewed under the rubric of a placebo effect,你从治疗中得到的收益which is that maybe the benefits you get可能并非是from therapy aren't due to治疗本身带来的anything in particular the therapist does to you而是事情会好转的信念but rather to the belief that things are going to get better,这些所作所为能帮助你something is being done that will help you.这种信念会成为自证预言And this belief can be a self-fulfilling prophecy.{\an8}{\fn方正黑体简体\fs18\b1\bord1\shad1\3c&H2F2F2F&}自证预言意指人会不自觉地按已知的预言来行事最终令预言发生"安慰剂效应"通常不受重视"Placebo effect" Is often used sort of in a dismissive way,"哦这只是安慰剂""Oh, it's just a placebo,"但安慰剂可以很有用But placebos can be powerful从心理学角度来说and even if it's useless from a real point--即使它真的没什么疗效from a psychological theory point of view,即使治疗师只是来回跑或跳舞even if the therapist runs around and dances while you我现在脑中出现的是跳舞I have dancing on my mind now你坐在椅子上看他跳while you sit in the chair and watch him dance;如果你相信跳舞if you believe the dancing能让你好转它就会有用is going to make you better, it may well help.关于治疗我就讲这么多Okay. That's all I'm going to say about therapy.有问题吗Any questions about therapy?这边Yes.很好Fair enough.问题在于The question is the assumption of regression有关退化回平均值的假设有些武断to the mean seems sort of arbitrary因为这取决于平均值是多少because it depends what the mean is.事后你可以得出一个平均值Always after the fact you can apply an average说"瞧这就是平均值"to it and say, "Look. This is the average."但事前如何知道呢but how do you know beforehand?这个问题很好It's a good point.当你讨论退化回平均值的时候When you talk about regression to the mean,其中包含几个假设it adopts certain assumptions.一个假设是The assumption is there你的生活中总有一个平均值really is an average throughout much of your life事情围绕平均值上下波动and things go up and down within that average大多数情况都是如此比如情绪and for the most part that's true for things like mood.对于我们大部分人来说For most of us,都有一个平均情绪we have an average mood有几天过得不好几天过得好and we have bad days and we have good days.很有可能你某天过得不好It's always possible that you have a bad day并从此之后and then from there on in一天不如一天it's just going to go down and down and down但在统计学上最好的情况是but statistically the best bet is即使你某天过得不好if you have a bad day但生活终会回到平均水平you're going to go back up to the mean.这是It's--有时你不需要in some way you don't even从临床角度看have to see it from a clinical point of view.可以给自己画个图You could map it out yourself.画出你的情绪Map out your moods有几天你很抑郁and the days where you're most depressed但迟早会好起来sooner or later you're likely to go up.同样地过完你一生中最好的一天后Similarly, on the happiest day of your life第二天情况就会莫名其妙地下滑odds are the next day you're going to go down没什么好惊讶的and there's nothing magical about this.只是这是在This is just because under the assumption每个人都确实有平均值的假设下that there really is an average in--built into one--each of us.如果人的行为是任意的If human behavior was arbitrary,这条线的走向就是随机的但事实不是it would be like a random walk but it's not.在我们身上似乎有某些设定值We seem to have sort of set points或者我们终将回归的状态and aspects of us that we fall back to令平均值这一概念在心理学上成立that make the idea of a mean a psychologically plausible claim.这边Yes.这个问题很好That's a good question.是的在那个实验里这样说Yes. In that study it's a perfectly good hypothesis很有可能就是否引发焦虑引起猜测that the sort of anxiety of being told,"我知道你来寻求帮助"I see you've come here for help.但我们无法帮你We can't give it to you.恭喜你成为对照组Congratulations. You're a control group"这么说会引起焦虑causes anxiety.其它实验中In other studies the control对照组不知道自己是对照组group doesn't know they are the control group.所以有时你可以做干扰So sometimes you can do an intervention where you say,说"恭喜各位心理学导论课上"Congratulations, everybody in Intro Psych抑郁清单得分低的同学"who did very low on the depression inventory,"这个你们许多人都填了这个清单which many of you filled out,"我们要带你们做点什么""We're going to do something to you."这样其余的人甚至不知道And then the rest of the people don't even know他们没被选上that they haven't been chosen.所以你说得对这个观点很好So, you're right. It's a perfectly good point.得知自己落选会产生负面影响Knowing you're not chosen could have a deleterious effect回应的办法是用不同的方法and the way to respond to that is you have other studies做其它实验that don't use that same method.好Okay.我想用幸福结课I want to end with happiness在心理学上讨论这个有点奇怪and it's a strange thing to talk about in psychology.大多数心理学都关注人类的痛苦Most of psychology focuses on human misery,大部分临床心理学most of clinical psychology.我们这学期讲的心理学大多都是关于There is the psychology we spoke about through most of the semester语言和社交行为on vision and language and social behavior,特别是当人们一提到干预时but typically when people think about interventions想到的就是有人有麻烦what they think about is people having problems我们怎样帮他们好转and then we figure out how to make them better.他们精神分裂抑郁或者焦虑They are schizophrenic, they are depressed or anxious,他们生活过得不好they are just not making it in life,而心理学家试图改善这种情况and psychologists try to figure out how to make things improve.事实上And in fact,我在上节课开始时a lot of the information I gave you给你们的许多信息at the beginning of the lecture last class都是在回顾所有的病症where I reviewed all of the disorders is都取自一部很棒的书in this wonderful book called DSM-IV,书名叫做精神疾病的诊断与统计The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.如果你很希望If you ever really want to get--为别人做诊断If you really want to diagnose people或者了解自己的精神问题and come to have a belief in your own mental instability,读这本书很有帮助browsing through that book is a treat.在精神世界中什么都有可能出问题Everything that can go wrong in mental life从亚斯伯格症候群from Aspergers syndrome to{\an8}{\fn方正黑体简体\fs18\b1\bord1\shad1\3c&H2F2F2F&}亚斯伯格症候群一种精神发展疾患它的临床特征与自闭症有许多相似之处到恋物癖到偏执性精神分裂症fetishes to paranoid schizophrenia is all in都包含在那本书中that wonderful book and--但许多心理学家都只关注but a lot of psychologists have been disturbed那些有问题的人by the focus of our field on taking bad people,崩溃的人伤心的人people who are broken, people who are sad,让他们恢复正常and bringing them up to normal.有人开始质问And they've started to ask心理学能否给予有关人类幸福的提示can psychology give us any insight into human flourishing,如何研究那些how to take people who are--who--how to study people心理上很成功的人who are psychological successes,如何让那些心理感觉一般的人how to take people who are psychologically okay获得更好的体验and make them better.这项运动被称为积极心理学And this is the movement known as "Positive psychology."如今它也有了自己的手册And it has its own handbook now,积极心理学手册The Handbook of Positive Psychology,其中罗列了心理优势长处listing psychological strengths, listing virtues,以及怎样的心理能让我们做最好的自己ways--what psychology tells us about how we can be at our best.有些积极心理学的研究Some of this work in在我看来真不怎么样positive psychology is, in my mind, real crap.很多是新时代陈辞滥调的综合体A lot of it is some combination of new age banalities这些人只为了攫取更多的投资by people who are striving to get more grant funds而出版在《时代》杂志上and end up on Time magazine.另一方面有些理论真的很糟On the other hand--and so, some of it is really bad.你能想象得到这吸引了You could imagine this attracts所有希望能够自我完善的人every self-help huckster you could imagine.还有许多研究非常专业On the other hand, a lot of this work is quite neat,它们很有趣而且很有前途quite interesting and quite promising.我想给你们讲的And what I want to do is tell you是我认为在这场有关幸福的运动中what I think is the most interesting research最有意思的研究from this movement concerning happiness.有很多相关的好书Now, there are a lot of good books on this我想推荐一些书and I'm going to recommend books,在这门课上我很少这么做which I haven't been doing much in this class.马丁·塞里格曼是积极心理学领域的先锋Marty Seligman is the pioneer of positive psychology 他写过一本很棒的书叫《真实的幸福》and he's written an excellent book called Authentic Happiness.乔纳森·海特是位年轻有才的学者Jonathan Haidt is a brilliant young scholar针对厌恶和道德做过很多研究who's done--also done a lot of work on disgust and morality.我们早先谈过的"与死鸡做爱之研究"He did the "Sex with dead chicken study"就是他的作品we discussed earlier.《奈特尔的幸福》一书是我最喜欢的一本This is one of my favorite books by happiness by Nettle,因为它很睿智because it's smart,文笔优美而极其简洁it's beautifully written and it's extremely short.丹·吉尔伯特的书《撞上快乐》And Dan Gilbert's book, Stumbling on Happiness,非常非常有趣is a very, very funny book而且十分睿智and very smart book and现在是纽约时报的最佳畅销书is now on The New York Times bestseller list.所以不缺少有关幸福的书So, there's no shortage of books on happiness.开端是So, the starting point is--许多关于幸福的研究都以一个基本问题开始And a lot of research on happiness starts with a basic question:你有多幸福How happy are you?我们是心理学家所以And we're psychologists so tell us用一个从一到十的量表来表示on a scale of one to ten where五是平均十是最高five is average, ten is super-duper.大多数分值都很高这很有趣The most common answers, interestingly enough, are high.大都是七或八They're seven or eight.课堂上有多少人How many people in this给自己打七或八分room would give themselves a seven or an eight?好多少人是九或十分Okay. How many a nine or a ten?好多少人是十分All right. How many a ten?很好很好非常幸福Good, good, maxed out on happiness.这证明大多数人认为自己很幸福It turns out that most people think that they're pretty happy. {\an8}{\fn方正黑体简体\fs18\b1\bord1\shad1\3c&H2F2F2F&}乌比冈湖效应:总觉得什么都高出平均水平的心理倾向乌比冈湖效应存在与幸福中There's a Lake Wobegon effect with happiness.大多数人认为自己很幸福Most people think they're very happy.事实上是大多数人认为自己In fact, most people think they're happier比大多数人幸福而这是不可能的than most people, which shouldn't really happen.这个问题This question,"一到十打分你多有幸福呢""How happy are you from one to ten?"在世界各地都在追问Has been asked all over the world.结果证明So--and it turns out根据年龄不同有所差别there are slight differences depending on how old you are.一个国家内的不同地区There are slight differences也会产生些许差异depending on your place within a country,比如加利福尼亚和纽约California versus New York.男性和女性在不同问题上There are slight, subtle存在微妙的差异differences between men and women at different points,这有点自相矛盾somewhat paradoxically.虽然女性比男性更易抑郁Although women are more vulnerable to depression than men,但女性整体平均幸福感比男性稍高still on average women are slightly happier than men.不同国家的数据也很有趣The country-by-country data is quite interesting.在一个研究中调查了四十二个国家In one study they looked at forty-two countries.最幸福的是让我看看The happiest--well, let me see.世界上幸福感最高的人The happiest people on earth--首先没有人认为自己不幸福well, first, no country believed they were unhappy,这四十二个国家的人都认为自己很幸福the people in no country of these forty-two countries.你会觉得I mean, you're thinking有些国家实在不适宜居住there are some really bad countries to live in我不知道他们是否验证过and I don't know if they were tested但这四十二个国家中but of these forty-two每个人都说自己算是小康everybody seemed--said they were above average.世界上幸福感最高的国家是谁呢The happiest people on earth?是瑞士他们认为自己非常幸福The Swiss. They think--they're just like--they're just so happy.我昨晚和人探讨这个问题I was talking to people about认为有可能是巧克力带来了幸福感this last night and they suggested chocolate.调查中最不幸福的人The saddest people on this--on the sample?是保加利亚人The sad Bulgarians.你们会关心美国人的情况You are wondering what about Americans.美国人的幸福感较高是7.71Americans are actually pretty happy, 7.71.我们是个幸福的国家充满着幸福的人We are a happy country full of happy people.我将要讲的很多研究Now, I'm going to talk about a lot of research都是基于问人们that's based on the data you get你有多幸福用一到十分来表示when you ask people how happy they are这一调查的数据from a scale of one to ten.但我也要诚实地告诉你们But I'm going to be honest and tell you there are要谨慎对待这些分值reasons to be cautious about these numbers.原因源于几个实验And the reasons come from a couple of experiments.在一个实验中In one experiment研究人员在一个有复印机的they asked people inside a psychology department心理部门向人们提问where there was a photocopy machine.他们走过去They went up to people--人们正准备走到复印机旁the people were going up to the photocopy machine复印文件to make copies and when当他们复印好时问他们they were done making copies they asked them,"你这辈子有多幸福呢""How happy are you with your entire life?"有两组人员参加实验There were two groups.在A组研究人员在复印机上Group A, they put a dime放了一枚一角硬币on top of the photocopy machine人们走到那儿说so people walked over there,"我正要啊一毛钱""I'm going to. Oh, a dime. Well."另一组则没有硬币The other group, no dime.结果证明当被问及"你这辈子有多幸福"时It turned out that when asked "How good is your whole life?"A组整体反应对这辈子的生活group A reported greater life satisfaction overall有更高的满意度in their entire lives.另一个实验中Another study asked people在晴天时比如今天how happy you are with your whole life on sunny days问及人们一生有多幸福like today and people said人们认为在晴天时比雨天更幸福they were happier on sunny days than rainy days.有趣的是你可以通过在问天气怎样前What's interesting is you could make this effect goaway突然提问来消除此类影响if you ask immediately before "How's the weather?"这个实验以电话提问的形式进行These were done by phone interviews.逻辑上来讲看起来是And logically, what seems to go on is如果有人问你天气怎样that if you're asked how's the weather,你说"哦今天外边是晴天"you're "Oh, it's really sunny outside,"然后再被问到and then when people are asked ""你这辈子有多幸福时"How happy are you with your whole life?"人们会想哦people then say, "Oh, okay.我要把晴天的因素考虑在内I'm going to take into来回答这个问题account the sunny-ness when I give my answer.那么幸福是什么Okay. So, what is happiness?人们回答这类问题时What are people rating when衡量的是什么they're answering these sort of questions?这个问题非常难回答And this is an extraordinarily difficult question你可以开个研讨会来讨论它and one could devote a seminar to discussing it,但从进化的角度能得到一个简单的答案but one simple answer from an evolutionary point of view不要想"什么是幸福"is that happiness--forget about "What is happiness?"而是追问"幸福是为了什么"Ask "What's happiness for?"就像有人问你语言是为了什么just like we've asked what language is for,或者笑是为了什么or what laughter is for,饥饿和欲望是为了什么一样or what hunger or lust is for.幸福是为了什么What's happiness for?一个回答是And one answer is happiness幸福是我们追求的一种目标状态is a goal state that we've evolved to pursue.是需求被满足的信号It's a signal that our needs have been satisfied.幸福是驱使我们向前的动力Happiness is the carrot we're running towards让我们关心自己的生活that makes us take care of our lives.我们渴望幸福食物就是一个例子We want to be happy. An example of this is food.饿的时候就会感觉不快乐You're not very happy if you're starving.你希望吃饱希望得到满足You want to be satiated, you want to be satisfied,所以就会寻找食物填饱肚子so you seek out food to fill your belly.一旦做到就很开心Once you've done it, you're happy.史蒂文·平克在一篇文章中Steven Pinker summarizes总结道幸福的关键而且引起了很大共鸣the keys to happiness in a nicely evocative passage: "当我们健康吃得好"We are happier when we are healthy, well-fed,感觉舒适安全日子蒸蒸日上有知识comfortable, safe, prosperous, knowledgeable,受人尊敬有爱人疼爱时感觉更幸福"respected, non-celibate, in love."有多少人现在拥有全部这些How many people here have got all of those right now?别这样一部分人Oh, come on. Some people.很奇怪说自己是十分的Oddly enough, the person who没举手said he was a ten didn't--does not raise his hand.这就是Okay. So this is-你所有的需求得到满足And this makes out--you get all your needs satisfied,填饱肚子有人爱你your belly is full, people love you,有规律的性生活you're getting sex regularly,聪明富有快乐you're smart, you're rich, you're happy,但平克指出没那么简单but as Pinker points out it's not that simple.问题是这样的Here's the problem.你作为本世纪的美国人You, Americans in this century,比历史上的其他人you are now healthier,都更健康吃得更好等等better fed and so on than just about anyone in history但你并非更幸福but you're not happier.这就怪了That's the puzzle.特别是探究幸福的研究In particular, these studies asking about happiness已经开展了很长时间have been around for a long time.人们在20世纪50年代时挣不了多少钱People in the 1950s did not make as much money,吃得也没现在好活得没现在长did not eat as well, did not live as long,得更多的病suffered from more diseases,在各种方面都不如现在were more vulnerable in a hundred different ways,但他们依然和你们一样幸福yet they were--are as happy as you are now.你们的父母和你们一样幸福You are as happy as your parents你们的祖父母又和他们一样幸福were and they were as happy as your grandparents.另外在贫穷国家Moreover, in poor countries人们没有地方住people don't have the shelter,没有知识保护安全the knowledge, the protection, the safety, yet,大部分时候for the most part,一个国家的富裕程度there's not a huge effect on how rich a country is对其居民的幸福程度没有太大影响and--on how happy the people are.况且对于基本需求得到满足的人来说Furthermore, there are great individual differences个体之间的幸福感差别也很大in happiness among people whose basic needs are met.大多数情况下For the most part,课堂上的每个人都有吃有住也很安全everybody in this room is fed and sheltered and safe.有些人很富有有些人很有学识Some of you are prosperous, some of you are knowledgeable,有些人有恋人a couple non-celibate,即便如此and-- but even among that group你们的幸福感也不同you vary in your happiness,这是个令人迷惑的问题and that's kind of a puzzle.要解释这个疑问And to explain the puzzle需要讨论几个有关幸福令人吃惊的事实we need to talk about a few surprising facts about happiness我会讲三个事实and I'll present three of them.第一个是幸福不像你想的那么变幻无常The first is happiness doesn't change as much as you think.特别是幸福与发生的事没有太大联系In particular, happiness is not as sensitive to what happens--你周围环境发的事情对幸福感的影响your happiness is not as sensitive to。
我要非常高兴的向你们介绍I am extremely pleased to introduce本学期第四位也是最后一位客座教授the fourth and final guest lecture of the semester苏珊·诺伦·霍克苏玛教授Professor Susan Nolen-Hoeksema.苏珊是心理系的教授Susan is a professor in the Department of Psychology也是研究生院的院长and the Director of Graduate Studies.她在临床心理学界非常有名She is well known for her work in clinical psychology特别是她所做的关于抑郁症的研究and especially her research in depression,抑郁症患者的本质以及致病原因the nature and causes of people with depression,她特别关注忧郁症的性别差异with special focus on sex differences in depression.她所做的几乎涵盖了人能做的所有事She basically does everything someone can do.她是一个著名的科学家获过许多奖项She is a noted scientist, winning many awards在科学期刊上发表了许多论文and publishing massive amounts of work in scientific journals.她是获奖教师并且在我印象里She is an award-winning teacher and has authored what,在她的领域里是最好的教科书是她写的in my mind, is the very best textbook in her area.她同时也是著名的作家And she's a noted popular writer who has written popular她的著作把临床心理学的知识和理论and accessible books bringing the message and ideas化为通俗易懂令人喜闻乐见的书籍and theories of clinical psychology to the broader public.在我们欢迎她之前我还有最后一件事要说The only other thing I'll mention before we welcome her is that下个学期她将讲授临床心理学she's going to teach next year her course in clinical psychology, 这是一门有极高声望又非常有意思的课which has a superb reputation as an extremely interesting course.如果你对今天所讲的内容感兴趣If you are interested in what you hear today并且想了解更多那么你应该选那门课and you want to learn more about it, that's the course you should take.现在让我们欢迎苏珊·诺伦·霍克苏玛So, let's please welcome Dr. Susan Nolen-Hoeksema. 保罗谢谢你大家听得见我说话么Thank you Paul can everybody hear me okay? Okay.今天我要给大家简略的讲述So, what I want to do today is to give you a very brief overview of 现代临床心理学是怎么看待心理疾病how modern clinical psychology looks at mental disorders,关于心理疾病成因的研究some of the ways we think about what constitutes a mental disorder, 心理疾病中出现的一些特征some of the characteristics that kind of cut across mental disorders, 然后我会举几个情感障碍的例子and then I'm going to use the case of mood disorders,就是抑郁症我们现在叫双相障碍that is depression and what is now called bipolar disorder,对你们来说更熟悉叫法是躁郁症what you may know more popularly as manic-depression,通过这些例子来说明我们是怎么研究特定心理疾病的as sort of examples of how we think about a particular set of disorders以及我们的一些研究方法和理论and some of the ways we go about不同的心理疾病有不同的理论researching the theories -- different theories for the disorders当今一些著名的治疗心理疾病的方法and some of the prominent treatments for disorders these days. Okay?我会都讲一些So, I'm going to do both a fair amount of lecturing,也会给你们看很多短片and then I've got lots of video clips to show you as well.所以我将会一直走动变换讲课的位置So, I'm going to be roaming around and changing venueshere fairly often.临床心理学中最早也是最基础的问题是So, the first and most fundamental question in clinical psychology is,"什么是异常" 我们怎么界定正常"What is abnormality?" Where do we draw the line between normal,健康典型行为healthy, typical behavior怎么界定不正常非典型异常and what we might want to call abnormal, atypical, deviant,不健康和适应不良的精神问题unhealthy, maladaptive mental problems?我们似乎对不正常有一种直觉We tend to have an intuitive sense of what we mean by abnormality,我们倾向于认为很多人到我的课上说and we'd like to believe--a lot of people who come into my course say,"你们当然知道是你们解决这个问题的"Well, of course, you know, you guys have figured it out. 你们知道界限在哪里你们有评判标准You know where to draw the line you have criteria.你们还可以验血对吧这可以判断我是否有抑郁症You have blood tests, right? that tell me whether I have depression精神分裂症或者其他我读到过的疾病"or schizophrenia or one of the things I've read about".但事实上我们不能Well, the reality is that we don't.首先没有任何生物性测试First of all, there is no biological test for any of可以化验出已知的这些精神疾病the known mental disorders right now.我们有的是一些行为的判断标准And instead what we have is a set of behavioral criteria for来诊断不同的精神疾病how to diagnose different mental disorders.我说的行为判断标准是指And what I mean by behavioral criteria is求诊者陈述的一系列的症状a set of symptoms that the person reports to you about他们的感觉和想法以及我们how they feel, how they think, and a set of observations对他们的行为是否典型或者异常的观察about their behavior and how typical or atypical it is.然后再把And you take the sort of set of这一系列求诊者陈述的或展示的特征与现有的symptoms the person shows or reports, and you match them up against不同精神疾病的判断标准做比对the existing criteria for different mental disorders.这就会是一个比较主观的诊断And then it comes down to a fairly subjective judgment call用来判断求诊人是否满足这些判断标准about whether the person meets the criteria or not.不幸的是这些诊断因为太主观Unfortunately, these judgment calls, because they are so subjective,会受到很多因素所影响can be influenced by a lot of factors.我们今天没有机会讲太多这个内容And we won't have a chance to go into these too much today,只会着重讲一部分第一个是社会准则but just to highlight a few of them the first is social norms.你是否被标上精神疾病或问题的标签Whether you get labeled as having a mental disorder or a problem很大程度上是由你所在的社会或文化准则决定的depends very heavily on what your social or cultural norms are.穆斯林文化里的女人会戴面纱So, a woman wearing a veil in a Muslim community or culturewould be seen这是很典型的甚至是被规定的行为as typical, even prescribed, behavior.但在非穆斯林文化中如果女人戴面纱Whereas a woman wearing a veil in a non-Muslim culture,特别是当今especially until fairly recently, was often looked upon as会被认为是很不正常的行为判断正常或不正常的very atypical or abnormal behavior. The second kind of thing第二个因素that influences whether something is called normal or abnormal are是目标人物的某些特征certain characteristics of the target person.我这里着重强调的是性别In particular, I've highlighted here, gender.一个特定的行为不正常的程度Whether you're a man or you're a woman really确实会受到你是男性还是女性的影响influences how unusual a certain behavior is.哭是一个很好的例子So, crying is a good example.我们的文化里男性哭是比较不正常的事情A man crying in our culture is seen as fairly unusual, 而女性哭泣就显得不那么奇怪了whereas a woman crying is seen as much less unusual.另一方面女性殴打他人是很奇怪的行为On the other hand, a woman beating up someone is taken as quite不过对男性来说就不那么奇怪unusual behavior where it's less unusual for a man.所以我们有性别刻板印象对于什么是可接受的行为有性别差异So, we have gender stereotypes, gender roles for what is acceptable behavior,我们对一件事是正常或不正常的判断and our judgments as to whether something is normal or abnormal是受性别角色影响的影响是否会被标上不正常的标签的get influenced by those gender roles. And the third thing that can influence第三个因素是情境whether something is labeled abnormal or not is the context.我要举一个"偏执狂"的例子And here I'm giving you the example of "paranoia".如果你很多疑又过分警惕在巴格达寻找可能的威胁If you're paranoid and hyper-vigilant, looking for threat in downtown Baghdad,现在看起来是可以接受的行为that's considered very adaptive behavior these days because因为那可以帮助你免于受到伤害或杀害it could prevent you from getting hurt or killed.但如果你住在中康涅狄格州安静的小农场Whereas, if you're in a quiet little farm in Central Connecticut,却还是非常多疑总觉得有人being extremely paranoid and believing there's someone躲在墙角要枪杀你who's going to shoot you around the corner is not considered这就不会被认为是正常的行为了as normal or as acceptable or adaptive behavior.所以某些特别行为出现的情境So, the context in which you exhibit a particular behavior also会很大程度上影响我们的归类是正常还是不正常can heavily influence whether it gets labeled by others as normal or abnormal.在临床心理学领域我们有很多不同的方法In the field of clinical psychology we have a number of different ways,很多探索方法来判断kind of heuristics that we use to label things什么是不正常不健康或有问题的as abnormal or unhealthy or troubling.其中有三个特征就是我们常常说得3DAnd three of these characteristics are what we often call the three Ds:痛苦机能失调异常让自己或他人非常痛苦的行为distress, dysfunction, and deviance. So, behaviors that cause the individual常常会被贴上不正常或不健康的标签or others significant distress often get labeled as abnormal or unhealthy.抑郁是一个最好的例子我们以后会谈到Depression is a prime example, as we'll see when we talk about它的特征一种非常糟糕的状态the characteristics of it. It's a miserable state of being;不开心难过你可能会觉得非常糟糕想要自杀you're unhappy, you're sad, you may even feel so badly you want to kill yourself.这种非常高水平的痛苦And that very, very high level of distress是它被归为精神疾病的一部分原因is part of the reason why it's labeled as a mental disorder.其他的精神疾病不会引起个体痛苦Other mental disorders don't cause the individual distress,但可能会引起他人的痛苦but they may cause other people distress.举一个例子"反社会人格障碍"So, one example of this is something called "antisocial personality disorder,"就是指一个人无视他人的权利where the individual has no regard for the rights of other people, 毫不犹豫的偷窃或者伤害其他人has no hesitation to steal or--steal from or hurt other people,对别人的感受没有同理心或同情心has no empathy or sympathy for other people's feelings由此可能给别人带来很多的痛苦折磨and so can inflict a lot of harm on other people但自己却对所作所为完全无痛苦and has absolutely no distress over this whatsoever.这类行为导致了他人的痛苦But this behavior causes other people distress,这是归为and that's one of the reasons why that's不正常行为或是精神疾病的原因之一labeled an abnormal behavior or a mental health problem. 第二个一般标准是"机能失调"The second general criterion is "dysfunction".如果一系列的行为让人不能完成日常生活If a set of behaviors prevents the person from functioning in daily life,这就有可能被归为不正常then it might be labeled as abnormal或者会被归为有心理问题or might end up being labeled as a mental health problem.抑郁症又是一个好例子Again, depression is a good example.抑郁的人常常会变得完全不能正常生活People who are depressed often become completely non-functional.他们无法起床去上课不能工作They can't get up and go to class; they can't go to work;也没有办法和朋友交流they can't interact with their friends;完全与世隔绝没有社交they withdraw and become totally isolated socially.他们可能会丢了工作因不及格而退学So, they might lose their job; they might flunk out of school.功能的完全衰退是我们把抑郁症列为And this complete decline in functioning is one of the major reasons that最衰弱的精神疾病之一的主要原因we consider depression one of the most debilitating disorders.最后是"异常" 行为和感觉非常的不寻常And then finally, "deviance," the behaviors or feelings are highly unusual.这可能是这三点里争议最大的一项This is probably the most controversial of the three.因为它很大程度上受社会准则的影响Because it weighs, it is so heavily influenced by thesocial norms.在一种文化里的异常在另一种文化里就不是What's deviant in one culture is not deviant in another culture.但假如某些行为在某种文化里完全无法But if a set of behaviors is completely被接受极不寻常它们更有可能unacceptable to a culture, highly unusual, they're more likely to end up被归为不正常那么我们怎么整合这三点呢getting labeled as abnormal. Okay. So, how do we pull this all together?现今美国临床心理学和精神病学领域Well, these days the manual for making diagnoses in clinical psychology用来诊断的手册叫作and psychiatry in the United States is called《精神疾病诊断和统计手册》the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual or the DSM,现在是第四版这本书我认为五十年代就有了and it's in its fourth revision. It's been around since the, I believe the '50s,五六十年代最早的版本是很主观的and the early editions in the '50s and '60s were highly subjective建立在弗洛伊德理论的基础上and based on Freudian theory.但在1980年之后经过努力But since 1980 there's been real effort to make the criteria修正后的标准更加的客观much more objective, to make the set of behaviors使诊断所必须的行为特征和观察数据or observations that are required to diagnose someone变成可观察变成可以从他人身上看到的be things that are observable, that you can see in other people ,可以有依据地报告信息临床医生之间that they can report on reliably, and that one clinician的诊断就可以达成一致and another clinician will agree upon.DSM给出了一系列症状其中包括诊断所必须的症状So, the DSM gives lists of symptoms with the required symptoms for a diagnosis,还包括了诊断所需的症状数量the number of symptoms that have to be present,另外痛苦机能失调和异常这些概念and the notions of deviation, dysfunction也被糅合进判断标准and distress are built into these criteria.在我们讲到具体情感障碍的时候And I'm going to give you a couple of examples of these criteria我会给你们举几个例子来解释判断标准when we talk about the specific types of mood disorder. 我将要用情感障碍来举例说明So as I said, I'm going to use mood disorders as kind of a case example here我们是怎么诊断和理解精神疾病的of how we go about diagnosing and understanding psychopathology,我还想顺便提一句but I also just want to impart some information because情感障碍是最常见的精神疾病之一mood disorders are one of the most common problems that people face.四分之一的女性As many as one in four women will have在生命中都会经历严重的抑郁阶段an episode of serious depression at some time in her life,百分之十三的男性会在生命中经历严重的抑郁and about 13% of men will have an episode of serious depression in their lives.所以这是人们遇到的极其常见的心理问题So, these are extremely common kinds of problems特别是在你们这个年纪that people experience, particularly at your age.大学时代是发病的高峰期The college years are one of the peak times of onset,尤其是抑郁症首次发病的高峰first onset, of depression in particular.同时也是双相障碍或躁郁症的发病高峰期集中在青少年晚期And also, for bipolar disorder, or manic-depression, the late adolescent,二十岁出头early 20s are the peak onset times for these disorders as well.情感障碍被分成单相抑郁症So, the mood disorders divide into what's called unipolar depression disorders,就是只有抑郁症的症状以及双相障碍which is depression only and then bipolar disorders就是病人在抑郁和狂躁间反复where the person cycles between depression and mania.这里是DSM对重性抑郁症的判断标准And here are the DSM criteria for major depression,抑郁症中最严重的形式之一我前面提到过DSM中包括了one of the most severe forms of depression. And as I said, the DSM sets up these相对可以观察到的判断标准症状符合的数量relatively observable criteria and how many you have to have为了进行诊断这些症状必须是目前的and what absolutely has to be present in order to get the diagnosis.DSM中重性抑郁症的第一个标准是So, the first criterion in the DSM for major depression个体在日常生活中出现悲伤is that the individual has to either show sadness兴趣减弱或快乐减少or a diminished interest or pleasure in their usual activities,也就是快感缺失的症状要满足第一条标准which is referred to as anhedonia. So, you have to have one你得有上述症状中的某一种or the other of these to sort of pass the first criterion.你可能觉得很悲伤忧郁So, you might say that you feel sad and blue或者感到抑郁and just--or actually say you feel depressed.有些人这种感受很强烈Some people feel those feelings very strongly.有些人并不是那么悲伤或忧郁Other people don't really feel so sad or blue,但他们会说没什么东西能引起他们的兴趣了but what they'll say is that nothing interests them anymore.就好像感情从他们生活中被抽走了It's like the emotion has been sucked out of their life altogether.他们在活动中感觉不到他们以前感受到的快乐They don't have any fun doing the activities they used to do before.他们不想和朋友出去玩They don't want to hang with their friends.也不在意吃的东西They just--they don't care about eating.没什么感到正确感到很好Just nothing feels right, feels good, anymore.除了悲伤和快感缺失之外And then the individual has to have four of the--每个个体至少要有四种下述特征at least four of the following symptoms in addition to sadness or anhedonia.第一他们出现显著的体重或食欲变化First, they can show significant weight or appetite change. 可能是胃口完全消失So, you may completely lose your interest in eating体重锐减或者有的人暴饮暴食and lose a lot of weight, or some people go on eating binges.我有一个非常好的朋友抑郁了一年I had a very good friend who was depressed for about a year, 她的体重增加了五十磅and she gained fifty pounds because she would just eat.她暴饮暴食特别是晚上She would binge eat, especially at night.还有睡眠障碍失眠就是睡不着觉There are sleep disturbances--insomnia, which is having trouble sleeping,或者嗜睡症就是睡不醒or hypersomnia, which is sleeping all the time.有一种特别的失眠症是抑郁症中很有可能出现的There's a particular form of insomnia that's especially likely in depression你晚上可以入睡但是每天早晨三点或四点where you can go to sleep at night, but then you wake up at about three就醒来了然后你就再也睡不着了or four in the morning every night and you can't go back to sleep at all.剩下来的夜晚就一直醒着You're just up for the rest of the night.另外有些人每天都想睡觉But other people want to sleep all day long,我想给你们看一个一分钟短片and in the clip I'm going to show you in just a minute那里面有一位女士谈到自己每天睡the woman talks about sleeping twenty,二十到二十二小时起床吃一点东西twenty-two hours a day, getting up, eating a little bit,然后再回去睡但她依然觉得精疲力尽and then going back to bed because she was exhausted still.第三个评判标准是精神运动性阻滞或焦虑The third criterion is psychomotor retardation or agitation.运动性阻滞更常见一些这就是指The retardation is much more common, and what this means is that sort of一个人的行动整体变慢了everything about the person's movement is slowed down.他们走路变慢反应有时也变慢了They'll walk more slowly. Their reaction times will be slowed down.因为他们行动变得迟缓And because they're so much more slow moving,抑郁症病人更容易发生意外depressed people are often more prone to accidents.在他们开车或者过马路时They just can't react as quickly as they need to一辆车突然朝他们开来when they're driving or when they're crossing the road他们做不到反应迅速这样就很容易发生意外and a car is coming at them suddenly. So, they get into more accidents.他们说话的速度也会变慢他们讲话非常慢And their speech may be slowed down. They may talk very, very slowly感觉好像他们要花极大的力量and it's as though it just takes a tremendous amount of说出一句很普通的话energy to get even a common sentence out.还有一小部分人变得焦躁而不是变慢 A much more, much smaller number of people get agitated instead of slow down.他们精力过旺感到坐立难安They may be hyper and just feel like they can't sit still不过焦躁比运动性迟缓更罕见些and such, but the agitation is much more rare than the retardation.人们会觉得很累疲劳好像他们没有一点儿能量People feel really tired, fatigued and like they have absolutely no energy.他们起不了床也不能动They can't get up and can't get moving.就像我说的他们可能一直想睡觉As I said, they may want to just sleep all of the time.第五条是感觉自己无用过分的自责Number five is feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt.可能觉得每件事都是他们的过错They may feel as though everything is their fault,这种自责感和无价值感甚至变成一种病态and the guilt feelings or sense of worthlessness can even get psychotic.与现实失去联系They can lose touch with reality.当一个人的抑郁与现实失去联系When a person loses touch with reality when they're depressed, 一般有一个典型的抑郁主题it typically has really depressing themes.他们可能觉得自己是撒旦然后他们觉得必须自杀They may believe that they are Satan and that they have to commit suicide因为自己给世界带来了罪恶because they're inflicting evil on the world.他们会觉得偶然的事件是他们的过错They may believe as though random events are their fault, 比方说他们觉得自己造成了刚发生的水灾you know, that a flood that just happened somehow they caused.无价值感自责的感觉So, the feelings of worthlessness and guilt完全脱离了现实是病态的can get completely out of touch with reality, psychotic.通常他们只是不现实他们的自我评价很低More commonly, they're just unrealistic. They're negative self-esteem,很看不起自己感觉自己很笨很没有用不好看又糟糕just being down on yourself, feeling stupid and worthless and ugly and bad.第六点是注意力下降或无判断力Number six is diminished ability to concentrate or indecisiveness.当你抑郁的时候集中注意力是很难的When you are depressed it's really hard to pay attention. 一遍一遍的读文章却依然不知所云You'll read a passage over and over again and you just can't process it at all.你在课上不能集中注意力所以去上课也没有什么用You can't concentrate on a lecture so going to class is just useless.你得给自己的论文想一个主题You have to make a decision about what a paper topic is,但这却像是世界上最艰巨的任务and it just seems like the most monumental thing on earth.你不知道怎么做决定也不知怎么思考You just can't decide anything, you can't think anything; 你的脑中一片混沌不知所措your thoughts are completely clouded and overwhelmed.接着就是自杀的想法或行动And then suicidal ideation or behavior;这是指你开始考虑自杀考虑死亡it means you think about committing suicide, you think about dying.其中一小部分人确实付诸实践了And a subset of people actually take action to他们自残或者自杀try to hurt themselves or kill themselves.不过自杀的念头Now, it should be said that suicidal thoughts和想法不仅仅在抑郁症中会出现and behavior don't only happen in depression.事实上自杀在每一种精神疾病中都会出现They actually happen in all types of psychopathology,不过在抑郁症中比较普遍but they're particularly common in depression.综上你至少要有So, you have to have at least one--four of其中四种症状加上悲伤或快感缺失those symptoms plus sadness or anhedonia,这些症状并不是你某一天非常不开心and these symptoms--it can't just be a bad day that you're having.如果要做诊断这些症状必须是These symptoms have to be present persistently持续出现至少两周以上for at least two weeks to get the diagnosis.事实是绝大多数的重性抑郁症的周期Now, truth be told, most episodes of major depression的持续时间都超过两周actually last a lot longer than two weeks.实际上周期的平均时长In fact, the average length of an episode,如果不接受治疗的话至少是六个月if it's not treated, is at least six months.也就是说人们长时间的处于糟糕的状态So, people stay this miserable for a very long period of time,不过DSM中的最低标准是两周but the minimum criterion in the DSM is at least two weeks.所以我现在要展示给你们的是So, what I want to do is to just show you一个有过很多个抑郁周期的女士的短片a short clip of a woman who has had a lot of episodes of depression.幸运的是她现在没有在抑郁中Fortunately, at the moment she's not in an episode.但她可以很清晰的描述But she can speak very articulately about抑郁周期中的感觉what it's like to be in the midst of an episode以及她有过的一些显著的症状and some of the significant symptoms that she had.我想简评一下她提到的一些事情Okay There are couple of things she talks about that I just want to comment on.日常的悲伤心情以及One is this differentiation between everyday sad mood我们都体验过的抑郁同她体验过的令人衰弱的巨大的抑郁and the kind of depressions we all experience and the kind of debilitating,两者之间的区别overwhelming depression that she experiences.沮丧确实有连续性的And it is true that there is this continuum from从考试没考好getting bummed out because you didn't do well on a test或者你和男朋友女朋友分手之类or because you broke up with a boyfriend or girlfriend或沮丧的完全不能正常生活or something like this and being completely not functional,生活单调就像那位女士每次抑郁时一样vegetative, the way that this woman becomes whenever she gets depressed.如果我们能知道And it would be nice if we were really sure那些日常的抑郁和真正的精神疾病where the cutoff was between those normal everyday depressions之间的界限就好了and what's really a disorder.但现实是我们没有这种界限But the reality is we don't really have real clear demarcation lines. 有很多人的抑郁症是比塔拉There are a lot of people who have more moderate forms of depression提到的症状更温和的但也足够被确诊than Tara here talks about but who still would qualify for a diagnosis他们也在饱受疾病折磨我不想让你们有错觉and are still suffering and impaireds. So, I don't want you to get the sense觉得如果你们没有像塔拉一样that if you don't have the kind of horrible version具有极其严重的抑郁症状on the extreme end of the continuum of depression that Tara has,那你们就没事了那是不对的then there's nothing wrong with you, because that's not the case.那些行动确实变缓或者因为非常不开心而导致People who are really slowed down, whom their functioning is interfered with--无法正常作息或是可以通过帮助they're just really unhappy with life--恢复正常的人也需要引起注意have problems that can be helped and do need attention.这可能是一种更温和的抑郁症形式And it is the case that much more moderate forms of depression但不经治疗可能转变成为更严重的形式can morph into more serious forms if they're left untreated.这就是连续性So, there is this continuum.有关她的短片我想说的另外一点是The other things I wanted to comment on that she talks about一开始的时候她强迫自己early on in this piece is the fact that she hauls herself up坚持尽管她感到非常抑郁and goes through her day, even when she's feeling really, really depressed.这也是很多抑郁的人有的特征And there is this characteristic of a lot of depressed people我称作"带伤前进"that I call the "walking wounded".他们强迫自己变得正常They just haul themselves through the day trying to act normal,努力让他人看不出他们有任何问题trying not to let anybody know that there's anything wrong with them,尝试继续他们的学业和工作trying to keep up with their schoolwork or their employment.但是他们情况很糟糕But they're miserable and they're not functioning at the level不能达到的正常水平这是很普遍的that they're capable of and such. And that's something that's very, very common,一部分是因为and it's in part because people don't feel人们不觉得他们需要接受治疗as though they should have to get treatment或者他们觉得接受治疗或为抑郁症寻找帮助都是很羞耻的or they're ashamed of getting treatment or seeking help for depression.所以他们就这么撑着有时候长达数年And so, they just keep going on and going on, sometimes for years,处在这种糟糕的状态下有时他们in a very sorry state before--sometimes they just--会在他们必须接受帮助的时候在那一刻崩溃they end up actually falling apart to the point where they have to get help.我之前提到过的另一个情感障碍是双相障碍The other category of mood disorders that I mentioned is bipolar disorders.就像我说得双相障碍包括了抑郁症的症状和周期And as I said, bipolar disorder involves symptoms or periods of depression但也有一段与抑郁截然相反的周期but then also distinct periods of the opposite of depression, 就是我们说的"狂躁症" 那么病人在which we call "mania". So, the person cycles back and forth意志消沉的抑郁症和狂躁症的两个状态中反复between debilitating depressions and manic episodes.我来描述一下狂躁期的特征So, let me describe manic episodes to you now.第一个特征不是感觉消沉So, the first criterion is that instead of feeling down,忧郁或者抑郁相反的病人感受到blue or depressed the person has an abnormally不正常的长期兴奋开朗或易怒的情绪and persistently elevated expansive or irritable mood这并不是某一天你赢了一个奖项that isn't just, again, a good day because you won a prize得了A的那种感觉而是不寻常的亢奋or got an "A," but rather, it's this unusually positive,。
Dialogue: 0,0:00:12.33,0:00:17.89, 在以后的两节课里我们将讨论有关社会心理学的内容This is going to begin a two-lecture sequence on social psychology onDialogue: 0,0:00:17.89,0:00:22.27, 有关我们如何看待自己如何看待看待他人how we think about ourselves, how we think about other people,Dialogue: 0,0:00:22.27,0:00:24.56, 如何看待其他群体的成员how we think about other groups of people.Dialogue: 0,0:00:27.04,0:00:29.23, 我们已经讨论过很多人类心理能力We've talked a lot about the capacitiesDialogue: 0,0:00:29.23,0:00:32.69, 其中一些能力包括of the human mind and some of these capacitiesDialogue: 0,0:00:32.69,0:00:37.43, 适应和处理物质世界的involve adapting and dealing with the material world.Dialogue: 0,0:00:37.43,0:00:42.39, 因此我们必须选择食物必须在世界中漫游So, we have to choose foods, we have to navigate around the world,Dialogue: 0,0:00:42.39,0:00:44.02, 必须识别物体we have to recognize objects,Dialogue: 0,0:00:44.02,0:00:49.32, 必须能够理解自然界的相互作用we have to be able to understand physical interactions.Dialogue: 0,0:00:49.32,0:00:51.87, 但可能我们进化成的心理But probably the most interesting aspect ofDialogue: 0,0:00:51.87,0:00:57.31, 最有趣的方面是我们能够理解他人与他人打交道our evolved minds is our capacity to understand and deal with other people.Dialogue: 0,0:00:57.31,0:01:03.11, 我们对他人如何工作非常感兴趣We are intensely interested in how other people work.Dialogue: 0,0:01:03.11,0:01:10.06, 二零零五年有个大新闻The story that was a dominant news story in 2005 was this.Dialogue: 0,0:01:10.28,0:01:14.03, 你们中的一些人那些看不到屏幕的人And some of you--this--for those of you who aren't seeing the screen,Dialogue: 0,0:01:14.03,0:01:18.26, 这是有关詹妮弗·安妮丝顿和布拉德·皮特的离婚案is the separation of Jennifer Aniston and Brad Pitt.Dialogue: 0,0:01:18.69,0:01:21.79, 我还记得我第一次听说这事是在什么地方I remember where I was when I first heard about this.Dialogue: 0,0:01:24.83,0:01:30.40, 这非常有趣就是记得作为心理学家And it's an interesting sight. Just remember--stepping back. As psychologistsDialogue: 0,0:01:30.40,0:01:33.59, 我们必须对肯定的事情提出疑问我们要质疑所谓的常识we have to question the natural. We have to take thingsDialogue: 0,0:01:33.59,0:01:38.58, 并研究它们刚刚发生的事情是that are commonsense and explore them. And one thing which just happens is,Dialogue: 0,0:01:38.58,0:01:40.06, 我们为这些事情所着迷we're fascinated by this stuff. Dialogue: 0,0:01:40.06,0:01:42.80, 我们对名人的生活感兴趣We're fascinated by the lives of celebrities.Dialogue: 0,0:01:42.80,0:01:45.77, 我们对他人的社会生活非常感兴趣We're fascinated by the social lives of other people.Dialogue: 0,0:01:45.77,0:01:50.50, 为什么会这样呢这是个有趣的问题And it's an interesting question to ask why.Dialogue: 0,0:01:51.34,0:01:52.86, 这是我将在之后两节课中And this is one of the questions Dialogue: 0,0:01:52.86,0:01:56.45, 会讲到的问题之一which I'm going to deal with in the next couple of lecturesDialogue: 0,0:01:56.45,0:01:59.95, 但在我开始讲社会心理学理论之前but before I get to the theory of social psychologyDialogue: 0,0:01:59.95,0:02:02.67, 我想先讨论一项个体差异I want to talk about an individual difference.Dialogue: 0,0:02:02.67,0:02:07.07, 几周前我们用了一节课的时间So, we devoted a lecture early on--of a couple of weeks ago,Dialogue: 0,0:02:07.07,0:02:12.17, 讲述人与人之间智力和人格上的个体差异to individual differences across people in intelligence and personality.Dialogue: 0,0:02:12.17,0:02:17.06, 我想讲有关人在社会属性方面的差异I want to talk a little bit about an individual difference in our social naturesDialogue: 0,0:02:17.06,0:02:20.34, 然后给大家做个测验and then I want people to do a test that will exploreDialogue: 0,0:02:20.34,0:02:23.03, 看看你们处于什么位置where you stand on a continuum. Dialogue: 0,0:02:23.03,0:02:26.46, 你面前放着的那张纸就是测验That test is the piece of paper you have in front of you.Dialogue: 0,0:02:26.46,0:02:28.94, 没有拿到的同学请举手Anybody who doesn't have it please raise your handDialogue: 0,0:02:28.94,0:02:30.92, 助教会发给你and one of the teaching fellows will bring it to you.Dialogue: 0,0:02:30.92,0:02:35.00, 不要着急你现在还不知道怎么做Y ou don't know what to do yet with it so don't worry.Dialogue: 0,0:02:35.00,0:02:37.99, 这个测试是马尔科姆·格拉德威尔The test was developed actually by Malcolm GladwellDialogue: 0,0:02:37.99,0:02:43.49, 他是一位科普作家在他著作《引爆流行》中开发的who is a science writer-- in his wonderful book The Tipping Point.Dialogue: 0,0:02:43.49,0:02:45.41, 格拉德威尔在测验介绍中And as he introduces the test, Dialogue: 0,0:02:45.41,0:02:50.70, 他详述了斯坦利·米尔格拉姆的另一个实验Gladwell recounts another experiment done by Stanley Milgram,Dialogue: 0,0:02:50.70,0:02:55.11, 当然米尔格拉姆因服从实验闻名但他也做了很多有趣的事of course famous for his obedience work but he did a lot of interesting things.Dialogue: 0,0:02:55.11,0:03:03.33, 在一项经典实验中他将包裹给从内布拉斯加州的奥马哈人中And one classic study he did was he gave a package to 160 people randomly chosen Dialogue: 0,0:03:03.33,0:03:11.29, 随机挑选的一百六十人然后让这些人无论如何将包裹送给in Omaha, Nebraska and he asked these people to get the package somehowDialogue: 0,0:03:11.29,0:03:14.15, 这在很多年前还没有因特网and this was many years ago before the internet,Dialogue: 0,0:03:14.15,0:03:19.97, 没有电邮要将包裹送到一个在波士顿工作before e-mail?To get the package to a stockbroker who worked in BostonDialogue: 0,0:03:19.97,0:03:23.13, 却住在马萨诸塞州雪伦市的股票经纪人but lived in Sharon, Massachusetts.Dialogue: 0,0:03:23.13,0:03:26.90, 他发现大多数人竟然做到了What he found was that mostpeople were able to do it.Dialogue: 0,0:03:26.90,0:03:29.56, 当然没有人认识这个人Nobody, of course, knew this manDialogue: 0,0:03:29.56,0:03:33.47, 但他们认识那些可能认识这个人的人but they knew people who might know people who would know this man.Dialogue: 0,0:03:33.47,0:03:38.72, 所以大多数人成功了大多数人都能将包裹送至这个人So, most people succeeded. Most people were able to get the packages to this manDialogue: 0,0:03:38.72,0:03:45.29, 这就是六度分隔理论and it took at maximum six degrees of separation,Dialogue: 0,0:03:45.29,0:03:48.27, 著名的短语的出处which is where the famous phrase comes aboutDialogue: 0,0:03:48.27,0:03:52.48, 我们与他人的间隔只有六个人而已that we're all separated from another person by six degrees of separation.Dialogue: 0,0:03:52.48,0:03:53.91, 这不是普遍正确的This is not true in general.Dialogue: 0,0:03:53.91,0:03:57.83, 只在美国内做过实验This was a very--a single experiment done within the United States,Dialogue: 0,0:03:57.83,0:03:59.63, 但这个想法非常吸引人but the idea is appealing, Dialogue: 0,0:03:59.63,0:04:03.94, 人们是通过一系列人脉与其他人联系的that people are connected to one another via chains of people.Dialogue: 0,0:04:06.06,0:04:10.91, 米尔格拉姆发现特别有趣的是But what Milgram found that was particularly interesting wasDialogue: 0,0:04:11.23,0:04:19.69, 半数的被试仅通过两个人就将包裹送到了that in about half of the cases these packages went through two people.Dialogue: 0,0:04:19.69,0:04:24.79, 也就是说如果标出人与人间的关系That is, if you plot the relationships between people--Dialogue: 0,0:04:24.79,0:04:28.88, 我们以这个房间里的人为例We can take each person in this room,Dialogue: 0,0:04:28.88,0:04:32.97, 将彼此认识的人连线find everybody you know and who knows you and draw a line,Dialogue: 0,0:04:32.97,0:04:37.81, 如果我们真这么做的话我们看到的不会是一张网but if we were to do this you wouldn't find an even mesh of wires.Dialogue: 0,0:04:37.81,0:04:41.16, 相反你会发现有些人会成为节点Rather, you'd find that some people are clusters.Dialogue: 0,0:04:41.16,0:04:45.40, 这些人就是格拉德威尔所谓的联系员这有点像空中交通Some people are what Gladwell calls "Connectors." it's like air traffic.Dialogue: 0,0:04:45.40,0:04:50.14, 以前的空中交通是与各个目的地的连线Air traffic used to be everything flew to places localDialogue: 0,0:04:50.14,0:04:56.27, 但现在更像一个枢纽系统例如芝加哥的奥黑尔或纽瓦克to it but now there's a system of hubs, chicago O'Hare for instance or NewarkDialogue: 0,0:04:56.27,0:05:00.99, 都是许多飞机经过的地方而有些人就是枢纽where planes fly through. Some people are hubs.Dialogue: 0,0:05:00.99,0:05:05.92, 这些人就是那种认识很多人的人Some people are the sort of people who know a lot of people.Dialogue: 0,0:05:05.92,0:05:11.82, 这房间里的一些人可能是枢纽这不难发现Some peoplein this room might be hubs, and it is not impossible to find out.Dialogue: 0,0:05:11.82,0:05:18.28, 这张纸上有二百五十个从曼哈顿电话簿上The piece of paper you have here is 250 names chosen randomlyDialogue: 0,0:05:18.28,0:05:21.55, 随机抽取的名字from a Manhattan phone book. Dialogue: 0,0:05:22.18,0:05:25.38, 其中包含了不同种族They capture a range of ethnicities, Dialogue: 0,0:05:25.38,0:05:30.17, 世界不同地区不同原国籍的人different parts of the world, different national origins.Dialogue: 0,0:05:30.17,0:05:34.07, 下面就是我想让你们做的我给大家五分钟时间Here's what I'd like you to do. And I'll give about five minutes for this.Dialogue: 0,0:05:34.07,0:05:40.20, 浏览这些名字并圈出那些你认识的人的名字Go through these names and circle how many people you know.Dialogue: 0,0:05:40.20,0:05:42.40, 圈名字的规则是Now, the rules of this are,Dialogue: 0,0:05:42.40,0:05:47.44, 圈出那些你们彼此认识的人的名字to know somebody you have to--they have to know you back.Dialogue: 0,0:05:47.44,0:05:57.04, 如果是个名人这里一个名字是约翰逊So, if it's a celebrity--Well, here--one of the names here is Johnson.Dialogue: 0,0:05:57.04,0:06:01.56, 我听说过埃尔文·约翰逊但埃尔文·约翰逊从没听说过我Now, I've heard of Magic Johnson but Magic Johnson has never heard of me,Dialogue: 0,0:06:01.56,0:06:06.52, 所以不能圈这个名字另外我们系主任是玛西亚·约翰逊so I cannot circle it.On the other hand, our department chair is Marcia Johnson.Dialogue: 0,0:06:06.52,0:06:11.01, 她认识我所以我就可以圈她开始浏览并圈出你认识的人She has heard of me, so I could circle it. Go through and circle it.Dialogue: 0,0:06:11.01,0:06:15.60, 圈出所有你认识同时也认识你的人Circle all the people you know who know you.Dialogue: 0,0:06:15.60,0:06:17.82, 那些就是和你有联系的人Those are the people you're connected to.Dialogue: 0,0:06:17.82,0:06:22.76, 如果你认识的人里有重名的圈两次If you know more than one person with the same last name, circle it twice.Dialogue: 0,0:06:22.76,0:06:25.14, 如果你没有拿到这张纸而你又想参与进来If you don't have this piece of paper and you want to participate,Dialogue: 0,0:06:25.14,0:06:29.42, 请举手助教会发给你please raise your hand and one of the teaching fellows will bring it to you.Dialogue: 0,0:08:05.49,0:08:09.63, 在大家做这个的时候我想多说两句I'm going to talk a little bit more about this while people go through this.Dialogue: 0,0:08:11.03,0:08:15.35, 人际关系的问题很多情况下都很有趣The issue of connections between people is intellectually interestingDialogue: 0,0:08:15.35,0:08:21.07, 还可以让我们对人们如何互动for many reasons and might allow us to develop some generalizationsDialogue: 0,0:08:21.07,0:08:27.68, 有一个归纳当然六度空间理论about how people interact. The game of Six Degrees of Separation has, of course,Dialogue: 0,0:08:27.68,0:08:34.72, 也成了演员凯文·贝肯根的著名电影轶事turned into a famous movie trivia thing revolving around the actor Kevin Bacon,Dialogue: 0,0:08:34.72,0:08:38.55, 我想之所以选他是因为他名字压韵吧I think chosen just because it rhymes with "Separation."Dialogue: 0,0:08:38.55,0:08:41.63, 凯文·贝肯的六度空间游戏是这么玩的And the game of "Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon" is played byDialogue: 0,0:08:41.63,0:08:45.52, 任何一名演员计算接近凯文·贝肯taking any actor and computing how many stepsDialogue: 0,0:08:45.52,0:08:48.84, 要经过多少步it would take to get to Kevin Bacon. Dialogue: 0,0:08:48.84,0:08:51.56, 有些计算机科学家已经将这个开发出来了And some computer scientists have developed this.Dialogue: 0,0:08:51.56,0:08:54.87, 他们检查国际电影数据库中They've gone through each of the quarter million actorsDialogue: 0,0:08:54.87,0:08:58.11, 二十五万名男女演员and actresses on the international movie databaseDialogue: 0,0:08:58.11,0:09:03.14, 然后计算出他们的贝肯数贝肯数就是指他们联系到贝肯and computed their "Bacon number." and the Bacon number is the number of stepsDialogue: 0,0:09:03.14,0:09:07.13, 所需要的步骤数it takes for them to get to Kevin Bacon. Dialogue: 0,0:09:07.13,0:09:17.35, 比如爱德华·阿斯纳在电影《JFK》中与凯文·贝肯合作So for instance, Ed Asner was in the movie Change of--; "JFK" With Kevin Bacon. Dialogue: 0,0:09:17.35,0:09:20.74, 那么爱德华·阿斯纳的贝肯数为一So, Ed Asner has a Bacon number of one.Dialogue: 0,0:09:20.74,0:09:26.36, 埃尔维斯·普雷斯利在《修女变身》中与爱德华·阿斯纳合作Elvis Presley was in the movie "Change of Habit" with Ed AsnerDialogue: 0,0:09:26.36,0:09:29.69, 而这是他与凯文·贝肯最紧密的联系了and that's his closest connection to Kevin Bacon.Dialogue: 0,0:09:29.69,0:09:33.01, 所以埃尔维斯·普里斯利的贝肯数为二So, Elvis Presley has a Bacon number of two.Dialogue: 0,0:09:33.01,0:09:36.75, 结果发现如果你观察二点五抱歉It turns out that if you look at the 2.5--sorry,Dialogue: 0,0:09:36.75,0:09:44.17, 电影数据库中的二十五万人并计算他们的贝肯数the quarter million people on the movie database and compute their Bacon number,Dialogue: 0,0:09:44.17,0:09:49.17, 平均贝肯数为二点八这就是联系到凯文·贝肯的the average Bacon number is 2.8. That's how many steps your average personDialogue: 0,0:09:49.17,0:09:52.04, 所需平均人数is away from Kevin Bacon.Dialogue: 0,0:09:52.24,0:09:57.82, 然后你可以在演员中计算出联系最多人的一个Y ou could then, for any actor or actress, compute the most connected one.Dialogue: 0,0:09:57.82,0:10:00.44, 联系最多的那位演员So, the most connected one would be the one forDialogue: 0,0:10:00.44,0:10:05.08, 将是这二十五万人中平均来说最多人联系的whom the quarter million are, on average, the most connected to.Dialogue: 0,0:10:05.08,0:10:10.06, 联系最多演员的答案相当出人意料And the answer of the most connected actor or actress is reasonably surprising.Dialogue: 0,0:10:10.06,0:10:12.32, 大家想猜猜吗Does anybody want to guess?Dialogue: 0,0:10:15.99,0:10:19.19, 我先给大家一个错误答案I'll start you off with the wrong answer and this,Dialogue: 0,0:10:19.19,0:10:24.33, 顺便说一句可以在该网站上找到答案不是约翰·韦恩by the way, can be found on this web site. It's not John Wayne.Dialogue: 0,0:10:24.33,0:10:28.98, 约翰·韦恩确实拍了很多电影一百八十部电影John Wayne has been in many movies, 180 movies,Dialogue: 0,0:10:28.98,0:10:33.57, 在六十多年里但他不是最多联络人in fact, over sixty years, but he isn't well connected at all because mostlyDialogue: 0,0:10:33.57,0:10:39.58, 他几乎只出现在西部电影中所以我们不停地看到同一些人he was in westerns so we saw the same people over and over again.Dialogue: 0,0:10:43.09,0:10:45.16, 梅丽尔·斯特里普也不是Meryl Streep also isn't it Dialogue: 0,0:10:45.16,0:10:51.40, 因为梅丽尔·斯特里普很不幸只拍好电影所以because Meryl Streep has the misfortune of playing only in good movies. So,Dialogue: 0,0:10:51.40,0:10:56.50, 她与像亚当·桑德勒和约翰·克劳德·范·戴姆这些演员没联系she has no connection with people like Adam Sandler and John Claude V an Damme. Dialogue: 0,0:10:59.80,0:11:05.10, 猜一下有其他猜测吗克里斯托弗·沃肯有点靠谱了Guess. Any guesses? Christopher Walken is a good one.Dialogue: 0,0:11:05.10,0:11:07.27, 我们来查查看我只认识少数几个人We could look it up.I only know a few names here.Dialogue: 0,0:11:07.27,0:11:10.93, 克里斯托弗·沃肯不是最多的尼古拉斯·凯奇是个有趣例子Christopher Walken is not a finalist. Nicolas Cage is an interesting case.Dialogue: 0,0:11:10.93,0:11:13.45, 尼古拉斯·凯奇拍过好电影吗Has Nicolas Cage been in good movies?Dialogue: 0,0:11:14.61,0:11:18.37, 我不是想我这是自找麻烦了I don't want to get-- i'm going to get more controversial than I want to.Dialogue: 0,0:11:18.37,0:11:21.82, 一个类似临时演员的人他最多算个二流演员请再说一遍A guy who is one step above an extra.He's like a B-list actor at best.Pardon me?Dialogue: 0,0:11:25.81,0:11:27.04, 最佳联络人The most connected guy?Dialogue: 0,0:11:29.60,0:11:35.56, 最佳联络人我想说你是对的是罗德·斯泰格尔The most connected guy, and I think this shows that you're right,is Rod Steiger.Dialogue: 0,0:11:36.44,0:11:39.75, 他是演艺史上的最佳联络人He's the most connected actor in the history of actingDialogue: 0,0:11:39.75,0:11:44.31, 不是因为他比其他人参演了更多电影because it isn't that he's been in more movies than everybody else.Dialogue: 0,0:11:44.31,0:11:47.84, 迈克尔·凯恩可能是世界上出演电影最多的人Michael Caine has probably been in the most movies of any person on earth,Dialogue: 0,0:11:48.28,0:11:52.16, 但罗德出演了各种类型的电影他出演了《码头风云》but he's been in all sorts of movies. He was in "On the Waterfront",Dialogue: 0,0:11:52.16,0:11:57.25, 《炎热的夏夜》以及像《无妄之灾》这类烂片"In the Heat of the Night," and really bad movies like "Carpool".Dialogue: 0,0:11:57.25,0:12:01.53, 他参演戏剧和犯罪连续剧惊险片西部片恐怖电影He's been in dramas and crime serials, thrillers, westerns, horror movies,Dialogue: 0,0:12:01.53,0:12:03.98, 科幻片和音乐剧science fiction, musicals.Dialogue: 0,0:12:05.50,0:12:12.43, 有些人就像罗德·斯泰格尔有些人在他们日常生活里Now, some people are like Rod Steiger. So, some people in their day-to-day livesDialogue: 0,0:12:12.43,0:12:16.97, 与人有很多互动我想从互动中可以了解的是have many interactions and I think one of the things we know from interactingDialogue: 0,0:12:16.97,0:12:20.67, 我们能从人群中识别出这些人with people is we candistinguish them from other people.Dialogue: 0,0:12:20.67,0:12:23.70, 有多少人已经做完了How many people have finished their things right now?Dialogue: 0,0:12:23.70,0:12:27.52, 好我认识学院里的一个人Okay. I know one person in the departmentDialogue: 0,0:12:27.52,0:12:30.88, 是我知道的认识最多人的人who is one of the most connected people I know on earth.Dialogue: 0,0:12:30.88,0:12:36.51, 如果我想如果我真的想联系拉扎斯菲尔德我会去找他说If I wanted--If I really had to talk to Rumsfeld, i'd go to this person and say,Dialogue: 0,0:12:36.51,0:12:40.57, 你能帮我联系上菲尔德吗如果我想整某个人"Can you get me in touch with Rumsfeld?" if I wanted to get somebody whacked,Dialogue: 0,0:12:40.57,0:12:42.32, 我会去问他I'd ask this guy.Dialogue: 0,0:12:42.88,0:12:45.99, 在学院里我还认识其他的人据我所知Then I know someone else in the department and, as best I know,Dialogue: 0,0:12:45.99,0:12:48.12, 我是她唯一认识的人I'm the only person she knows. Dialogue: 0,0:12:49.79,0:12:58.42, 有多少人的得分低于十分So, how many people scores below ten on this?Dialogue: 0,0:13:01.72,0:13:04.03, 有多少人得分在十分到二十分之间How many between ten and twenty?Dialogue: 0,0:13:05.01,0:13:06.88, 二十分到三十分之间呢Between twenty and thirty? Dialogue: 0,0:13:07.82,0:13:09.68, 三十分到四十分呢Thirty and forty?Dialogue: 0,0:13:11.32,0:13:13.64, 四十分到五十分之间呢Between forty and fifty? Dialogue: 0,0:13:15.52,0:13:16.77, 五十分到六十分呢Fifty and sixty?Dialogue: 0,0:13:18.97,0:13:21.50, 有多少人得分超过六十分How many people scored above sixty?Dialogue: 0,0:13:23.86,0:13:26.05, 有人得分超过六十分吗Anybody above sixty? Dialogue: 0,0:13:27.95,0:13:31.53, 格拉德维尔在很多地方做过这个实验Gladwell has done this in a lot of places.Dialogue: 0,0:13:32.06,0:13:35.30, 在大学生群体里平均分是二十一分The average is twenty-one among a college crowd.Dialogue: 0,0:13:36.51,0:13:39.50, 有些人得分超过一百Some people score as high as over 100.Dialogue: 0,0:13:39.60,0:13:44.94, 年龄越大得分越高可能很明显The older you are, the more-- the higher you tend to score, maybe obviously,Dialogue: 0,0:13:44.94,0:13:48.80, 不是在这个国家呆的时间越长得分越高not--the longer you've been in the country the higher you tend to score.Dialogue: 0,0:13:48.80,0:13:55.66, 记者的分数理所当然会高些学者的分数不那么高Journalists tend to score reasonably high, academics not so high,Dialogue: 0,0:13:55.66,0:13:59.36, 格拉德维尔指出有些人就是有天赋and--but what Gladwell points out is some people have the gift.Dialogue: 0,0:13:59.36,0:14:01.72, 有些人比其他人更有社交天赋Some people are more social than othersDialogue: 0,0:14:01.72,0:14:04.76, 并与很多人以各种有趣的形式保持联系and this connects in all sorts of interesting ways.Dialogue: 0,0:14:04.76,0:14:11.48, 人脉问题涉及社会因素The issue of connection has social factorsDialogue: 0,0:14:11.48,0:14:19.51, 这是社会学家为来耶鲁念书给出的一个很好理由and it's one answer that sociologists give for why it's good to go to Y ale.Dialogue: 0,0:14:19.51,0:14:26.29, 一个答案是因为这里有丰富的学术资源So, one answer is, well, because of the great intellectual benefits.Dialogue: 0,0:14:26.29,0:14:29.84, 先不说这个很讽刺的Put that aside. Let's be more cynical here.Dialogue: 0,0:14:29.84,0:14:35.79, 另一个答案是你能交到很牛的朋友Another answer is that you develop powerful friends.Dialogue: 0,0:14:37.45,0:14:41.71, 这很接近了但社会学家给出的答案And that's closer, but the interesting answer sociologistsDialogue: 0,0:14:41.71,0:14:45.42, 不是你交到多少厉害的朋友come to is it's not so much you develop powerful friends;Dialogue: 0,0:14:45.42,0:14:52.90, 而是你认识了多少很牛的人在耶鲁你认识了很多人rather,you develop powerful acquaintances. Through Y ale you know a lot of peopleDialogue: 0,0:14:52.90,0:14:56.10, 他们不一定是好朋友但他们是相识的人and they don't have to be close friends but they are acquaintances.Dialogue: 0,0:14:56.10,0:14:59.91, 社会学家指出你生活中的很多方面And sociologists point out that for a lot of aspects of your life,Dialogue: 0,0:14:59.91,0:15:05.25, 例如找工作熟人很重要人脉很重要like getting a job, acquaintances matter, connections matter,Dialogue: 0,0:15:05.25,0:15:07.48, 你通过进入像耶鲁这样的地方and the connections you establish by going toDialogue: 0,0:15:07.48,0:15:11.39, 而建立起来的人脉将为你未来做很好的铺垫 a place like Y ale hold you in good stead for the rest of your life,Dialogue: 0,0:15:11.39,0:15:16.15, 除了学术资源这个地方能给你带来above and beyond any intellectual qualities that this place may offer.Dialogue: 0,0:15:18.89,0:15:21.38, 这就是我在下节课以及以后的两节半课所要说的内容Here's what we're going to do for the next lecture and a half,two lectures.Dialogue: 0,0:15:21.38,0:15:23.63, 我们首先讨论自我We're first going to talk about the self. Dialogue: 0,0:15:23.63,0:15:26.42, 然后我们讨论自我和他人Then we're going to talk about the self and other;Dialogue: 0,0:15:26.42,0:15:29.54, 基本上我们对自己的看法basically, differences between how we think of ourselvesDialogue: 0,0:15:29.54,0:15:34.02, 和我们对他人的看法是存在差异的我们将专门讨论and how we think about other people. Then we're going to talk exclusively aboutDialogue: 0,0:15:34.02,0:15:36.19, 我们如何看待他人然后讨论how we think about other people and then we'll talk aboutDialogue: 0,0:15:36.19,0:15:42.38, 我们如何看待像哈佛学生或同性恋或黑人这样的群体how we think about groups like Harvard students or gay people or black people.Dialogue: 0,0:15:45.08,0:15:51.91, 我将从我最喜欢的研究结果开始这是有关自我的内容I'll start with my favorite finding of all time and this is about the self.Dialogue: 0,0:15:51.91,0:16:00.37, 有关焦点效应我每天早晨都很匆忙And this is about thespotlight effect. So, my mornings are often rushedDialogue: 0,0:16:00.37,0:16:03.53, 因为我有两个孩子有时我没有定闹钟because I have two kids. So, I get up and sometimes I don't set the alarmDialogue: 0,0:16:03.53,0:16:07.64, 就会起晚我挣扎着下床把孩子们叫起来and I get up late; I stagger out of bed; I wake the kids;Dialogue: 0,0:16:07.64,0:16:11.68, 问候佣人做好准备做早餐I greet the servants; I get ready; I make breakfast.Dialogue: 0,0:16:11.68,0:16:17.37, 我冲出房间通常在大概下午三点时有人会说I run out of the house and then usually around 3 o'clock somebody points out,Dialogue: 0,0:16:17.37,0:16:22.11, 某次是一个流浪汉说我耳朵上有一大块剃须膏in one case a homeless man, that I have a big glob of shaving cream in my ear orDialogue: 0,0:16:22.11,0:16:26.08, 因为我剃须时都没心思看镜子because I neglected to actually look in the mirror while I shaved.Dialogue: 0,0:16:26.08,0:16:30.09, 又一次我参加一个派对我发现我的衬衫上没穿正Or I have once been to a party and I found my shirt was misaligned,Dialogue: 0,0:16:30.09,0:16:33.28, 严重地没穿正不是一个扣子seriously misaligned, not one button but--Anyway,Dialogue: 0,0:16:34.74,0:16:39.25, 总之那时候我的感觉很不成熟so--and so I feel when this happens I'm very immature.Dialogue: 0,0:16:39.25,0:16:41.57, 我甚至感觉这是世界末日And I basically feel this is the end of the world,Dialogue: 0,0:16:41.57,0:16:46.50, 这实在太丢脸而且每个人都注意到了问题是this is humiliating and everybody notices. And so the question is,Dialogue: 0,0:16:46.50,0:16:53.36, 当这发生时有多少人真的注意到了呢焦点效应就是how many people notice when something happens? And the spotlight effect--Well,Dialogue: 0,0:16:53.36,0:16:55.86, 在讨论我最喜欢的实验之前before talking about my favorite experiment ever,Dialogue: 0,0:16:55.86,0:16:57.77, 我先播一段《辛普森一家》there is an episode of "The Simpsons"Dialogue: 0,0:16:57.77,0:17:01.07, 它充分说明了焦点效应that provides a beautiful illustration of the spotlight effect.Dialogue: 0,0:17:01.07,0:17:04.86, 这段短片还对心理测验给出了个漂亮的例证And then it has a beautiful illustration of psychological testing,Dialogue: 0,0:17:04.86,0:17:07.80, 我让大家一个一个看so I'll give you them quickly one after the other.Dialogue: 0,0:17:10.09,0:17:14.46, 因此汤姆·季洛维奇一位社会心理学家So, Tom Gilovich, a social psychologist,Dialogue: 0,0:17:14.46,0:17:17.51, 对焦点效应问题很感兴趣was interested in the question of the spotlight effect,Dialogue: 0,0:17:17.51,0:17:23.72, 当我们穿粉红衬衫上班或耳朵上粘了剃须膏或其他什么which is when we wear a pink shirt to work,shaving cream in our ear or whatever, Dialogue: 0,0:17:23.72,0:17:29.88, 我们真会过高地估计别人对此的注意吗do we systematically overestimate how much other people notice?Dialogue: 0,0:17:29.88,0:17:35.59, 他就此做了一系列实验其中一个实验是这样做的Hedid a series of experiments. And in one experiment what he did wasDialogue: 0,0:17:35.59,0:17:39.16, 他从心理学导论课上找到一些被试he got in the subjects ...Standard Intro Psych drill.Dialogue: 0,0:17:39.16,0:17:44.47, 跟他们说我希望你们明天穿件T恤And said,"I want you to wear a T-shirt for the next dayDialogue: 0,0:17:44.47,0:17:47.24, 我希望T恤上有图and I want it to have a picture on it," Dialogue: 0,0:17:47.24,0:17:51.01, 然后他让他们穿上他们认为and he got them to wear T-shirts that had pictures on itDialogue: 0,0:17:51.01,0:17:55.63, 最尴尬图片的T恤that were the most embarrassing pictures that they could have on it.Dialogue: 0,0:17:55.63,0:17:58.07, 结果发现如果你问人们It turns out that if you ask people Dialogue: 0,0:17:58.07,0:18:00.92, T恤上印什么画最难以接受what's the worst picture to have on the T-shirtDialogue: 0,0:18:00.92,0:18:09.42, 位居第一的答案是希特勒和巴瑞·曼尼洛that you are wearing, the number one answer is Hitler tied with Barry Manilow.Dialogue: 0,0:18:15.79,0:18:19.32, 画在T恤上最好的图画是The best pictures to have on your T-shirtDialogue: 0,0:18:19.32,0:18:23.75, 马丁·路德·金和杰瑞·宋飞are Martin Luther King Jr. And Jerry Seinfeld.Dialogue: 0,0:18:24.77,0:18:26.56, 结果发现人们It turns out that people--Dialogue: 0,0:18:26.56,0:18:29.80, 他让他们穿着T恤到处走动一天然后问他们And then he had them go about their day and asked them,Dialogue: 0,0:18:29.80,0:18:33.10, 有多少人注意到了你的T恤"How many people noticed your T-shirt?"Dialogue: 0,0:18:33.10,0:18:36.74, 然后心理学家又去问被试周围的人And then the psychologists went around and they asked the people,Dialogue: 0,0:18:36.74,0:18:39.72, 你们有多少人注意到了这个人的T恤"How many of you noticed this person's T-shirt?"Dialogue: 0,0:18:39.72,0:18:45.21, 结果发现他们大概错误估计了两倍And it turned out they got it wrong by a factor of about two.Dialogue: 0,0:18:45.21,0:18:51.00, 他们认为有一百个人注意到但其实只有五十个人注意到They thought, say, 100 noticed, but fifty people noticed.Dialogue: 0,0:18:51.00,0:18:54.20, 通过多次研究季洛维奇和And across study after study after study GilovichDialogue: 0,0:18:54.20,0:18:58.02, 他的同事找到了支持焦点效应的证据and his colleagues have found support for the spotlight effect,Dialogue: 0,0:18:58.02,0:19:01.62, 也就是你认为人们注意到你which is that you believe that people are noticingDialogue: 0,0:19:01.62,0:19:07.40, 但其实并没有他们正忙着注意他们自己you all the time but they aren't. They're busy noticing themselves.Dialogue: 0,0:19:07.40,0:19:15.72, 知道这点非常有用季洛维奇之所以对此感兴趣And this is actually a useful thing to know. Gilovich got interested in thisDialogue: 0,0:19:15.72,0:19:19.48, 是因为他对后悔心理学感兴趣because he's interested in the psychology of regret.Dialogue: 0,0:19:19.48,0:19:23.20, 结果发现如果你真的去问那些临终的人And it turns out that if you actually ask dying people,Dialogue: 0,0:19:23.20,0:19:28.60, 或是年纪很大的人你这辈子最后悔的事是什么or really old people basically, "What do you regret from your life?"Dialogue: 0,0:19:28.60,0:19:33.82, 他们不约而同地都对他们没有尝试过的事情感到后悔they regret the things as a rule that they didn't try.Dialogue: 0,0:19:33.82,0:19:36.52, 但当你问他们为什么不尝试时But when you asked them why they didn't try itDialogue: 0,0:19:36.52,0:19:40.17, 他们的回答是这样我看起来会很愚蠢the answers tended to be "I would look silly."Dialogue: 0,0:19:40.17,0:19:45.14, 很有趣的是结果发现其实人们并不像你想的And it turns out, interesting to know, that people just don't careDialogue: 0,0:19:45.14,0:19:46.79, 那么关心你as much as other people think you are. Dialogue: 0,0:19:46.79,0:19:48.81, 你可以将这看成好事或坏事Y ou could take that as good news or bad newsDialogue: 0,0:19:48.81,0:19:54.82, 但聚光灯并不像我们想的那样聚焦在我们身上but the spotlight is not on us as much as we think it is.Dialogue: 0,0:19:54.82,0:20:00.56, 季洛维奇发现的第二个效应是透明度效应There's a second effect Gilovich discovers called "The transparency effect."Dialogue: 0,0:20:00.56,0:20:03.30, 透明度效应非常有趣And the transparency effect is quite interesting.Dialogue: 0,0:20:03.30,0:20:09.16, 透明度效应是指The transparency effect is that we believe Dialogue: 0,0:20:09.16,0:20:13.13, 我们高估自己的透明度that we're more transparent than we are.Dialogue: 0,0:20:13.13,0:20:22.74, 我需要一个自认为不会撒谎的人I need somebody up here who thinks that he or she is a bad liar.Dialogue: 0,0:20:25.96,0:20:28.65, 我只要你说三个句子Just--I just need you to say three sentences.Dialogue: 0,0:20:28.65,0:20:31.30, 我甚至会提前告诉你I'll even tell you what it is ahead of time.Dialogue: 0,0:20:31.30,0:20:32.88, 我将问你三个问题I'm going to ask you three questions: Dialogue: 0,0:20:32.88,0:20:35.85, 你去过伦敦吗你有弟弟妹妹吗"Have you been in London? Do you have a younger sibling?"Dialogue: 0,0:20:35.85,0:20:40.79, 你喜欢寿司吗我希望你回答这三个问题and "Do you like sushi?" I want you to answer with one of those answers there.Dialogue: 0,0:20:40.79,0:20:44.30, 但对其中一个问题说谎I want you to lie about one of them.Dialogue: 0,0:20:44.30,0:20:48.05, 在座各位的任务就是识别出The task will be for everybody else to recognizeDialogue: 0,0:20:48.05,0:20:50.93, 猜一下你哪个问题说谎了and guess which one you're lying about.Dialogue: 0,0:20:50.93,0:20:52.26, 你愿意做吗Do you want to go up?Dialogue: 0,0:20:52.26,0:20:58.14, 我会写下哪个问题你要说谎Y eah. And I will even write down which one you should lie on.。
耶鲁大学心理学导论（第四课）心理学导论第四课我想在这节课的开始先回头讲讲弗洛依德I actually want to begin by going back to Freud解决一下上节课遗留的几个问题and hitting a couple of loose ends.我周三上课的时候跳过了部分内容There was a point in my lecture on Wednesday where I skipped over some parts.我当时说"没时间讲了" 就跳过没讲I said, "We don't have time for this" and I just whipped past it.可整个周末我都因此而寝食难安And I couldn't sleep over the weekend. I've been tormented.我不该跳过它们所以现在我要讲一下I shouldn't have skipped that and I want to hit--先告诉大家我当时为什么跳过没讲Let me tell you why I skipped it.我所跳过的是关于The discussion I skipped was the discussion of"我们为何会有无意识" 的讨论why we would have an unconscious at all.我当时正在讲So, I was talking about在科学上颇有名望的弗洛依德理论the scientifically respectable ideas of Freud 我想给大家讲一些新的and I want to talk about some new ideas关于"无意识为何会存在"的理论about why there could be an unconscious.我之所以没讲是因为Now, the reason why I skipped it is我不能肯定这是考虑这个问题的最佳方式I'm not sure this is the best way to look at the question.正如我们将会在这门课中了解到的As we will learn throughout the course,尤其是绝大多数的大脑活动by far the vast majority of what our brains do, 绝大多数的心理活动the vast majority of what our minds do,其实都是无意识的是无法察觉到的is unconscious and we're unaware of it.因此问题或许不该是So the right question to ask may not be, "为什么有些心理活动是无意识的""Why are some things unconscious?"而应该是"为什么心理活动的一小部分but rather, why is this tiny subset of mental life--为什么这一小部分是有意识的"why is this conscious?另一方面On the other hand,这些关于无意识功能的主张these claims about the utility of unconsciousness, 是很具有煽动性很有趣的I think, are provocative and interesting.所以我想很快地来给你们大家讲一下So I just wanted to quickly share them with you.那么从进化的观点来看So, the question is, from an evolutionary standpoint,要问的问题便是"无意识为何得以进化""Why would an unconscious evolve?"一些心理学家与生物学家们所给出的答案And an answer that some psychologists and biologists have given是欺骗is deception.大多数动物都会有一些欺骗行为So, most animals do some deception.而广义上的欺骗是以愚弄的方式And deception defined broadly is simply使他人相信虚假之事to act or be in some way认为虚假之事是真实的that fools others into believing or thinking或是使他人对虚假之事做出反应or responding to something that's false.举一个欺骗的实例There's physical examples of deception.当黑猩猩受到威胁When threatened, chimpanzees--它们的毛发会竖起来their hair stands up on end使得他们看上去更加强壮and that makes them look bigger从而使其他黑猩猩误以为它们to fool others to thinking they're more dangerous 比原先想象中更加危险than they are.在深海中生活着琵琶鱼There's an angler fish at the bottom of the ocean这种鱼的头顶会长出鱼竿状的长刺that has a rod sticking up from the top of its head用于引诱和捕获其他鱼类with a lure to capture other fish让它们误认为那是食物to fool them in thinking that this is something edible 然后它们自己就被吃掉了and then to themselves be devoured.总的来说灵长类动物特别是人类But humans, primates in general but particularly humans,都是欺骗大师are masters of deception.我们不断地利用我们的心理We use our minds行为和动作and our behaviors and our actions去哄骗他人相信那些虚假的事情continually to try to trick people into believing what's not true.比如我们总是试着去欺骗他人We try to trick people, for instance,使他人相信我们比实际更加into believing that we're强壮聪明性感tougher, smarter, sexier,更加可靠或是更加值得信赖等等more reliable, more trustworthy and so on, than we really are.社会心理学中也有很大一部分内容And a large part of social psychology在关注我们向他人展现自己的方式concerns the way in which we present ourselves 人们会尽力使积极印象最大化to other people so as to make the maximally positive impression即使留下的印象是虚假的even when that impression isn't true.但同时At the same time,though,我们也进化出了很好的欺骗检测机制we've also evolved very good lie detection mechanisms.因此不仅存在着要求我对你说谎So not only is there evolutionary pressure for me的进化压力to lie to you,比如如果我们之间存有冲突for me to persuade you for instance, that if we're going to have a conflict-当你威胁我时if you are threatening me我会说"别吓唬我我可不是吃素""Don't threaten me, I am not the sort of man you could screw around with"而且还存在着要求你辨别谎言的进化压力But there's evolutionary pressure for you to look你会说 "不你肯定不行and say, "No. You are the sort of man you could screw around with.我看得出来的"I can tell."那么怎样才能成为一个好骗子呢So how do you become a good liar?无意识在这里扮演了重要的角色And here's where the unconscious comes in.我们假定The hypothesis is:最好的谎言是能够骗到我们自己的谎言the best lies are lies wetell ourselves.一个行骗高手在通常情况下You're a better liar, more generally, 会对自己所说的谎言深信不疑if you believe the lie that you're telling.阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克的一个故事 This could be illustrated很好地阐释了这个道理with a story about Alfred Hitchcock.故事是这样的The story goes--他痛恨与童星共事但又时常被迫合作He hated working with child actors but he often had to.有一次And the story goes--和他合作的一个小演员竟哭不出来He was dealing with a child actor who simply could not cry.最后他沮丧极了走到那个小演员身边And, finally frustrated, Hitchcock went to the actor,俯下身子凑到他耳边说leaned over, whispered in his ear,"你爸妈刚把你丢在这了"Your parents have left you他们再也不回来了"and they're never coming back."那孩子立刻泣不成声The kid burst into tears.希区柯克说"开拍" 录制顺利进行Hitchcock said, "Roll'em" and filmed the kid.如果你能看到那个孩子你一定会说And the kid, if you were to see him, you'd say, "天呐这孩子看起来真伤心啊""That's--Boy, he's--he really looks as if he's sad"因为他本来就伤心because he was.如果我在这里举行一个竞赛If I had a competition谁最能将痛苦表演的和真的一样where I'd give $100,000 to the person谁就能拿到10万美元who looks the most as if they are in pain, 那么最好用的一招莫过于拿根笔it is a very good tactic to take a pen狠狠地戳进你的腹股沟and jam it into your groin因为此时的你看上去真的because you will look extremely persuasively足以使他人相信你非常痛苦as if you are in pain.如果我想让你相信我爱你If I want to persuade you that I love you,永远都不离开你你什么都可以信任我would never leave you, you can trust me witheverything,或许最好的策略便是我自己对此深信不疑it may be a superb tactic for me to believe it.所有对于无意识进化的解释And so, this account of the evolution of the unconscious便是某些动机和目标is that certain motivations and goals,尤其是那些邪恶的动机和目标particularly sinister ones,最好是无意识的are better made to be unconscious因为如果个体察觉不到because if a person doesn't know他们所拥有的动机和目标的话they have them这些动机和目标也就不会被他人识破they will not give them away.这个我们先放在这里等到我们探讨And this is something I think we should return to later on社会交往与社会关系的时候再回头来看when we talk about social interaction and social relationships.弗洛依德的另一个故事--One other thing on Freud--其实是个恶搞他的故事just a story of the falsification of Freud.周日我带我的小儿子去玩回家的路上I was taking my younger child home from a play date on Sunday他突然问我and he asked me out of the blue,"你为什么不能和你的父母结婚?""Why can't you marry yourmother or your father?"向一个孩子解释这个问题其实挺困难的Now, that's actually a difficult question to ask-- to answer for a child,但我还是尽力给了他一个答案but I tried my best to give him an answer.之后我又想到弗洛依德的理论And then I said--then I thought back on the Freud lecture然后我就问他and so I asked him,"如果你谁都能娶你会选择娶谁?""If you could marry anybody you want, who would it be?"我想根据俄狄浦斯情结imagining he'd make explicit the Oedipal complex他会毫不犹豫地选择他的妈妈and name his mother.不过出乎意料的是他想了一会说Instead, he paused for a moment and said, "我想娶一只驴子"I would marry a donkey 和一大包花生"and a big bag of peanuts."他的父母都是心理学家Both his parents are psychologists他恨透了这些问题and he hates these questions所以他会时不时的忽悠我们一下and at times he just screws around with us.好了Okay.上一堂课我们从弗洛依德讲起Last class I started with Freud现在我要开始讲斯金纳了and now I want to turn to Skinner.斯金纳的理论And the story of Skinner and science与弗洛依德的理论有些不同is somewhat different from the story of Freud.弗洛依德是精神分析的Freud developed and championed提出者与拥护者the theory of psychoanalysis by himself.就像是一个科学发明的专利享有者It is as close as you could find in science to a solitary invention.显然他利用了各种资源Obviously, he drew upon all sorts of sources还总结了前人的成果and predecessors但精神分析依然被认为but psychoanalysis is identified是由弗洛伊德提出的as Freud's creation.行为主义则不同Behaviorism is different.行为主义学派Behaviorism is a school of thought远在斯金纳提出他的理论之前就已经存在that was there long before Skinner,受到了众多心理学家的拥护championed by psychologists比如约翰·华生like John Watson, for instance.斯金纳算是这一学派中的晚辈了Skinner came a bit late into this但是何斯金纳能够被我们所熟知but the reason why we've heard of Skinner能够声名远播的原因就在于and why Skinner is so well known 他将这些观点进行了一番整理is he packaged these notions.他扩展了先前的观点He expanded upon them;并将它们出版发行he publicized them;他科学地发展了这些观点he developed them scientifically并同时将这些观点呈现给了and presented them both to the scientific community 学术界和社会大众and to the popular community.在上世纪60到70年代之间的美国社会And sociologically in the 1960s and 1970s, in the United States,行为主义极为盛行behaviorism was incredibly well known斯金纳也得以名声大噪and so was Skinner.他就像现在上脱口秀的明星一样有名He was the sort of person you would see on talk shows.他的书登上了畅销榜首His books were bestsellers.言归正传行为主义的核心Now, at the core of behaviorism由三个非常极端又很有趣的观点组成are three extremely radical and interesting views.第一个观点是它非常强调学习的作用The first is a strong emphasis on learning.行为主义的观点认为The strong view of behaviorism你的知识你的一切is everything you know, everything you are, 都是经验的产物is the result of experience.人性是根本不存在的There's no real human nature.相反人类是具有无限可塑性的Rather, people are infinitely malleable.约翰·华生有一段非常有名的话There's a wonderful quote from John Watson这段话是约翰·华生根据and in this quote john Watson is paraphrasing耶稣会所宣扬的一段著名鼓吹改写而来a famous boast by the Jesuits.耶稣会曾宣称The Jesuits used to claim,"给我一个孩子待他7岁之时"Give me a child until the age of seven我会将他锻造成一个男人"and I'll show you the man,"也就是说他们能够把一个孩子that they would take a child培养成他们想要的任何样子and turn him into anything they wanted.华生将此鼓吹加以扩展他说到And Watson expanded on this boast,给我一打健全的婴儿Give me a dozen healthy infants,只要给予合适的条件well-formed and my own specified world to bring them up 我就可以and I'll guarantee to take any one at random把他们变成and train them to become any type of specialist I might select 医生律师艺术家企业家—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant,乃至乞丐和小偷chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief,而不用去考虑他的天赋倾向regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, 能力祖先的职业与种族abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors.你们可以从中看出Now, you could imagine— you could see in this这是一个极具感染力的观点a tremendous appeal to this view 因为在某种意义上because Watson has华生是一个极端的平等主义者an extremely egalitarian view in a sense.如果不存在人性If there's no human nature,那么一群人因种族或性别then there's no sense in which one group of humans 优于另一群的人的说法by dint of their race or their sex便纯属无稽之谈could be better than another group.华生明确地指出了这一点And Watson was explicit.人类的自然属性并不存在任何差异None of those facts about people will ever make any difference.个体差异源于他所受到的不同教育与待遇What matters to what you are is what you learn and how you're treated.因此华生断言And so, Watson claimed他只需通过一定的方式he could create anybody in any way simply便能将婴儿培养成各种类型的人by treating them in a certain fashion.行为主义的第二个观点A second aspect of behaviorism是反心理主义was anti-mentalism.我的意思是And what I mean by this is行为主义者沉迷于"科学"的理念之中the behaviorists were obsessed with难以自拔the idea of doing science他们主要针对的是弗洛依德and they felt, largely in reaction to Freud,他们认为那些所谓的内在心理状态that claims about internal mental states如欲望意愿目标情感等等like desires, wishes, goals, emotions and so on, 都是不科学的are unscientific.这些不可见定义模糊的东西These invisible, vague things不能被划入严谨的科学范畴里can never form the basis of a serious science.因此行为主义者的目标And so, the behaviorist manifesto是建立一门科学would then be to develop a science将一切不可观测的事情都排除在外without anything that's unobservable取而代之的是应用and instead use notions诸如刺激反应强化惩罚like stimulus and response and reinforcement and punishment以及表示现实世界和客观事件的环境and environment that refer to real world 之类的概念来进行研究and tangible events.最后行为主义者认为Finally, behaviorists believed生物种群之间并不存在太大的差别there were no interesting differences across species.行为主义者可能会承认人类能够做到A behaviorist might admit that a human can do things一些老鼠或鸽子无法做到的事情that a rat or pigeon couldn't 但他们或许只会说but a behaviorist might just say,"它们只不过是在一般性联想学习能力上"Look. Those are justgeneral associative powers有所差异而已"that differ"甚至他们干脆否认Or they may even deny it.他们会说 "人和老鼠根本没有区别They might say, "Humans and rats aren't different at all.只不过相较于老鼠It's just humans tend to live人类生活在刺激更加丰富的环境中罢了"in a richer environment than rats."从这个理论观点中From that standpoint, from that theoretical standpoint, 可以得出一种研究方法comes a methodological approach即如果人类与动物并无差别which is, if they're all the same那你就能通过研究非人类动物的学习过程then you could study human learning 来研究人类的学习过程by studying nonhuman animals.这也是行为主义者的常用研究方法And that's a lot of what they did.好了下面我们来讲讲Okay. I'm going to frame my introduction—my discussion 行为的三个主要的学习原则of behaviors in terms of the three main learning principles 这三个学习原则被认为能够解释that they argue can explain所有的人类心理活动all of human mental life,所有的人类行为all of human behavior.之后我还想讲讲对行为主义的反对And then, I want to turn to objections to behaviorism但这三个原则是非常重要的but these three principles are powerful也是很有意思的and very interesting.第一个原则是习惯化The first is habituation.这是最简单的学习形式This is the very simplest form oflearning.它在学术上被描述为And what this is is technically described as由于重复暴露在刺激环境中a decline in the tendency to respond to stimuli 而造成对该刺激反应倾向的降低that are familiar due to repeated exposure."喂""Hey!""喂""Hey!"突如其来的噪音吓了大家一跳The sudden noise startles but as it—但听到第二声的时候就没那么吃惊了as you hear it a second time it startles less.第三遍时就变成我自己在这犯傻了The third time is just me being goofy.这是因为你对这些事情已经习惯了It's just--It's--You get used to things.习惯化在我们的日常生活中随处可见And this, of course, is common enough ineveryday life.我们习惯了钟的滴答声和车来人往的噪音We get used to the ticking of a clock or to noise of traffic但这却是一种非常重要的学习形式but it's actually a very important form of learning我们不妨试想一下无法进行习惯化的情形because imagine life without it.试想你在生活中无法习惯任何事情Imagine life where you never got used to anything,要有人突然跳出来向你挥手where suddenly somebody steps forward and waves their hand你肯定吓得惊叫 "哇"and you'd go, "Woah,"然后他们再跟你挥手你又惊叫"哇"and then they wave their hand again and you'd go, "Whoah,"然后你就不停地--and you keep--或是在你听到响亮的钟摆声后很惊奇地说And there's the loud ticking of a clock and you say,"嗯""Hmmm."但实际上人类和动物都不会这个样子And that's not the way animals or humans work.你会习惯于很多事情You get used to things.而习惯化实际上也是至关重要的And it's actually critically important to get used to things因为这是一种非常有用的适应机制because it's a useful adaptive mechanism可以让你注意到新鲜事物to keep track on new events and objects.能够注意到新鲜事物的出现是非常重要的It's important to notice something when it's new因为你需要确定它是否会对你造成伤害because then you have to decide whether it's going to harm you,需要确定如何去处理这个新鲜刺激how to deal with it, to attend to it,但你不能一直去注意它but you can't keep on noticing it.事实上And, in fact,如果它在环境中出现的时间足够长久的话you should stop noticing it你就不该再去一直注意它了after it's been in the environment for long enough.所以习惯化算是一种学习So, this counts as learning是因为这种学习是基于经验而发生的because it happens through experience.习惯化是通过经验而进行学习的一种方式It's a way to learn through experience, 是通过经验改变你思维方式的一种方法to change your way of thinking through experience.而且它还是非常有用的And also, it's useful因为危险刺激会吸引到你的注意because harmful stimuli are noticed但当某物被视为环境的一部分时but when something has shown itself to be part of the environment你便不会再去注意到该物体you don't notice it anymore.习惯化的存在非常重要原因有很多The existence of habituation is important for many reasons.原因之一就是One thing it's important for is聪明的发展心理学家们将习惯化clever developmental psychologists have used habituation作为研究人类as a way to study people,研究诸如非人类动物或是婴儿这样creatures who can't talk无法进行言语表达的生物like nonhuman animals,的一种方式and young babies.等我们在周三探讨发展心理学时And when I talk on Wednesday about developmental psychology我会向大家讲述心理学家们I'll show different ways应用习惯化in which psychologists have used habituation来研究婴儿心理的不同的方法to study the minds of young babies.学习的第二种形式The second sort of learning被称为经典条件作用is known as classical conditioning.一般来说And what this is in a very general sense经典条件作用是指在一个刺激is the learning of an association 和另一个刺激之间形成联结between one stimulus and another stimulus,这里的刺激是一个专业术语where stimulus is a technical term 意思是环境中出现的事件meaning events in the environment 比如某种味道声音或景观like a certain smell or sound or sight.经典条件作用是巴甫洛夫提出的It was thought up by Pavlov.这便是巴甫洛夫的那条著名的狗This is Pavlov's famous dog这是一个科学研究中的意外and it's an example of scientific serendipity.在研究的最初巴甫洛夫Pavlov, when he started this research, 对学习行为毫无兴趣had no interest at all in learning.他研究的是唾液的分泌He was interested in saliva.为了弄到唾液他找来了几条狗And to get saliva he had to have dogs.他给狗套上了一些装置And he had to attach something to dogs来收集狗的唾液用以研究so that their saliva would pour out so he could study saliva.他研究唾液分泌的初衷我们不得而知No idea why he wanted to study saliva,但他却因为这个研究而有所发现but he then discovered something.他的做法是What he would do is给狗喂食让狗分泌唾液he'd put food powder in the dog's mouth to generate saliva.他注意到But Pavlov observed that当给它喂食的人when somebody entered the room进屋时who typically gave him the food powder,狗便开始分泌唾液the dog--the food powder saliva would start to come out.稍后And later on if you—在喂食前或者喂食过程中right before or right during you givethe dog some food 你摇铃you--you ping a bell铃声就会加速唾液的分泌the bell will cause the saliva to come forth.这是他在研究时所使用的仪器And, in fact, this is the apparatus that he used forhis research.他通过区分两种条件作用He developed the theory of classical conditioning两种刺激反应关系by making a distinction between two sorts of conditioning, 提出了经典条件作用理论two sorts of stimulus response relationships.一个是无条件作用One is unconditioned.无条件作用是指An unconditioned is when an unconditioned stimulus无条件刺激会引起无条件反应gives rise to an unconditioned response.这是我们的本能And this is what you start off with.如果有人用棍子戳你So, if somebody pokes you with a stick and you say,你会因为疼而叫出来"Ouch," because it hurts,戳的动作和你的喊叫the poking and the "Ouch"这就是无条件刺激引起了无条件反射is an unconditioned stimulus causing an unconditioned response.这些行为无需学习You didn't have to learn that.巴甫洛夫给狗喂食When Pavlov put food powder in the dog's mouth狗会分泌唾液and saliva was generated,这就是无条件刺激引起了无条件反应that's an unconditioned stimulus giving rise to an unconditioned response.但学习会在条件刺激与条件反应之间But what happens throughlearning is that another association develops建立起另一种联结that between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.比如So when Pavlov, for instance--比如在条件作用形成之前Well, when Pavlov, for instance, started before conditioning只是简单的存在着无条件刺激即食物there was simply an unconditioned stimulus, the food in the mouth,以及无条件反应即唾液and an unconditioned response, saliva.此时的铃声什么都不是The bell was nothing.只是一个中性刺激The bell was a neutral stimulus.但是如果铃声和食物多次同时出现But over and over again, if you put the bell and the food together,很快铃声便也能促使狗分泌出唾液pretty soon the bell will generate saliva.开始时呈现无条件刺激And now the bell--When--You start off with the unconditioned stimulus,会出现无条件反应unconditioned response.当条件刺激与非条件刺激When the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus同时且多次反复出现are brought together over and over and over again,条件刺激很快也能引起条件反应pretty soon the conditioned stimulus gives rise to the response.这就是所谓的And now it's known as the conditioned stimulus 条件刺激引起了条件反应giving rise to the conditioned response.这在教材中已有详细的叙述This is discussed in detail in the textbook但我还是想给你们but I also--I'm going to give you—如果一下子理解不了也不用担心Don't panic if you don't get it quite now.我会再多给你们举些例子I'm going to give you further and further examples.这里的意思是说So, the idea here is,无条件刺激与条件刺激的反复匹配repeated pairings of the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus 会引起条件反应will give rise to the response.但强化尝试和非强化尝试是不一样的And there's a difference between reinforced trials and unreinforced trials.强化尝试是指条件刺激 A reinforced trial is when the conditioned stimulus 与无条件刺激同时出现的时候and the unconditioned stimulus go together.简单地说You're--and to put it in a crude way,你在让狗知道you're teaching the dog铃声和食物是一起出现的that the bell goes with the food.非强化尝试是只有食物而没有铃声的时候An unreinforced trial is when you get the food without the bell.这就不需要你去教了You're not teaching the dog this.事实上条件反射形成以后And, in fact, once you teach an animal something, 如果得不到强化if you stop doing the teaching 条件反应就会逐渐消失the response goes away这就是消退and this is known as extinction.这里有张图标But here's a graph.图标记录了分泌出的唾液量If you get--They really count the number of cubic centimeters of saliva.经过训练当狗听到铃声The dog is trained so that when the bell comes on—我讲错了Actually, I misframed it.重讲一遍I'll try again.当铃声和食物形成了联系When the bell comes connected withfood,狗会因为铃声的出现而分泌大量唾液there's a lot of saliva.非强化反应是有铃声但却没食物的时候An unreinforced response is when the bell goes on but there's no food.想想你就是那条狗So, it's like--Imagine you're the dog.有人喂你食物So, you get food in your mouth,"铃声食物"Bell, food,铃声食物"bell, food,"而现在只有"铃声"and now "Bell."但等到下次你再听到"铃声"的时候But next you get "Bell, bell, bell."你就不会再去等待食物You give it up.不再分泌唾液You stop.不再对铃声进行反应You stop responding to the bell.教材中讨论了一件奇怪的事情A weird thing which is discussed in the textbook is 如果你稍等一会if you wait a while在几个小时之后用铃声重新去尝试and then you try it again with the bell after a couple of hours,狗会重新开始分泌唾液the saliva comes back.这种现象叫做自发恢复This is known as spontaneous recovery.经典条件作用似乎是关于动物的So, this all seems a very technical phenomena 科学现象related to animals and the like 但其实典条件作用发生but it's easy to see how it generalizes 及其相关概念都简单易懂and how it extends.刺激泛化是个很有意思的概念One interesting notion is that of stimulus generalization.刺激泛化是And stimulus generalization is the topic《诺顿读本》中一篇文章的主题of one of your articles in The Norton Reader, 作者为约翰·华生著名的行为主义者the one by Watson, John Watson, the famous behaviorist,他记述了一项奇怪的实验who reported a bizarre experiment 对象则是一名叫做小阿尔伯特的婴儿with a baby known as Little Albert.实验是这样的And here's the idea.小阿尔伯特原本喜欢老鼠Little Albert originally liked rats.实际上我要给你们看一段In fact, I'm going to show you a movie小阿尔伯特原先喜欢老鼠时的录像of Little Albert originally liking rats.看到吧他很好没问题See. He's okay. No problem.现在华生做了件有意思的事情Now, Watson did something interesting.小阿尔伯特正在和老鼠玩耍As Little Albert was playing with the rat,"噢我喜欢老鼠""Oh, I like rats, oh,"华生走到婴儿身后Watson went behind the baby—教材中是这么说的this is the--it's in the chapter—重击那里的金属棒and banged the metal bar right here .婴儿"啊"了一声开始大哭The baby, "Aah," screamed, started to sob.好了Okay.这里的无条件刺激是什么What's the unconditioned stimulus?有人知道吗Somebody.那个响声重击金属棒发出的声音The loud noise, the bar, the bang.无条件反应是什么What's the unconditioned response?哭泣悲伤以及痛苦Crying, sadness, misery.这样做导致的结果就是And as a result of this,小阿尔伯特开始惧怕老鼠Little Albert grew afraid of the rat.那么条件刺激又是什么老鼠So there--what would be the。
1.Introduction2.Foundations:This is Your Brain3.Foundations:Freud4.Foundations:Skinner5.What Is It Like to Be a Baby:The Development of Thought6.How Do We Communicate?:Language in the Brain, Mouth and the Hands7.Conscious of the Present;Conscious of the Past: Language(cont.);Vision and Memory8.Conscious of the Present;Conscious of the Past: Vision and Memory(cont.)9.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Love(Guest Lecture by Professor Peter Salovey)10.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Evolution and Rationality11.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Emotions,Part I12.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Emotions,Part II13.Why Are People Different?:Differences14.What Motivates Us:Sex15.A Person in the World of People:Morality16.A Person in the World of People:Self and Other, Part I17.A Person in the World of People:Self and Other, Part II18.What Happens When Things Go Wrong:Mental Illness,Part I19.What Happens When Things Go Wrong:Mental Illness,Part II20.The Good Life:Happiness第一节课Introduction教材：彼得•格雷的《心理学》第五版阅读书目：格雷•马库斯《诺顿读本》心理学研究领域：1、神经科学2、发展心理学（研究人类如何成长、发育以及学习）3、认知心理学（用计算机方法研究心理学）4、社会心理学（研究人类的群体行为，如何与他人交流）5、临床心理学（心理健康、心理疾病）如今，经济学和博弈论已经成为理解人类思维和人类行为的重要方法。
欢迎大家来到心理学导论的课堂I'd like to welcome people to Introduction to Psychology.我是保罗·布罗姆博士My name is Dr. Paul Bloom.是本门课程的教授I'm professor of this course.如果还有同学没领取教室前面的教学大纲If you haven't pick up the syllabus in front of the class请举手示意我Please raise your hand.我们有教学大纲吧Are we... Are we have syllabus?请举手示意我Please raise your hand研究生助教会发给你and the teaching fellow will bring it to you如果你还没领到教学大纲的话If you don't have the syllabus.大家也可以在这个网站上下载教学大纲The syllabus is also available on this website这个网站将会成为你学习本门课程This website will become important to you to的得力助手assist you to take this class.网站上资源里有教学大纲It will include the syllabus我会不定期更新which will occasionally be revised会非常及时well and advance所有的课程资料也会放在网上Also all of the class material will be on the site包括我所展示的幻灯片including copies of slides I'm presenting包括我现在放的这个课件including this slides right now.还有关于练习考试Practice and exam和每一次阅读作业的细节要求and every ditail on the reading assignments所以大家要经常登录这个网站So you have to use this website regularly以获取最新的课程信息to keep in touch with the course今天的课会很简短Today will be a short class只是帮助大家理清本课程的研究方向What I just wanna do today is orient you介绍一下课程tell you what this course is about我知道课程都在预选阶段I know this is a shopping period所以我希望让大家and I'll give you a good sence对课程有一个整体感知what you be in for, if you took this course.首先我会向大家展示I wanna go over本门课程的安排与考核the style of the classes,以及会涉及书目等等the evaluation the readings and so on.接下来我会给出一些And then I'll give you some examples我们会涉及话题的具体实例of some of the specific topics that would be covering.但在我开始之前But before I get started,我要告诉大家这个课程的一点特别之处I have to point out something a little bit unusual about this class我们会被录像We're being filmed.本课程是"耶鲁大学公开视频课程计划"This course is one of the seven courses chosen to begin 的七个实验课程之一the Yale University Open Educational Resourse Vidio Lecture Project那么这也就意味着And what's this means is,在本年度结束时that when the year's over所有的视频录像都会在网上these vidioes well be on the internet,免费对所有人开放free for anybody who wants to see them.希望它能够通过网络传播到各个国家And ideally will be access by people across many different countries为无法通过正常渠道接受大学教育的人们some of them wouldn't normally have access提供便利to the university education我视此为耶鲁之荣I see this is a good and honorable更是对资源的充分利用use of Yale resources.当然这也是耶鲁建立and of course, this is a part of"世界学术霸权"的大计Yale's plan for world domination.因此来自媒体创新中心的So, because of this, Yale University Production Team耶鲁大学节目制作组from the Center of Media Initiatives将会在教室后面全程录制本课程is gonna be taping all the class in there up there.这一计划的目标在于The idea is that让全世界看到真实的耶鲁课堂this should be the as honor truth as possiable让观看录像的人们获得与在座各位and the classroom experence should have centrally be the same同样的知识as they're not there.因此他们需要录制的是课程So there attention to tape the lecture也就是我和后面的幻灯片to tape me and sometimes the slides,而不会拍摄同学们but not tape your faces or voices.所以没有让各位签署授权协议So we're not having you sign the release forms两点需要说明第一Two things, one thing is就我而言我会尽量注意自己的言辞personally, I have to remind myself not to use profanity因为可能会有孩子观看'Cause children maybe watching.所以我会很注意So, I'll try not to do that另一件事情就是Result to another complex thing如果你们坐在第一排If you're in the front roll,或者前几排or second roll or third roll那么你们的头部It's possible that some part of your head,背部甚至脸部your back or even your face都可能被镜头扑捉到might end up on the film.如果你在证人保护计划之内If you're on a witness protection program或者是个逃犯级人物or you're sort of fugitive就尽量不要坐在前排了you probably don't want to sit on the front roll.各位要是现在想换到后排就放心换If people wanna kind of slide back,没关系的that's fine,我不介意as I'm talking好我们可以开始了Okay, we're ready.欢迎大家选择心理学导论这门课程I'd like to welcome people to this course, Introduction to Psychology.我是保罗·布罗姆博士My name is Dr. Paul Bloom.负责教授本门课程I'm professor of this course.本课程旨在让大家And what this is going to be在宏观上对人类心智研究形成基本的认识is a comprehensive introduction to the study of the human mind.因此我们讨论的主题会非常之广泛So, we are going to cover a very, very wide range of topics 其中囊括了大脑儿童语言性including brains, children, language, sex,记忆狂躁厌恶memory, madness, disgust,歧视以及爱恋等等racism and love, and many others.我们将会探讨的问题诸如We're going to talk about things like the proper explanation如何合理解释两性差异for differences between men and women;动物究竟能否学习语言the question of whether animals can learn language;我们作呕究竟因何而起the puzzle of what grosses us out;为何我们有些人会进食过量the problem of why some of us eat too much而我们又该如何阻止and what we could do to stop;为何当人们融入团体时会变得疯狂the question of why people go crazy in groups;我们同样关注research into你能否相信自己的儿时记忆whether you could trust your childhood memories;以及为何抑郁只存在于一部分人中research into why some of us get depressed and others don't.这门课一周两节The style of this is there'll be two lectures a week,也会有指定的阅读材料as well as course readings.要想在这门课中取得好成绩Now, to do well in the course,必须要认真听讲用心阅读指定书目you have to attend both the lectures and do the readings.两者内容会有些重叠There will be some overlap.有时In some cases,讲课的内容与阅读内容紧密相连the lectures will be quite linked to the readings.但部分的阅读内容But there will be some parts of the readings并不会在课上进行讨论that will not find their way into the lectures,也会有一些课堂内容and some lectures--some entire lectures完全与阅读材料无关that will not connect at all to the readings.因此想要学好这门课程So, to pursue this course properly你就必须两者兼顾you have to do both.这也就意味着What this means is that如果你落下了一节课你就要看笔记if you miss a class you need to get notes,你可以向朋友或者身边的同学借来看and so you should get them from a friend or from the person sitting next to you.我会把幻灯片放到网上The slides are going to be made available online.你不用抄我的课件So, one of the things you don't have to do is you don't have to write this down.你可以用自己的方式做笔记You take notes any way you choose,但如果你不想记笔记but if you don't get anything on there也大可直接下载课件it'll be available online.我会把它做成黑白板式上传I'm going to post it in a format which will be black and white方便同学打印and easy to print out所以完全不用担心笔记问题so you don't have to worry about this.但我要强调But again,看课件绝对不可能替代上课attending to the slides is not a substitute for attending class.我们的教材是There's a textbook,彼得·格雷的《心理学》第五版Peter Gray's Psychology, 5th edition,我们的阅读书目是and there's also a collection of short readings,格雷·马库斯主编的《诺顿读本》The Norton Reader edited by Gary Marcus.这是一本非常经典的教材It's an excellent textbook;当然读本也同样精彩it's an excellent collection,要求大家两本书都有and you should get them both.你能够在约克街的迷宫书店买到They're available at Labyrinth bookstore on York Street或者网购or you get them online.告诉大家一个小秘密上一期课我用了I should note that last time I taught the course我指定的教材是马库斯的读本I used the Marcus Reader,上学期马文·春教授指定的是and when Professor Marvin Chun taught his course last semester 彼得·格雷的第五版教材he used Peter Gray's 5th edition textbook.所以会有很多旧书So, there may be a lot of used copies floating around.大家大可以光明正大地拿来用You should feel free to try to get one of those.下面我们来说分数The evaluation goes like this.期中和期末我们各有一次考试There is a Midterm and there is a Final.期末考试不会拖到考试周The Final will not be held in the exam period,因为长假的魅力实在太大because I like to take long vacations.所以我把考试安排在了最后一次课上It will be held the last day of class.题型分为单项选择简答The exams will be multiple choice and short answer,还有填空之类的fill in the blank, that sort of thing.考试前我会把历年真题放在网上Prior to the exams I will post previous exams online,以便大家熟悉考试模式so you have a feeling for how these exams work and so on.还会同时上传复习大纲There will also be review sessions.本课程将于开学后三周开课Starting at the beginning of the third week of class也就是自下下周开始每周一上课that is not next week but the week after on each Monday我会提出一系列问题I'm going to put up a brief question or set of questions,要同学们思考并回答which you have to answer大家的答案要在周五前交给研究生助教and your answers need to be sent to your teaching fellow.周五会将各位研究生助教安排给你们大家And you'll be given a teaching fellow, assigned one, by Friday.这个作业不会很难This is not meant to be difficult.几分钟就能完成It's not meant to be more than five, ten minutes of work,这个作业的目的but the point of the question,要十几到二十分钟完成吧--15, 20 minutes of work,这个作业的目的在于激励大家but the point of the question is to motivate people跟上课程的进度并去阅读材料to keep up with the material and do the readings.这些作业会被评为"及格"或"不及格"These questions will be marked pass, fail.我希望大家在所有的问题上都能及格I expect most everybody could pass all of the questions但这只是想让大家不要掉队督促一下but it's just to keep you on track and keep you going.我们还要写一篇简短的书评There is a book review, a short book review,在临近期末的时候完成to be written towards near the end of the class.我在之后的课上会给大家讲详细的要求I'll give details about that later on in the semester.我还要求你们以被试的身份去参加实验And there's also an experimental participation requirement,下个星期我会给你们and next week I'll hand out一份关于要求的介绍a piece of paper describing the requirement.这项要求的重点在于让你们去亲身体会The point of the requirement is to give you all experience看看心理学到底在研究些什么actually seeing what psychological research is about同时也能够为我们的研究as well as to give us提供数百名的被试hundreds of subjects to do our experiments on.有时会有同学问到The issue sometimes comes up as to如何才能学好这门课程how to do well in the course.下面我来告诉你们该怎样做Here's how to do well.不要缺课Attend all the classes.一定要阅读指定的材料Keep up with the readings.最好是在上课前就已经阅读过指定材料Ideally, keep up with the readings before you come to class.我强烈建议大家建立一些学习小组And one thing I would strongly suggest is to form some sort of study groups,正式的或非正式的都可以either formally or informally.这样在考试之前Have people you could talk to你就能和大家一起讨论when the--prior to the exams or—她拍了下她旁边的人she's patting somebody next to her.希望你能认识他I hope you know him.事实上我会安排大家相互认识And in fact, what I'm going to do,这节课不会了因为这是节试听课not this class because it's shopping period.我不知道下节课会有谁来有什么情况I don't know who's coming next class, or what不过我会在课程开始的时候but I'll set up a few minutes prior,先安排几分钟at the beginning of the class,让你们向前后左右的同学for people just to introduce进行一番自我介绍themselves to the person next to them这样你们就能在这个班里so they have some sort of resource认识一些新同学了in the class.这是一门大班课程Now, this is a large class,如果你并不打算和周围人相互介绍的话and if you don't do anything about it,也就不会有什么人能够认识你了it can be very anonymous.也许你们有些人会选择这种做法And some of you may choose to pursue it that way当然这样做是完全可以的and that's totally fine.但我还是建议你们But what I would suggest you do与我们大家建立些联系is establish some contact with us,不论是和我还是和研究生助教either with me or with any of the teaching fellows,我会在下周向你们介绍研究生助教们and I'll introduce the teaching fellows sometime next week.你们可以在课前或课后与我们交谈You could talk to us at the beginning or at the end of class.如果没有什么特殊情况Unless there are special circumstances,我一般都会至少提前十分钟到教室I always try to come at least ten minutes early,我也愿意在课后和大家一起讨论问题and I am willing to stay late to talk to people.你们可以在我的办公时间来找我You could come by during my office hours,教学大纲上有写我的办公时间which are on the syllabus,你们也可以通过电子邮件跟我预约and you could send me e-mail and set up an appointment.我非常愿意同学生们一起讨论些好的想法I'm very willing to talk to students about intellectual ideas,讨论下学习困难之类的话题about course problems and so on.如果你们在校园里碰见了我And if you see me at some point just on campus,你们可以向我进行自我介绍you could introduce yourself碰见我教的学生我会很开心的and I'd like to meet people from this class.那么我再强调一遍So, again, I want to stress你们可以选择在这门课上默默无闻you have the option of staying anonymous in this class,但是你们也可以选择站出来but you also have the option of seeking out跟我们多多接触and making some sort of contact with us.好了Okay.刚才讲了些课程的规定That's the formal stuff of the course.那这门课讲了些什么呢What's this course about?与其他很多课程不同Unlike a lot of other courses,一些学生是带着非同寻常的动机some people come to Intro Psychology来上心理学导论这门课的with some unusual motivations.也许是你觉得自己疯了Maybe you're crazy所以希望能够不那么疯and hope to become less crazy .也许你想学会如何更好地学习Maybe you want to learn how to study better,想提升你的性生活质量improve your sex life,想为自己释梦interpret your dreams,想多交点交朋友and win friends想学会如何影响他人and influence people.作为选择这门课程的理由Those are not necessarily bad reasons这些倒也并不算太差to take this course,当然除了性这个方面and with the exception of the sex part,这门课实际上还是能够帮助你们this course might actually help you out解决一些问题的with some of these things.科学的心理学研究The study of scientific psychology能让你们更多地了解has a lot of insights of real world与我们日常面对的真实问题有关的relevance to real problems真实的世界that we face in our everyday lives.当这些问题出现的时候And I'm going to try-- and when these issues come up—我会强调这些问题I'm going to try to stress them并让你们试着思考and make you try to think about the extent想想我将讲到的实验室研究to which the laboratory research I'll be talking about对你们日常生活的影响can affect your everyday life:你们是如何学习的how you study,是如何与他人交流的how you interact with people,是如何说服他人去认同别人观点的how you might try to persuade somebody of something else,哪种心理治疗最适合你what sort of therapy works best for you.但实际上我觉得这门课的总体目标But the general goals of this course要比上面的这些更有意思are actually I think even more interesting than that.我所要做的What I want to do is就是向大家介绍在人文领域里to provide a state of the art introduction对最重要主题to the most important topic也就是对我们人类的研究现状that there is: us.人类大脑如何运作How the human mind works,我们如何思考how we think,又是什么让我们变成了现在的样子what makes us what we are.我们将从多个方面来理解这些问题And we'll be approaching this from a range of directions.所以传统上So, traditionally,心理学通常被分为以下五个子领域psychology is often broken up into the following--into five sub-areas:神经科学Neuroscience,通过观察大脑反应来研究心理which is the study of the mind by looking at the brain;发展心理学这是我的主要研究方向developmental, which is the area which I focus mostly on,研究人类是如何成长发育以及学习的which is trying to learn about how people develop and grow and learn;认知心理学cognitive,也许是五个子领域里which is the one term of the five对你们有些人来说最不熟悉的一个领域that might be unfamiliar to some of you,它用计算机方法来研究心理but it refers to a sort of computational approach to studying the mind,通常将心理比作计算机often viewing the mind on analogy with a computer并探究人类如何行动如言语理解and looking at how people do things like understand language,物体辨认游戏等等recognize objects, play games, and so on.还有社会心理学There is social,主要研究人类的群体行为which is the study of how people act in groups,如何与他人交流how people act with other people.最后就是临床心理学And there is clinical,这也许是当人们提到心理学时which is maybe the aspect of psychology最先想到的方面that people think of immediately when they hear psychology,它主要研究心理健康和心理疾病which is the study of mental health and mental illness.我们会涉及以上所有的领域And we'll be covering all of those areas.我们还会涉及一些相关的领域We'll also be covering a set of related areas.我坚信仅仅局限于心理学学科的学习I am convinced that you cannot study the mind是不可能让你有能力去研究人类心理的solely by looking at the discipline of psychology.心理学学科充满了心理如何发展的问题The discipline of psychology spills over to issues of how the mind has evolved.经济学和游戏理论如今已经成为了Economics and game theory are now essential tools理解人类思维和人类行为的重要方法for understanding human thought and human behavior—这些问题涉及哲学计算机科学those issues connecting to philosophy, computer science,人类学文学神学anthropology, literature, theology,以及许多其他的科学领域and many, many other domains.因此这门课程涉及到的方面将相当的广泛So, this course will be wide ranging in that sense.到现在为止我一直都在进行一些概述At this point I've been speaking in generalities我想通过给出五个so I want to close this introductory class我们将会涉及到的一些主题的例子by giving five examples of the sorts of topics来结束这节导论课we'll be covering.我以我们下周一要讨论的主题And I'll start with the topic that we'll be covering作为开始next week on Monday大脑The brain.这是一个大脑This is a brain.实际上这是个特殊人物的大脑In fact, it's a specific person's brain,有意思的是大脑上有个白色的小标记and what's interesting about the brain is that little white mark there.这是个女人的大脑It's her brain.是特丽·夏沃的大脑It's Terri Schiavo's brain.你们能更好地从她的照片上认出她You recognize her more from pictures like that.想象一下这样的情况And what a case like this,某人正陷于昏迷之中where somebody is in a coma,由于脑部损伤而失去了意识is without consciousness as a result of damage to the brain,这是心理活动的生理属性毫无修饰的图解is a stark illustration of the physical nature of mental life.我们所拥有的一切的生理基础The physical basis for everything that we normally hold dear,如自由意志意识道德和情绪like free will, consciousness, morality and emotions,我们的课程将会以此作为开始and that's what we'll begin the course with,讨论生理的东西如何能产生心理活动talking about how a physical thing can give rise to mental life.我们会讨论很多与孩子有关的问题We'll talk a lot about children.这实际上是个特殊的小孩This is actually a specific child.是我儿子扎卡里It's my son, Zachary,我的小儿子my younger son,扮成蜘蛛侠的样子dressed up as Spider-Man,不过这是在万圣节but it is Halloween.不对不是万圣节No, it's not Halloween.这个还是有故事可说的Well, there's more to say about that.我主要研究儿童的发展I study child development for a living我对很多问题都感兴趣and I'm interested in several questions.其中一个便是发展的问题So, one question is just the question of development.这个教室里的所有人都能讲英语Everybody in this room can speak也能听得懂英语and understand English.大家对于这个世界是如何运作的Everybody in this room has some understanding身体是如何运作的of how the world works,多少都有一些了解how physical things behave.大家对于他人对于人类如何行动Everybody in this room has some understanding of other people,都多少有些了解and how people behave.发展心理学家们所关心的问题And the question that preoccupies developmental psychologists 就是我们如何获得这些知识的is how do we come to have this knowledge,特别是and in particular,这其中有多少是固有的how much of it is hard-wired,内在的天生的built-in, innate.又有多少是文化的产物And how much of it is the product of culture,语言的产物或是教育的产物of language, of schooling?发展心理学家们使用了许多巧妙的方法And developmental psychologists use many ingenious methods试图将这些因素分开to try to pull these apart试图找出人性的基本成分and try to figure out what are the basic components究竟是什么of human nature.还有一个连续性的问题There's also the question of continuity.这时的扎卡里To what extent is Zachary, at that age,会在多大程度上一直保持不变going to be that way forever?你的人生又有多少是由命运决定的呢To what extent is your fate sealed?又在多大的程度上可能To what extent could--如果在你五岁的时候我见过你if I were to meet you when you were five years old那我可以描述出现在的你吗I could describe the way you are now?诗人威廉·华兹华斯写道The poet William Wordsworth wrote,"三岁定终身""The child is father to the man,"意思是你可以从孩子儿时的身影中and what this means is that you can see within every child 看出他或她成人后的样子the adult he or she will become.我们会去探索并质疑此话的正确性We will look and ask the question whether this is true.你的人格真会是这样的吗Is it true for your personality?你的兴趣也是这样吗Is it true for your interests?你的智力是这样的吗Is it true for your intelligence?与发展有关的另一个问题是Another question having to do with development什么让我们成为了如今的样子is what makes us the way we are?我们在很多方面都有所不同We're different in a lot of ways.大家的口味不尽相同The people in this room differ according to their taste in food.他们的智商也不同They differ according to their IQs;他们自信还是害羞whether they're aggressive or shy;他们是否喜欢男人女人whether they're attracted to males, females,都喜欢还是都不喜欢both or neither;他们是否擅长于音乐whether they are good at music;他们是政治上的自由派还是保守派whether they are politically liberal or conservative.为什么我们会不同Why are we different?对我们为什么不同的解释又是什么What's the explanation for why we're different?再一次And again,这可以从基因和环境的角度this could be translated in terms of加以理解a question of genes and environment.在多大程度上我们被我们的基因所决定To what extent are things the result of the genes wepossess?在多大程度上我们的个性To what extent are our individual natures the result of被如何抚养所决定how we were raised?在多大的程度上这些区别And to what extent are they best explained可以从相互作用的角度得到最佳的解释in terms of an interaction?一个常见的理论例如One common theory, for instance,是我们的父母塑造了我们的人格is that we are shaped by our parents.这一点被一位英国诗人菲利普·拉金This was best summarized most famously很好地总结了他写道by the British poet Philip Larkin who wrote,他们害了你They mess you up,你爸和你妈your mum and dad.他们不是故意的但事实却如此They may not mean to but they do.他们将他们身上的毛病传给了你They fill you with the faults they had还有灌输了许多其他的毛病and add some extra just for you.他说得对吗Is he right?这是很有争议的It's very controversial.你有一系列的You-- It's been a series of--关于父母在多大程度上起作用a huge controversy in the popular culture在流行文化里是有很大争议的to the extent of which parents matter我们将会在这门课里用很多的时间and this is an issue which will preoccupy us来讲这个问题for much of the course.另一个问题A different question:是什么使一个人如此迷人What makes somebody attractive?这可以在很多层面上问及And this can be asked at all sorts of levels但一个简单的层面就是什么才是好看but a simple level is what makes for a pretty face?这些就是So, these are,根据投票according to ratings,非常迷人的面孔very attractive faces.它们不是真人的面孔They are not the faces of real people.屏幕上面的这些是电脑生成的What's on the screen are computer generated faces一个高加索男性和一个高加索女性的面孔of a Caucasian male and a Caucasian female他们在现实世界中并不存在who don't exist in the real world.但是通过使用电脑合成But through using this sort of computer generation,然后问人们他们觉得这个长相如何and then asking people what they think of this face,那个长相如何what they think of that face,科学家多少了解到scientists have come to some sense怎样才算是迷人的面孔as to what really makes a face attractive,无论是在一种文化下还是跨文化的both within cultures and across cultures.这是当我们谈到社会行为时And that's something which we're going to devote some time to 要花一些时间去讲的东西when we talk about social behavior,特别是当我们谈到性的时候and in particular, when we talk about sex.迷人或是美丽并非仅仅指性Not all attractiveness, not all beauty of course, is linked to sex.比如说熊猫So, pandas for instance,像这只熊猫就是公认的可爱like this panda, are notoriously cute,关于这我并没有什么可说的and I don't have anything to say about it really.这只是一张可爱的图片It's just a cute picture .道德在我们生活中是极为核心的Morality is extremely central to our lives,我们要在大部分课中探讨的and a deep question, which we will struggle with一个深入的问题throughout most of the course,就是善与恶的问题is the question of good and evil,恶与善evil and good.这三张图展示了不同种类的恶These three pictures exemplify different sorts of evil.你可以将此称作机构性邪恶What you could call institutional evil产生于某人残忍地对待他人by somebody behaving cruelly toward somebody else,或许不是出于恶意perhaps not due to malice而是由于她所处的境况而导致but because of the situation that she's in.这是一张奥萨马·本·拉登的照片It has picture of Osama bin Laden,他是个被政治原因所驱使的杀人狂a mass murderer driven by political cause?然后是底下的这个人And then there's this guy on the bottom.有人知道他是谁吗Anybody know who he is?泰德·邦迪谁看出来了Ted Bundy. Who got that?给这位同学一个特写Film that man .不用了No.没错就是泰德·邦迪Ted Bundy, exactly,这就像是在我们去了解and that's like, before we get into诸如邪恶事物的专业知识之前the technical stuff like crazy-evil,我们会先想到and we're going to have to come to terms为什么人们会那样with why some people are like that.同样的情况又再次出现了And again, the same situation comes up.人性究竟是善还是恶Is it part of your nature to be good or bad或者说是否应当更多地归因于所处的环境or is it largely due to the situation that you fall in?有许多非常引人注目的实验And there's a lot of some quite spectacular experiments试图把这两者分开that try to tease that apart.如果我们要谈论恶If we're going to talk about evil,那么我们也应该谈谈善we should also talk about good.这是些众所周知的好人的照片These are pictures of two notoriously good men,奥斯卡·辛德勒和保罗·卢斯赛伯吉纳Oskar Schindler and Paul Rusesabagina,两人在不同的历史时期each who at different times in history冒着生命危险挽救了很多人的生命saved the lives of many, many people at great risk to themselves.大屠杀中的辛德勒Schindler in the Holocaust,以及另外一个人and then the other guy,我不知道他的名字怎么发音in and I can't pronounce his name卢斯赛伯吉纳在卢旺达Rusesabagina, in Rwanda.关于这两个人都有很好的电影And they both had real good movies made about them.但这些例子所表明的就是But what's interesting with these cases is你不可能提前预知you couldn't have predicted ahead of time他们会成为英雄that they would be heroes.。
本文部分内容来自网络整理，本司不为其真实性负责，如有异议或侵权请及时联系，本司将立即删除！== 本文为word格式，下载后可方便编辑和修改！ ==耶鲁大学心理学导论篇一：耶鲁大学心理学导论笔记整理精华版耶鲁大学公开课心理学导论讲师：Paul Bloom目录1.Introduction导论2. Foundations: This is Your Brain 这是你的大脑3. Foundations: Freud 弗洛伊德4. Foundations: Skinner 斯金纳5. What Is It Like to Be a Baby: The Development of Thought 思维发展历程6. How Do We Communicate?: Language in the Brain, Mouth and the Hands 我们如何交流7. Conscious of the Present; Conscious of the Past: Language (cont.); Vision and Memor当前意识8. Conscious of the Present; Conscious of the Past: Vision and Memory (cont.) 意识的呈现9. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Love (Guest Lecture by Professor Peter Salovey) 进化和情感10. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Evolution and Rationality 进化情感理性11. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Emotions, Part I 进化情感理性①12. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Emotions, Part II进化情感理性②13. Why Are People Different?: Differences 人们为什么会有差异14. What Motivates Us: Sex 什么激发我们性15. A Person in the World of People: Morality 一个人在这个世界上道德16. A Person in the World of People: Self and Other, Part I 一个人在这个世界上①17. A Person in the World of People: Self and Other, Part II 一个人在这个世界上②18. What Happens When Things Go Wrong: Mental Illness, Part I 精神病①19. What Happens When Things Go Wrong: Mental Illness, Part II 精神病②20. The Good Life: Happiness 最好的生活—高兴第一节课 Introduction一、简介，目的，书目1. 目的本课程旨在让大家在宏观上对人类心智研究形成基本的认识, 科学了解与日常生活相关的真实世界2. 主题:非常广泛，其中囊括了大脑；儿童；语言；性；记忆；狂躁；厌恶；歧视以及爱恋等等..探讨的问题诸如，如何合理解释两性差异，动物究竟能否学习语言；我们作呕究竟因何而起，为何我们有些人会进食过量，而我们又该如何阻止，为何当人们融入团体时会变得疯狂；我们同样关注，你能否相信自己的儿时记忆，以及为何抑郁只存在于一部分人中；最主要的主题，也就是对我们人类的研究现状，人类大脑如何运作，我们如何思考，又是什么让我们变成了现在的样子3. 书目教材：彼得?格雷的《心理学》第五版阅读书目：格雷?马库斯《诺顿读本》二、心理学分支传统上心理学通常被分为以下五个子领域:1. 神经科学:通过观察大脑反应来研究心理；2. 发展心理学:研究人类是如何成长，发育以及学习的；3. 认知心理学:也许是五个子领域里对你们有些人来说最不熟悉的一个领域，它用计算机方法来研究心里，通常将心理比作计算机并探究人类如何行动；如语言理解，物体辨认，游戏等等；4. 社会心理学:主要研究人类的群体行为，如何与他人交流；5. 临床心理学:它主要研究心理健康和心理疾病；心理学学科充满了心理如何发展的问题，经济学和游戏理论如今已经成为了理解人类思维和人类行为的重要方法，这些问题涉及哲学、计算机科学、人类学、文学、神学以及许多其他的科学领域；因此这门课程涉及到的方面将相当的广泛三、主题1. 大家对于他人、对于人类如何行动，都多少有些了解，发展心理学家们所关心的问题就是我们如何获得这些知识的，特别是这其中有多少是固有的、内在的、天生的、又有多少是文化的产物、语言的产物、或是教育的产物；发展心理学家们使用了许多巧妙的方运决定的呢，又在多大的程度上可能如果在你五岁的时候我见过你，那我可以描述出现在的你吗；3. 诗人威廉.华兹华斯写道‘三岁定终身’意思是你可以从孩子儿时的身影中看出他或她成人后的样子；我们会去探索并质疑此话的正确性，你的人格真会是这样的吗，你的兴趣也是这样吗，你的智力是这样的吗，与发展有关的另一个问题是什么让我们成为了如今的样子，我们在很多方面都有所不同，大家的口味不尽相同，他们的智商也不同，他们自信还是害羞，他们是否喜欢男人、女人，都喜欢还是都不喜欢；他们是否擅长于音乐，他们是政治上的自由派还是保守派；为什么我们会不同，对我们为什么不同的解释又是什么；再一次，这可以从基因和环境的角度加以理解，在多大程度上我们被我们的基因所决定，在多大程度上我们的个性被如何抚养所决定，在多大的程度上这些区别可以从相互作用的角度得到最佳的解释；4. 我们的父母塑造了我们的人格，这一点被一位英国诗人菲利普.拉金，很好地总结了，他写道‘他们害了你’你爸和你妈；他们不是故意的，但事实却如此，他们将他们身上的毛病传给了你，还有灌输了许多其他的毛病；这是很有争议的；关于父母在多大程度上起作用，在流行文化里是有很大争议的；另一个问题，是什么使一个人如此迷人，这可以在很多层面上问及，但一个简单的层面就是什么才是好看；道德在我们生活中是极为核心的，在大部分课中探讨的一个深入的问题，就是善与恶的问题。
Introduction to Psychology: Lecture 3 Transcript January 24, 2007 << backProfessor Paul Bloom: Okay. The last class we talked about the brain. Now we're going to talk a little bit about some foundations. So today and Monday we're going to talk about two very big ideas and these ideas are associated with Sigmund Freud and B. F. Skinner and are psychoanalysis and behaviorism. And I want to talk about psychoanalysis today and behaviorism next week.Now, one of these things--One of the things that makes these theories so interesting is their scope. Most of the work we're going to talk about in this class--Most of the ideas are narrow. So, we're going to talk about somebody's idea about racial prejudice but that's not a theory of language acquisition. We'll talk about theories of schizophrenia but they're not explanations of sexual attractiveness. Most theories are specialized theories but these two views are grand theories. They're theories of everything, encompassing just about everything that matters, day-to-day life, child development, mental illness, religion, war, love. Freud and Skinner had explanations of all of these.Now, this is not a history course. I have zero interest in describing historical figures in psychology just for the sake of telling you about the history of the field. What I want to tell you about though is--I want to talk about these ideas because so much rests on them and, even more importantly, a lot of these ideas have critical influence on how we think about the present. And that's there. [pointing at the slide]Now, for better or worse, we live in a world profoundly affected by Sigmund Freud. If I had to ask you to choose a--no, name a famous psychologist, the answer of most of you would be Freud. He's the most famous psychologist ever and he's had a profound influence on the twentieth and twenty-first century. Some biographical information: He was born in the 1850s. He spent most of his life in Vienna, Austria, but he died in London and he escaped to London soon after retreating there at the beginning of World War II as the Nazis began to occupy where he lived.He's one of the most famous scholars ever but he's not known for any single discovery. Instead, he's known for the development of an encompassing theory of mind, one that he developed over the span of many decades. He was in his time extremely well known, a celebrity recognized on the street, and throughout his life. He was a man of extraordinary energy and productivity, in part because he was a very serious cocaine addict, butalso just in general. He was just a high-energy sort of person. He was up for the Nobel Prize in medicine and in literature; didn't get either one of them; didn't get the prize in medicine because AlbertEinstein--Everybody loves Albert Einstein. Well, Albert Einstein really wrote a letter because they asked for opinions of other Nobel Prizes. He wrote a letter saying, "Don't give the prize to Freud. He doesn't deserve a Nobel Prize. He's just a psychologist." Well, yeah. Okay.While he's almost universally acclaimed as a profoundly important intellectual figure, he's also the object of considerable dislike. This is in part because of his character. He was not a very nice man in many ways. He was deeply ambitious to the cause of promoting psychoanalysis, to the cause of presenting his view and defending it, and he was often dishonest, extremely brutal to his friends, and terrible to his enemies. He was an interesting character.My favorite Freud story was as he was leaving Europe during the rise of the Nazis, as he was ready to go to England from, I think, either Germany or Austria, he had to sign a letter from the Gestapo. Gestapo agents intercepted him and demanded he sign a letter saying that at no point had he been threatened or harassed by the Gestapo. So he signs the letter and then he writes underneath it, "The Gestapo has not harmed me in any way. In fact, I highly recommend the Gestapo to everybody." It's--He had a certain aggression to him. He was also--He's also disliked, often hated, because of his views. He was seen as a sexual renegade out to destroy the conception of people as good and rational and pure beings. And when the Nazis rose to power in the 1930s he was identified as a Jew who was devoted to destroying the most sacred notions of Christianity and to many, to some extent, many people see him this way. And to some extent, this accusation has some truth to it.Freud made claims about people that many of us, maybe most of us, would rather not know. Well, okay. What did he say? Well, if you ask somebody who doesn't like Freud what he said, they'll describe some of the stupider things he said and, in fact, Freud said a lot of things, some of which were not very rational. For instance, he's well known for his account of phallic symbols, arguing certain architectural monuments are subconsciously developed as penile representations. And related to this, he developed the notorious theory of penis envy. And penis envy is an account of a developmental state that every one of you who is female has gone through, according to Freud. And the idea is that you discovered at some point in your development that you lacked a penis. This is not--This is a catastrophe. And so, each of you inferred at that point that you had been castrated. You had once had a penis but somebody had taken it from you. You then turn to your father and love your father because your fatherhas a penis, so he's a sort of penis substitute. You reject your mother, who's equally unworthy due to her penis lack, and that shapes your psychosexual development.Now, if that's the sort of thing you know about Freud, you are not going to have a very high opinion of him or of his work, but at the core of Freud's declamation, the more interesting ideas, is a set of claims of a man's intellectual importance. And the two main ones are this. The two main ones involve the existence of an unconscious, unconscious motivation, and the notion of unconscious dynamics or unconscious conflict which lead to mental illnesses, dreams, slips of the tongue and so on.The first idea 鈥� the idea of unconscious motivation 鈥� involvesrejecting the claim that you know what you're doing. So, suppose you fall in love with somebody and you decide you want to marry them and then somebody was asked to ask you why and you'd say something like, "Well, I'm ready to get married this stage of my life; I really love the person; the person is smart and attractive; I want to have kids" whatever. And maybe this is true. But a Freudian might say that even if this is yourhonest answer 鈥�you're not lying to anybody else 鈥搒till, there aredesires and motivations that govern your behavior that you may not be aware of. So, in fact, you might want to marry John because he reminds you of your father or because you want to get back at somebody for betraying you.If somebody was to tell you this, you'd say, "That's total nonsense," but that wouldn't deter a Freudian. The Freudian would say that these processes are unconscious so of course you just don't know what's happening. So, the radical idea here is you might not know what--why you do what you do and this is something we accept for things like visual perception. We accept that you look around the world and you get sensations and you figure out there is a car, there is a tree, there is a person. And you're just unconscious of how this happens but it's unpleasant and kind of frightening that this could happen, that this could apply to things like why you're now studying at Yale, why you feel the way you do towards your friends, towards your family.Now, the marriage case is extreme but Freud gives a lot of simpler examples where this sort of unconscious motivation might play a role. So, have you ever liked somebody or disliked them and not known why? Have you ever found yourself in a situation where you're doing something or you're arguing for something or making a decision for reasons that you can't fully articulate? Have you ever forgotten somebody's name at exactly the wrong time? Have you ever called out the wrong name in the throes of passion?This is all the Freudian unconscious. The idea is that we do these things--these things are explained in terms of cognitive systems that we're not aware of.Now, all of this would be fine if your unconscious was a reasonable, rational computer, if your unconscious was really smart and looking out for your best interest. But, according to Freud, that's not the way it works. According to Freud, there are three distinct processes going on in your head and these are in violent internal conflict. And the way you act and the way you think are products, not of a singular rational being, but of a set of conflicting creatures. And these three parts are the id, the ego, and the superego and they emerge developmentally.The id, according to Freud, is present at birth. It's the animal part of the self. It wants to eat, drink, pee, poop, get warm, and have sexual satisfaction. It is outrageously stupid. It works on what Freud called, "The Pleasure Principle." It wants pleasure and it wants it now. And that's,according to Freud, how a human begins 鈥� pure id. Freud had thiswonderful phrase, "polymorphous perversity," this pure desire for pleasure.Now, unfortunately, life doesn't work like that. What you want isn't always what you get and this leads to a set of reactions to cope with the fact that pleasure isn't always there when you want it either by planning how to satisfy your desires or planning how to suppress them. And this system is known as the ego, or the self. And it works on the "Reality Principle." And it works on the principle of trying to figure out how to make your way through the world, how to satisfy your pleasures or, in somecases, how to give up on them. And the ego 鈥� the emergence of the ego for Freud--symbolizes the origin of consciousness.Finally, if this was all there it might be a simpler world, but Freud had a third component, that of the superego. And the superego is the internalized rules of parents in society. So, what happens in the course of development is, you're just trying to make your way through the world and satisfy your desires, but sometimes you're punished for them. Some desires are inappropriate, some actions are wrong, and you're punished for it. The idea is that you come out; you get in your head a superego, a conscience. In these movies, there'd be a little angel above your head that tells you when things are wrong. And basically your self, the ego, is in between the id and the superego.One thing to realize, I told you the id is outrageously stupid. It just says, "Oh, hungry, food, sex, oh, let's get warm, oh." The superego is also stupid. The superego, point to point, is not some brilliant moral philosopher telling you about right and wrong. The superego would say, "You should be ashamed of yourself. That's disgusting. Stop doing that. Oh." And in between these two screaming creatures, one of you; one of them telling you to seek out your desires, the other one telling you, "you should be ashamed of yourself," is you, is the ego.Now, according to Freud, most of this is unconscious. So, we see bubbling up to the top, we feel, we experience ourselves. And the driving of the id, the forces of the id and the forces of the superego, are unconscious in that we cannot access them. We don't know what--It's like the workings of our kidneys or our stomachs. You can't introspect and find them. Rather, they do their work without conscious knowledge.Now, Freud developed this. This is the Freudian theory in broad outline. He extended it and developed it into a theory of psychosexual development. And so, Freud's theory is, as I said before, a theory of everyday life, of decisions, of errors, of falling in love, but it's also a theory of child development. So, Freud believed there were five stages of personality development, and each is associated with a particular erogenous zone. And Freud believed, as well, that if you have a problem at a certain stage, if something goes wrong, you'll be stuck there. So, according to Freud, there are people in this room who are what they are because they got stuck in the oral stage or the anal stage. And that's not good.So, the oral stage is when you start off. The mouth is associated with pleasure. Everything is sucking and chewing and so on. And the problem for Freud is premature weaning of a child. Depriving him of the breast, could lead to serious problems in his personality development. It could make him, as the phrase goes, into an oral person. And his orality could be described literally. Freud uses it as an explanation for why somebody might eat too much or chew gum or smoke. They're trying to achieve satisfaction through their mouth of a sort they didn't get in this very early stage of development. But it can also be more abstract. If your roommate is dependent and needy, you could then go to your roommate and say, "You are an oral person. The first year of your life did not go well."A phrase even more popular is the anal stage and that happens after the oral stage. And problems can emerge if toilet training is not handled correctly. If you have problems during those years of life, you could become an anal personality, according to Freud, and your roommate could say, "Your problem is you're too anal." And, according to Freud, literally,it meant you are unwilling to part with your own feces. It's written down here. I know it's true. And the way it manifests itself, as you know from just how people talk, is you're compulsive, you're clean, you're stingy. This is the anal personality.Then it gets a little bit more complicated. The next stage is the phallic stage. Actually, this is not much more complicated. The focus of pleasure shifts to the genitals and fixation can lead to excessive masculinity in females or in males or if you're female a need for attention or domination. Now, at this point something really interesting happens called the "Oedipus Complex." And this is based on the story, the mythical story of a king who killed his father and married his mother. And, according to Freud, this happens to all of us in this way. Well, all of us. By "all of us," Freud meant "men."So, here's the idea. You're three or four years old. You're in the phallic stage. So, what are you interested in? Well, you're interested in your penis and then you seek an external object. Freud's sort of vague about this, but you seek some sort of satisfaction. But who is out there who'd be sweet and kind and loving and wonderful? Well, Mom. So the child infers, "Mom is nice, I love Mom." So far so--And so this is not crazy; a little boy falling in love with his mother. Problem: Dad's in the way.Now, this is going to get progressively weirder but I will have to say, as the father of two sons, both sons went through a phase where theyexplicitly said they wanted to marry Mommy. And me 鈥�if something badhappened to me that wouldn't be the worst thing in the world. So, there's this. But now it gets a little bit aggressive. So, the idea is the child determines that he's going to kill his father. Every three- andfour-year-old boy thinks this. But then because children, according to Freud, don't have a good sense of the boundary between their mind and theworld, which is a problem 鈥�the problem is they don't 鈥�they thinktheir father can tell that they're plotting to kill him and they figure their father is now angry at them. And then they ask themselves, "What's the worst thing Dad could do to me?" And the answer is castration. So, they come to the conclusion that their father is going to castrate them because of their illicit love for their Mom. And then they say, "Dad wins" and then they don't think about sex for several years and that's the latency stage.The latency stage is they've gone through this huge thing with Mom and Dad, "fell in love with Mom, wanted to kill my father, Dad was going to castrate me, fell out of love with Mom, out of the sex business." And then,sex is repressed until you get to the genital stage. And the genital stageis the stage we are all in 鈥� the healthy adult stage. Now that you'readults and you've gone through all the developmental stages, where do you stand? You're not out of the woods yet because unconscious mechanisms are still--Even if you haven't got fixated on anything, there's still this dynamic going on all the time with your id, your ego and your superego. And the idea is your superego--Remember, your superego is stupid. So, your superego isn't only telling you not to do bad things, it's telling you not to think bad things. So, what's happening is your id is sending up all of this weird, sick stuff, all of these crazy sexual and violent desires, "Oh, I'll kill him. I'll have sex with that. I'll have extra helpings on my dessert." And your superego is saying, "No, no, no." And this stuff is repressed. It doesn't even make it to consciousness.The problem is Freud had a very sort of hydraulic theory of what goes on and some of this stuff slips out and it shows up in dreams and it shows up in slips of the tongue. And in exceptional cases, it shows up in certain clinical symptoms. So what happens is, Freud described a lot of normal life in terms of different ways we use to keep that horrible stuff from the id making its way to consciousness. And he called these "defense mechanisms." You're defending yourself against the horrible parts of yourself and some of these make a little bit of sense.One way to describe this in a non-technical, non-Freudian way is, there are certain things about ourselves we'd rather not know. There are certain desires we'd rather not know and we have ways to hide them. So, for instance, there's sublimation. Sublimation is you might have a lot of energy, maybe sexual energy or aggressive energy, but instead of turning it to a sexual or aggressive target what you do is you focus it in some other way. So, you can imagine a great artist like Picasso turning the sexual energy into his artwork.There is displacement. Displacement is you have certain shameful thoughts or desires and you refocus them more appropriately. A boy who's bullied by his father may hate his father and want to hurt him but since this would--this is very shameful and difficult. The boy might instead kick the dog and think he hates the dog because that's a more acceptable target.There is projection. Projection is, I have certain impulses I am uncomfortable with, so rather than own them myself, I project them to somebody else. A classic example for Freud is homosexual desires. The idea is that I feel this tremendous lust towards you, for instance, and--any of you, all of you, you three, and I'm ashamed of this lust so what I say is, "Hey. Are you guys looking at me in a sexual manner? Are you lustingafter me? How disgusting," because what I do is I take my own desires and I project it to others. And Freud suggested, perhaps not implausibly, that men who believe other men--who are obsessed with the sexuality of other men, are themselves projecting away their own sexual desires.There is rationalization, which is that when you do something or think something bad you rationalize it and you give it a more socially acceptable explanation. A parent who enjoys smacking his child will typically not say, "I enjoy smacking my child." Rather he'll say, "It's for the child's own good. I'm being a good parent by doing this."And finally, there is regression, which is returning to an earlier stage of development. And you actually see this in children. In times of stress and trauma, they'll become younger, they will act younger. They might cry. They might suck their thumb, seek out a blanket or so on. Now, these are all mechanisms that for Freud are not the slightest bit pathological. They are part of normal life. Normally, we do these things to keep an equilibrium among the different systems of the unconscious, but sometimes it doesn't work. Sometimes things go awry and what happens is a phrase that's not currently used in psychology but was popular during Freud's time: hysteria.Hysteria includes phenomena like hysterical blindness and hysterical deafness, which is when you cannot see and cannot hear even though there'snothing physiologically wrong with you 鈥�paralysis, trembling, panicattacks, gaps of memory including amnesia and so on. And the idea is that these are actually symptoms. These are symptoms of mechanisms going on to keep things unconscious. It's a common enough idea in movies. Often in movies what happens is that somebody goes to an analyst. They have some horrible problem. They can't remember something or they have some sort of blackouts and so on. And the analyst tells them something and at one point they get this insight and they realize what--why they've blinded themselves, why they can't remember, and for Freud this is what happens. Freud originally attempted to get these memories out through hypnosis but then moved to the mechanism of free association and, according to Freud, the idea is patients offer resistance to this and then the idea of a psychoanalyst is to get over the resistance and help patients get insight.The key notion of psychoanalysis is your problems are--actually reflect deeper phenomena. You're hiding something from yourself, and once you know what's going on to deeper phenomena your problems will go away. I'm going to give you an example of a therapy session. Now, this is not a Freudian analysis. We'll discuss later on in the course what a Freudian analysis is, but this is not a pure Freudian analysis. A Freudian analysis, ofcourse, is lying on a couch; does not see their therapist; their therapist is very nondirective. But I'm going to present this as an example here because it illustrates so many of the Freudian themes, particularly themes about dreams, the importance of dreams, about repression and about hidden meaning.So, this is from a television episode and the character's--Many--Some of you may have seen this. Many of you will not have. The character is suffering from panic attacks. [Professor Paul Bloom plays a short episode from the Sopranos]Freud's contributions extend beyond the study of individual psychology and individual pathology. Freud had a lot to say about dreams as you could see in this illustration. He believed that dreams had a manifest content, meaning; "manifest" meaning what you experience in your dream. But dreams always had a latent content as well, meaning the hidden implication of the dream. He viewed all dreams as wish fulfillment. Every dream you have is a certain wish you have even though it might be a forbidden wish that you wouldn't wish to have, you wouldn't want to have. And dreams had--and this is an idea that long predated Freud. Dreams had symbolism. Things in dreams were often not what they seemed to be but rather symbols for other things. Freud believed that literature and fairy tales and stories to children and the like carried certain universal themes, certain aspects of unconscious struggles, and certain preoccupations of our unconscious mind. And Freud had a lot to say about religion. For instance, he viewed a large part of our--of the idea of finding a singular, all-powerful god as seeking out a father figure that some of us never had during development.What I want to spend the rest of the class on is the scientific assessment of Freud. So, what I did so far is I've told you what Freud had to say in broad outline. I then want to take the time to consider whether or not we should believe this and how well it fits with our modern science. But before doing so, I'll take questions for a few minutes. Do people have any questions about Freud or Freud's theories? Yes.Student: [inaudible]Professor Paul Bloom: So, that's some question. The question is: The conflicts in psychosexual development that Freud describes is--always assumes that a child has a mother and a father, one of each, in a certain sort of familial structure. And the question then is, "What if a child was raised by a single parent, for example?" What if a child was never breast fed, but fed from the bottle from the start? And Freudians have had problems with this. Freud's--Freud was very focused on the family lifeof the people he interacted with, which is rather upper class Europeans, and these sort of questions would have been difficult for Freud to answer.I imagine that what a Freudian would have to say is, you would expect systematic differences. So, you would expect a child who just grew up with a mother or just grew up to be a father--with a father to be in some sense psychologically damaged by that, failing to go through the normal psychosexual stages. Yes.Student: [inaudible]Professor Paul Bloom: The issue--The question is, "Do modern psychoanalysts still believe that women do not have superegos?" Freud was--As you're pointing out, Freud was notorious for pointing, for suggesting that women were morally immature relative to men. I think Freud would say that women have superegos, they're just not the sort of sturdy ones that men have. I think psychoanalysts and psychoanalytic scholars right now would be mixed. Some would maintain that there really are deep sex differences. Others would want to jettison that aspect of Freudian theory. Yes.Student: Do you define sublimation as being displacement? Does that make it sort of a subgroup of displacement?Professor Paul Bloom: Well, what sublimation is--A lot of these--It's a good question. The question is sort of, what is sublimation? How does it relate to the other defense mechanisms? A lot of defense mechanisms involve taking a desire and turning it. Now, what displacement does is it takes it from you to her. I'm angry at you but maybe that's forbidden for some reason, so I'll be angry at her. What projection does is takes a desire from me and then puts it on somebody else heading outwards. And what sublimation does is it just gives up the details and keeps the energy. So, you stay up--Your roommate stays up all night working and you say to your roommate, for instance, "That's just because you haven't had sex in a long time and you want to have sex so you devote all your energy to your math exam." And then you say, "That's sublimation. I learned that in Intro Psych." And your roommate would be very pleased. One more question. Yes.Student: What kind of evidence is there for cross-cultural variation?Professor Paul Bloom: The question is, which is related to theissue--extending the issue of the two-parent versus one-parent family is, "To what extent are these notions validated cross-culturally?" And that's such a good question I'm going to defer it. I'm going to talk about it in a few minutes because that's actually--That speaks to the issue of the。
在这门课刚开始的时候We began the course我们讨论过一个现代心理学的基本观点by talking about one of the foundational ideas of modern psychology。
弗兰西斯·克里克称之为This is what Francis Crick described as”惊人的假说””The Astonishing Hypothesis,”我们的心理活动 the idea that our mental life，我们的意识我们的道德观念our consciousness， our morality，我们做出决定和判断的能力our capacity to make decisions and judgments皆由一个物质的生理大脑所产生is the product of a material physical brain。
今天我想讲的What I want to talk about today and introduce it,将会是and it's going to be a theme贯穿我们接下来课程的一个主题that we’re going to continue throughout the rest of the course,也是第二个同样惊人的观点is a second idea which I think is equally shocking，甚至可能更惊人perhaps more shocking.这个观点和我们的心理活动的来源有关And this has to do with where mental life comes from，重点不在于它的物质性not necessary its material nature，而在于它的起源but rather its origin.这又一"惊人的假说”And the notion, this other "astonishing hypothesis，”被哲学家丹尼尔·丹尼特称之为is what the philosopher Daniel Dennett has described达尔文的危险思想as Darwin's dangerous idea.这个观点解释了现代生物学中And this is the modern biological account生物现象的起源of the origin of biological phenomena包括心理现象including psychological phenomena。
Introduction to Psychology: Lecture 1 Transcript January 17, 2007 << backProfessor Paul Bloom: I'd like to welcome people to this course, Introduction to Psychology. My name is Dr. Paul Bloom. I'm professor of this course. And what this is going to be is a comprehensive introduction to the study of the human mind. So, we are going to cover a very, very wide range of topics including brains, children, language, sex, memory, madness, disgust, racism and love, and many others. We're going to talk about things like the proper explanation for differences between men and women; the question of whether animals can learn language; the puzzle of what grosses us out; the problem of why some of us eat too much and what we could do to stop; the question of why people go crazy in groups; research into whether you could trust your childhood memories; research into why some of us get depressed and others don't.The style of this is there'll be two lectures a week, as well as course readings. Now, to do well in the course, you have to attend both the lectures and do the readings. There will be some overlap. In some cases, the lectures will be quite linked to the readings. But there will be some parts of the readings that will not find their way into the lectures, and some lectures--some entire lectures that will not connect at all to the readings. So, to pursue this course properly you have to do both. What this means is that if you miss a class you need to get notes, and so you should get them from a friend or from the person sitting next to you. The slides are going to be made available online. So, one of the things you don't have to do is you don't have to write this down. You take notes any way you choose, but if you don't get anything on there it'll be available online. I'm going to post it in a format which will be black and white and easy to print out so you don't have to worry about this. But again, attending to the slides is not a substitute for attending class.There's a textbook, Peter Gray's Psychology,5th edition, and there's also a collection of short readings, The Norton Reader edited by Gary Marcus. It's an excellent textbook; it's an excellent collection, and you should get them both. They're available at Labyrinth bookstore on York Street or you get them online. I should note that last time I taught the course I used the Marcus Reader, and when Professor Marvin Chun taught his course last semester he used Peter Gray's 5th edition textbook. So, there may be a lot of used copies floating around. You should feel free to try to get one of those.The evaluation goes like this. There is a Midterm and there is a Final. The Final will not be held in the exam period, because I like to take long vacations. It will be held the last day of class. The exams will be multiple choice and short answer, fill in the blank, that sort of thing. Prior to the exams I will post previous exams online, so you have a feeling for how these exams work and so on. There will also be review sessions.Starting at the beginning of the third week of class 鈥�that is not next week but the week after 鈥� on each Monday I'm going to put up a briefquestion or set of questions, which you have to answer and your answers need to be sent to your teaching fellow. And you'll be given a teaching fellow, assigned one, by Friday. This is not meant to be difficult. It's not meant to be more than five, ten minutes of work, but the point of the question--15, 20 minutes of work, but the point of the question is to motivate people to keep up with the material and do the readings. These questions will be marked pass, fail. I expect most everybody could pass all of the questions but it's just to keep you on track and keep you going.There is a book review, a short book review, to be written towards near the end of the class. I'll give details about that later on in the semester. And there's also an experimental participation requirement, and next week I'll hand out a piece of paper describing the requirement. The point of the requirement is to give you all experience actually seeing what psychological research is about as well as to give us hundreds of subjects to do our experiments on.The issue sometimes comes up as to how to do well in the course. Here's how to do well. Attend all the classes. Keep up with the readings. Ideally, keep up with the readings before you come to class. And one thing I would strongly suggest is to form some sort of study groups, either formally or informally. Have people you could talk to when the--prior to the exams or--she's patting somebody next to her. I hope you know him. And in fact, what I'm going to do, not this class because it's shopping period. I don't know who's coming next class, or what but I'll set up a few minutes prior, at the beginning of the class, for people just to introduce themselves to the person next to them so they have some sort of resource in the class.Now, this is a large class, and if you don't do anything about it, it can be very anonymous. And some of you may choose to pursue it that way and that's totally fine. But what I would suggest you do is establish some contact with us, either with me or with any of the teaching fellows, and I'll introduce the teaching fellows sometime next week. You could talk to us at the beginning or at the end of class. Unless there are specialcircumstances, I always try to come at least ten minutes early, and I am willing to stay late to talk to people. You could come by during my office hours, which are on the syllabus, and you could send me e-mail and set up an appointment. I'm very willing to talk to students about intellectual ideas, about course problems and so on. And if you see me at some point just on campus, you could introduce yourself and I'd like to meet people from this class. So, again, I want to stress you have the option of staying anonymous in this class, but you also have the option of seeking out and making some sort of contact with us. Okay. That's the formal stuff of the course.What's this course about? Unlike a lot of other courses, some people come to Intro Psychology with some unusual motivations. Maybe you're crazy and hope to become less crazy [laugher]. Maybe you want to learn how to study better, improve your sex life, interpret your dreams, and win friends and influence people [laugher]. Those are not necessarily bad reasons to take this course and, with the exception of the sex part, this course might actually help you out with some of these things. The study of scientific psychology has a lot of insights of real world relevance to real problems that we face in our everyday lives. And I'm going to try--and when these issues come up--I'm going to try to stress them and make you try to think about the extent to which the laboratory research I'll be talking about can affect your everyday life: how you study, how you interact with people, how you might try to persuade somebody of something else, what sort of therapy works best for you. But the general goals of this course are actually I think even more interesting than that.What I want to do is provide a state of the art introduction to the most important topic that there is: us. How the human mind works, how we think, what makes us what we are. And we'll be approaching this from a range of directions. So, traditionally, psychology is often broken up into the following--into five sub-areas: Neuroscience, which is the study of the mind by looking at the brain; developmental, which is the area which I focus mostly on, which is trying to learn about how people develop and grow and learn; cognitive, which is the one term of the five that might be unfamiliar to some of you, but it refers to a sort of computational approach to studying the mind, often viewing the mind on analogy with a computer and looking at how people do things like understand language, recognize objects, play games, and so on. There is social, which is the study of how people act in groups, how people act with other people. And there is clinical, which is maybe the aspect of psychology that people think of immediately when they hear psychology, which is the study of mental health and mental illness. And we'll be covering all of those areas.We'll also be covering a set of related areas. I am convinced that you cannot study the mind solely by looking at the discipline of psychology. The discipline of psychology spills over to issues of how the mind has evolved. Economics and game theory are now essential tools for understanding human thought and human behavior--those issues connecting to philosophy, computer science, anthropology, literature, theology, and many, many other domains. So, this course will be wide ranging in that sense.At this point I've been speaking in generalities so I want to close this introductory class by giving five examples of the sorts of topics we'll be covering. And I'll start with the topic that we'll be covering nextweek on Monday 鈥� the brain. This is a brain. In fact, it's a specificperson's brain, and what's interesting about the brain is that little white mark there. It's her brain. It's Terri Schiavo's brain. You recognize her more from pictures like that. And what a case like this, where somebody is in a coma, is without consciousness as a result of damage to the brain, is a stark illustration of the physical nature of mental life. The physical basis for everything that we normally hold dear, like free will, consciousness, morality and emotions, and that's what we'll begin the course with, talking about how a physical thing can give rise to mental life.We'll talk a lot about children. This is actually a specific child. It's my son, Zachary, my younger son, dressed up as Spider-Man, but it is Halloween. No, it's not Halloween. Oh. Well, there's more to say about that [laughter]. I study child development for a living and I'm interested in several questions. So, one question is just the question of development. Everybody in this room can speak and understand English. Everybody in this room has some understanding of how the world works, how physical things behave. Everybody in this room has some understanding of other people, and how people behave. And the question that preoccupies developmental psychologists is how do we come to have this knowledge, and in particular, how much of it is hard-wired, built-in, innate. And how much of it is the product of culture, of language, of schooling? And developmental psychologists use many ingenious methods to try to pull these apart and try to figure out what are the basic components of human nature.There's also the question of continuity. To what extent is Zachary, at that age, going to be that way forever? To what extent is your fate sealed? To what extent could--if I were to meet you when you were five years old I could describe the way you are now? The poet William Wordsworth wrote, "The child is father to the man," and what this means is that you can see within every child the adult he or she will become. We will look and askthe question whether this is true. Is it true for your personality? Is it true for your interests? Is it true for your intelligence?Another question having to do with development is what makes us the way we are? We're different in a lot of ways. The people in this room differ according to their taste in food. They differ according to their IQs; whether they're aggressive or shy; whether they're attracted to males, females, both or neither; whether they are good at music; whether they are politically liberal or conservative. Why are we different? What's the explanation for why we're different? And again, this could be translated in terms of a question of genes and environment. To what extent are things the result of the genes we possess? To what extent are our individual natures the result of how we were raised? And to what extent are they best explained in terms of an interaction? One common theory, for instance, is that we are shaped by our parents. This was best summarized most famously by the British poet Philip Larkin who wrote,They mess you up, your mum and dad.They may not mean to but they do.They fill you with the faults they hadAnd add some extra just for you.Is he right? It's very controversial. You-- It's been a series of--a huge controversy in the popular culture to the extent of which parents matter and this is an issue which will preoccupy us for much of the course.A different question: What makes somebody attractive? And this can be asked at all sorts of levels but a simple level is what makes for a pretty face? So, these are, according to ratings, very attractive faces. They are not the faces of real people. What's on the screen are computer generated faces of a Caucasian male and a Caucasian female who don't exist in the real world. But through using this sort of computer generation, and then asking people what they think of this face, what they think of that face, scientists have come to some sense as to what really makes a face attractive, both within cultures and across cultures. And that's something which we're going to devote some time to when we talk about social behavior, and in particular, when we talk about sex. Not all attractiveness, not all beauty of course, is linked to sex. So, pandas for instance, like this panda, are notoriously cute, and I don't have anything to say about it really. It's just a cute picture [laughter].Morality is extremely central to our lives, and a deep question, which we will struggle with throughout most of the course, is the question of good and evil, evil and good. These three pictures exemplify differentsorts of evil. What you could call institutional evil by somebody behaving cruelly toward somebody else, perhaps not due to malice but because of the situation that she's in. It has picture of Osama bin Laden, a mass murderer or driven by political cause? And then there's this guy on the bottom. Anybody know who he is? Ted Bundy. Who got that? Film that man [laughter]. No. Ted Bundy, exactly, and that's before we get into the technical stuff like crazy-evil, and we're going to have to come to terms with why some people are like that. And again, the same situation comes up. Is it part of your nature to be good or bad or is it largely due to the situation that you fall in? And there's a lot of some quite spectacular experiments that try to tease that apart.If we're going to talk about evil, we should also talk about good. These are pictures of two notoriously good men, Oskar Schindler and Paul Rusesabagina, each who at different times in history saved the lives of many, many people at great risk to themselves. Schindler in the Holocaust,and then the other guy, in 鈥� and I can't pronounce his name 鈥�Rusesabagina, in Rwanda. And they both had real good movies made about them. But what's interesting with these cases is you couldn't have predicted ahead of time that they would be heroes. And one personal issue within any of us is what would we do in such situations?Finally, throughout this course we will discuss mental illness. Now, towards the end of the class I want to devote a full week to discussing major disorders like depression and anxiety, because of their profound social importance. Such disorders are reasonably common in college students. Many people in this room are currently suffering from a mood disorder, an anxiety disorder or both, and I won't ask for a show of hands but I know a lot of people in this room are on some form of medication for this disorder. And we'll discuss the current research and why people get these disorders and what's the best way to make them better.But I also have a weakness for the less common mental disorders that I think tell us something really interesting about mental life. So, when we talk about memory, for instance, we'll talk about disorders in memory, including some disorders that keep you from forming new memories as well as disorders of amnesia where you forget the past. And these are extraordinarily interesting for all sorts of reasons. Early in the course, in fact I think next week, we will discuss, no, later on in the course, in the middle of the semester, we will discuss an amazing case of Phineas Gage.Phineas Gage was a construction worker about 100 years ago. Due to an explosion, a metal pipe went through his head like so. Miraculously, hewas not killed. In fact, his friends--it went through his head,went--ended up 100 feet away, covered with brains and blood. And Phineas Gage sat down and went, "uh, oh." And then on the way to the hospital they stopped by a pub to have some cider. He was not blind, he was not deaf, he was not retarded, but something else happened to him. He lost his sense of right and wrong. He lost his control. He used to be a hard-working family man. After the accident he lost all of that. He couldn't hold a job. He couldn't stay faithful to his wife. He couldn't speak for five minutes without cursing. He got into fights. He got into brawls. He got drunk. He lost his control. He ended up on a circus sideshow traveling through the country with the big steel pipe that went through his head. And this is again an extraordinary example of how the brain can give rise to the mind, and how things that go wrong with the brain can affect you in a serious way.We'll discuss cases of multiple personality disorder, where people have more than one personality. And also, discuss the debate over whether such cases are true or not; whether they could be taken as a real phenomena or a made-up phenomena, which is--there is a matter of a lot of controversy. And then, we'll even discuss some rarer cases like Capgras syndrome.Capgras syndrome is typically 鈥� there's hundreds of cases, not many 鈥�hundreds of cases. It's typically the result of some sort of stroke,and what happens to you is very specific. You develop a particular delusion, like it's getting dark [lights dim in the room, laughter follows]. And the delusion is that the people you love the most have been replaced.They've been replaced by aliens or robots [lights go on] 鈥� thank you 鈥�by Martians, by CIA agents, by trained actors and actresses. But thepeople--But the idea is, the people you care for the most you believe are gone. And this could lead to tragic consequences.Capgras syndrome is associated with a very high level of violence. One man in Australia a couple of years ago was under the delusion that his father was replaced with a robot and cut off his head. A related disorder involving the very same parts of the brain is called Cotard's syndrome. And Cotard's syndrome is you believe that you're dead; you are persuaded that you're dead. You're walking around. You know you're walking around. And you know that there are people around, but you think that you're dead. And what's striking about these is--it's not--these are not just sort of big, screwy problems of messed up people. Rather, they'relocated--they're related at a pinpoint level to certain parts of yourbrain. And we're going to talk about the best modern theories as to why these syndromes occur.Now, the reason to be interested in them, again, is not because they're frequent. They aren't. And it's not because of some sort of gruesome, morbid curiosity. Rather, by looking at extreme cases, they can help us best understand normal life. Often by looking at extremes it throws into sharp contrast things we naturally take for granted. The issue of psychopathy, of people who, either due to brain damage or because they are born that way, have no moral understanding, can help us cope with questions of free will and responsibility; of the relationship or difference between mental illness and evil. Multiple personality cases force us to address the question of what is a self. To what extent are all of us composed of multiple people, and to what extent are we a single unified person over time? Cases like Capgras are important because they tell us about how we see the world. They tell us for instance that there is a difference between recognizing something in the sense that you could name it, and knowing what it is. And so, by studying these abnormal cases we could get some insight into regular life. So, that's the end of the illustration of the example topics. The syllabus lists many more.I'll end by telling you that there's a lot of stuff that we'll be talking about, that I want to talk about, that I am not expert in. And fortunately, there is a community at Yale of the best scholars and teachers on the planet. And so, it would be a shame for me not to use them to cover some of these issues. And so, I'm going to include four guest lecturers. The first one is Dr. Marvin Chun who teaches the Introduction to Psychology course in the fall and is my competition. And he's going to give an amazing lecture on cognitive neuroscience, especially the cognitive neuroscience of faces. Dr. Susan Nolen-Hoeksema is the world's authority on depression, and in particular, on sex differences and depression, and she's going to talk about this towards the end of the course. Kelly Brownell is going to talk--is head of the Rudd Center, focuses on obesity, eating disorders, dieting, and he'll talk about the psychology of food. And finally, Dr. Peter Salovey, Dean of Yale College, is going to come to us on Valentine's Day and tell us everything he knows about the mysteries of love. All of these details are in the syllabus and I'll stick around and answer questions. Hope to see you next week.[end of transcript]back to top。
在这门课刚开始的时候We began the course我们讨论过一个现代心理学的基本观点by talking about one of the foundational ideas of modern psychology.弗兰西斯·克里克称之为This is what Francis Crick described as"惊人的假说""The Astonishing Hypothesis,"我们的心理活动 the idea that our mental life,我们的意识我们的道德观念our consciousness, our morality,我们做出决定和判断的能力our capacity to make decisions and judgments 皆由一个物质的生理大脑所产生is the product of a material physical brain.今天我想讲的What I want to talk about today and introduce it,将会是and it's going to be a theme贯穿我们接下来课程的一个主题that we're going to continue throughout the rest of the course,也是第二个同样惊人的观点is a second idea which I think is equally shocking,甚至可能更惊人perhaps more shocking.这个观点和我们的心理活动的来源有关And this has to do with where mental life comes from,重点不在于它的物质性not necessary its material nature,而在于它的起源but rather its origin.这又一"惊人的假说"And the notion, this other "astonishing hypothesis,"被哲学家丹尼尔·丹尼特称之为is what the philosopher Daniel Dennett has described达尔文的危险思想as Darwin's dangerous idea.这个观点解释了现代生物学中And this is the modern biological account生物现象的起源of the origin of biological phenomena包括心理现象including psychological phenomena.人们很久以来就对Now, people have long been interested in复杂事物的进化感兴趣the evolution of complicated things.有一个观点在历史中被不断提及And there is an argument that's been repeated throughout却还深深的吸引着人们history and many people have found it deeply compelling,包括达尔文自己including Darwin himself.达尔文在写《物种起源》的时候Darwin, as he wrote The Origin of Species,就被神学家威廉姆·佩利提出的一个观点was deeply persuaded and movedby this argument from--所深深折服in the form presented by the theologian William Paley.这里佩利举例说So, Paley has an example here.佩利说假如你走在沙滩上Paley tells--gives the example of you're walking down the beach脚踢到了一块石头and your foot hits a rock.然后你就想这块石头是从哪里来的呢And then you wonder, "Where did that rock come from?"你知道这不会是个多有趣的答案And you don't really expect an interesting answer to that question.也许它一直在那儿Maybe it was always there.也许它是从天上掉下来的谁在乎呢Maybe it fell from the sky. Who cares?但是假如你在地上发现了一块手表But suppose you found a watch on the ground然后琢磨这块手表是从哪里来的and then you asked where the watch had come from.佩利指出仅仅说它一直在那儿Paley points out that it would not be satisfying to simply say或碰巧在那儿it's always been there是不会让人信服的or it came there as an accident.他用这个比喻证明And he uses this comparison to make a point,手表是一件非常复杂有趣的东西which is a watch is a very complicated and interesting thing.由于佩利曾经是名医生Paley is--was a medical doctor所以佩利将手表形容and Paley goes on to describe a watch为眼睛并将其作对比and compare a watch to the eye他注意到手表和眼睛都是由多部分组成and noticing that a watch and the eye contain multitudes of parts并且各部分之间以复杂的方式相互作用that interact in complicated ways 产生有趣的效应to do interesting things.事实上In fact,如果把这个类比稍稍变化升级一下to change and to update the analogy a little bit,眼睛和照相机非常相像an eye is very much like a machine known as a camera.许多地方也异常类似And they're similar at a deep way.它们都有折射光线的镜头They both have lenses that bend light并把图像投射到一个感光面上and project an image onto a light-sensitive surface.对眼睛来说感光面是视网膜For the eye the light-sensitive surface is the retina.对相机来说是胶片For the camera it's the film.它们都有对焦功能They both have a focusing mechanism.眼睛通过肌肉的伸缩For the eye it's muscles来改变晶体的形状that change the shape of the lens.相机通过改变光圈的大小来控制曝光度For a camera it's a diaphragm that governs the amount of incoming light.它们甚至都有暗室Even they're both encased in black.眼睛和相机的感光部分The light-sensitive part of the eye都被包在暗处and part of the camera are both encased in black.区别在于事实上The difference is--So in fact,眼睛和相机看上去非常像the eye and a camera look a lot alike我们知道相机是人造品and we know the camera is an artifact.相机是由有智慧的人The camera has been constructed by an intelligent--为达成某种目的而制造出来的by intelligent beings to fulfill a purpose.事实上如果要说眼睛In fact, if there's any difference between things like the eye和相机有什么区别的话and things like a camera,那就是眼睛the difference is that things like the eye要比相机复杂得多are far more complicated than things like the camera.我小时候看过一部巨好看的电视剧When I was a kid I had this incredible TV show叫"六百万富翁"called "The Six Million Dollar Man."有人看过或听过吗Anybody here ever seen it or heard of it?反正那个剧讲是讲一个试飞员Oh. Anyway, the idea is there's a test pilot,史蒂夫·奥斯汀Steve Austin,他的喷气式火箭坠毁了and his rocket jet crashes他失去了他的双腿双手和眼睛and he loses his--both legs, his arm and his eye,听起来很不幸 which sounds really bad但他使用仿生材料来替换这些部位but they replace them with bionic stuff,从而得到了有超能力的人造腿with artificial leg,artificial arm人造手臂以及人造眼睛and an artificial eye that are really super-powered.然后他打击犯罪And then he fights crime.这绝对是史上最好看的电视剧了It was really the best show on.非常棒It was really good,但是这部剧拍于一九七四年but the thing is this was in 1974.距今已经三十多年了It's now over thirty years later不管在过去还是现在 and it's true then and it's true now,其中的情节都是幻想this is fantasy.都不算是科幻小说It doesn't make it to the level of science fiction.只是纯粹的幻想我们还远远不能It's fantasy. We are impossibly far away 发明出具有超能力的机器from developing machines that could do this.也远远不能造出We are impossibly far away from building a machine媲美人眼的机器that can do what the human eye does.所以像佩利这样的人就指出And so somebody like Paley points out,"生物世界的复杂性证明了"Look. The complexity of the biological world suggests that这些精密的人造制品these things are complicated artifacts是由比任何人类工程师created by a designer far smarter都要聪明的设计者创造的than any human engineer.这个设计者当然就是上帝"And the designer, of course, would be God."我登陆了谷歌图片I went to Goggle Images.我并非渎神That--I don't mean that to be sacrilegious in any sense.你们可以自己试试You could try this.我在谷歌图片中输入 "上帝"I went to "Google Images" and typed in "God"这就是上面蹦出来的图片and this is what showed up right in the middle所以佩利提出的so--And this,Paley argued,这个复杂事物起源的观点and it was--has been convincing throughout most of history,在历史上盛行了很长时间is a perfectly logical explanation并且合乎逻辑for where these complicated things come from.同时这个观点还占有符合It also has the advantage of being compatible圣经和宗教信仰的优势with scripture and compatible with religious beliefs,但是抛开宗教佩利的观点也说的通的but Paley made the point this stands on its own.如果你找到了复杂的事物If you find complicated things that--复杂的人造物complicated artifacts,你不会认为他们是意外出现的you don't assume they emerged by accident.你会认为他们是由智者创造的You assume that they were created by an intelligent being.这个观点始终都有问题Now, this view has always had problems.这个我们可以称之为"神造论"的观点This view, you could call it "creationism,"生物由which is that biological structures were created智者创造by an intelligent being,一直都有问题has always had problems.其中的一个就是自相矛盾One problem is it pushes back the question. So you ask,"那个智者又是是从哪里来的呢""Where did that intelligent being come from?"这是一个从心理结构进化角度看来And this is a particularly serious problem尤其严重的问题from the standpoint of the evolution of psychological structures.所以我们想知道So, we want to know,"这个地球上生生不息的生命是如何获得"how is it that creatures came across--upon this earth判断计划和做事的能力的呢"with the ability to reason and plan and do things?"如果答案仅仅是 And then the answer is"另一个有这种能力的人创造了我们""well, another creature with that ability created us."这个解释不一定错That doesn't necessarily mean it's wrong,但是显然不尽如人意but it means it's unsatisfying.因为你马上就会问You immediately want to get an explanation for那个人是从哪里来的where that other creature comes from.更重要的是More to the point,总是有证据支持进化论there's always been evidence for evolution.这里我指的进化And what I mean by evolution here不是某种具体的机制isn't necessarily a specific mechanism,而是身体各部位but merely the fact that body parts比如说眼睛并不是突然之间出现的like the eye didn't emerge all of a sudden,它既存在于其他现存动物but rather have parallels both within other existing animals也始终贯穿人类和生物史and across human and biological history.支持进化论的证据有不同的类型This evidence comes in different forms.不同身体部位的化石There is fossil evidence for different body parts证明他们是从更原始的形态进化而来的suggesting that they have evolved from more rudimentary form.其中也有一些退化特征There is vestigial characteristics.这说明有些人体特征And what this means is there are characteristics that是难以解释的human bodies have that are somewhat inexplicable,比如尾骨和鸡皮疙瘩like the human tailbone or goose-bumps,除非你将现在的人体形态unless you view them--the human body in its current form视为是先前形态的进化as modifications from a previous form.这同其它动物身上的一些特征相似There are parallels with other animals.在心理方面也表现明显And this is clear in psychology.所以尽管人类的大脑不同于老鼠 So, a human brain is different from the rat,猫以及猴子的大脑cat, and monkey brain但你还是能看出它们but at the same time you see them有一些相同的机制和结构following a sort of common plan and common structures.对此一个合理的解释就是And one rational inference from this is that它们在进化中相互关联they're linked through evolutionary descent.最后有些设计也是不尽如人意的Finally, there is occasional poor design.尽管佩利狂热的赞美人体So, Paley rhapsodized about the remarkable powers of以及其各部位的非凡能力the human body and the different body parts,即便佩利自己也承认有些部位but even Paley admitted that there are some things并不那么好使which just don't work very well.眼睛因为神经分布的关系Your eye contains a blind spot存在一个盲点because of how the nerves are wired up.男性的泌尿系统中尿道是穿过In the male urinary system the urethra goes through前列腺而不是绕过的the prostate gland instead of around it,这会给男性在年老时带来不少生理问题which leads to many physical problems in men later on in life.所以这就迫使你要么辩称And so you're forced to either argue that这些部位都很好these are really good things要么就承认上帝是残酷或不称职的or that God is either malicious orincompetent.这些都是很难去辩解的论点And those are difficult arguments to make.所以这些都是对神造论的质疑So, these are problems with the creationist view.即便如此But still,在人类智慧史上的很长的一段时间里for the longest time in human intellectual history我们找不到其他解释there was no alternative.事实上理查德·道金斯 And in fact, Richard Dawkins,世界上依然在世的the most prominent evolutionary--最伟大的进化生物学家之一one of the most prominent evolutionary biologists alive最坚定的神造论的批判者之一and one of the most staunchest critics of creationism,曾在《盲眼钟表匠》里写道has written in The Blind Watchmaker saying,一百或一百五十年前look, anybody 100 years ago or 150 years ago任何不相信上帝创造了人类和其他生物的who didn't believe that God created humans and other animals都是白痴was a moron因为神造论这个观点实在太好了because the argument from design is a damn good argument.在没有其他解释的前提下And in the absence of some other argument你就应该相信它遵从它你应该说you should go--defer to that. You should say,"尽管有种种的问题但是人类"Well, there are all of these problems but humans和其他的生物的结构一定都是神创造的and other biological forms must have divine creation因为它们的结构是那么复杂精准because of their incredible rich而又令人难以置信"and intricate structure."一切直到达尔文的出现才有所改变What changed all that of course was Darwin.达尔文的成就在于And Darwin--Darwin's profound accomplishment他向世人展示了人类复杂的生理结构was showing how you get these complicated biological structures,例如眼睛like the eye,从一个完全无刻意不可复制emerging through a purely non-intentional,non-created process,纯自然的过程中出现a purely physical process.这个观点的重要性可以和And this could be seen as equal in importance to the claim地球是围绕太阳旋转that the Earth revolves around the Sun以及我们不是宇宙的中心相提并论and that we're not the center of the universe.事实上有些学者甚至提出了And in fact, some scholars have made a suggestion貌似更具有说服力的建议which seems plausible,他们认为自然选择的观点that the idea of natural selection is是现今科学中最重要的理论the most important idea in the sciences, period.所以尽管这不是一门进化论的课So, this is not a course in evolution但是我希望大家了解相关背景知识and I expect people to have some background.如果你对这方面不了解的话If you don't have a background in it,你可以读一些课外书you could get your background from external readings 或者格雷的教材but also from--the Gray textbook和诺顿文集从中你们可以and the Norton readings will both--will each provide you汲取到足够的背景知识with enough background to get up to speed.总体来说自然选择有三个组成部分But the general idea is that there are three components to natural selection.物种之间的差别There is variation.这个差别对生存和繁殖And this variation gives rise to different degrees产生不同影响of survival and reproduction并一代代传下去and gets passed on from generation to generation进而影响对环境的适应and gives rise to adaptations,达尔文把这描述为What Darwin described as恰好激发我们想象力的完美结构"that perfection of structure that justly excites our imagination."生物世界里到处都是这种例子And the biological world has all sorts of examples.比如伪装You look at camouflage.达尔文之前的人会认为是Prior to Darwin one might imagine that某个智慧的创造者赋予了动物们some intelligent creator crafted animals躲避猎食者的能力to hide from their prey.但是现在我们对此有不同的解释But now we have a different alternative,说那些更擅长隐藏的动物们which is that animals that were better hidden更容易生存下来 survive better,更利于繁衍后代reproduce more,经过上千年and over the course of thousands,甚至可能上百万年的进化 perhaps millions of years,他们才具备了伪装的能力they've developed elaborate camouflage.许多人都曾探讨过There's been a lot of work佩利最喜欢的眼睛例子on Paley's favorite example the eye.达尔文也曾指出So Darwin himself noted人类的眼睛不是一下子就出现的that the human eye did not seem to emerge all at once如果你去观察其他动物but rather you could look at other animals并发现了类似组织结构那只能说明and find parallels in other animals that seem to suggest它们可能是从更早期的形式中that more rudimentary forms进化而来are possible.随着近来电脑仿真技术的发展And more recently computer simulations have developed--在选择压力的貌似可信假设下have been developed that have crafted eyes 发展出人造眼睛under plausible assumptions of selective pressure已经开始变成可能and what the starting point is.这就是自然选择的理论So, this is the theory of natural selection.你不禁要问The good question to ask is,我为什么要在心理学导论的课堂上"why am I talking about evolution讨论进化论的问题呢in Introduction to Psychology class?"答案是And the answer is that there are这两者相互关联two ideas which come together.事实上它们都是危险的观点And in fact, they're both of the dangerous ideas.第一个是达尔文的观点One idea is that Darwin's idea--他说生物结构的进化过程是纯自然的that biological forms evolve through this purely physical process.第二个观点笛卡尔的反驳The second idea, the rejection of Descartes,说我们的心理活动is that our minds are是自然物质和自然事件的产物the product of physical things and physical events.当你把两个观点结合起来的时候You bring these together and it forces you 它会促使你了解我们是什么to the perspective that what we are--我们的心理活动和眼睛伪装一样our mental life is no less than the eye, no less than camouflage,是自然选择中纯自然过程的产物the product of this purely physical process of natural selection.更确切的说More to the point,我们的认知机制的出现our cognitive mechanisms were evolved并不是为了取悦上帝not to please God,也不是偶然not as random accidents,而是为了生存和繁衍后代but rather for the purpose of survival and reproduction.更有争议的是More contentiously,你可以说它们是由自然选择you could argue they've been shaped塑造来解决某些问题的by natural selection to solve certain problems.所以从进化论的角度来看And so, from an evolutionary point of view,当你想弄清大脑是什么和做什么时when you look at what the brain is and what the brain does,你就可以用以上的理论来解释you look at it in terms of these problems.这也是研究心理学的目的And this is what psychology is for.也是我们思考的目的This is what our thinking is for.我们已进化出足够的心理能力We have evolved mental capacities来解决不同问题to solve different problems:感知世界交流perception of the world, communication,寻找食物休息等等getting nutrition and rest, and so on.现在我们就来讨论如何Now, we're going to talk about how to apply将进化论应用到心理学中evolutionary theory to psychology.但是在我们讨论之前 But as we're doing so我们必须先明确两个误解we have to keep in mind two misconceptions.在此你会犯两种严重的错误There are two ways you can go seriously wrong here.第一种是想The first is to think that, well,如果我们采取进化论的观点if we're taking an evolutionary approach那么自然选择then natural selection会促使动物广泛传播他们的基因will cause animals to want to spread their genes.如果我们从生物的角度考虑So, if we're being biological about it,那么这意味着肯定每个人都成天想着that means everybody must run around thinking我要传播我的基因"I want to spread my genes."我想说这真是I want to--and this is just really --Oops.我不应该这么做的这完全不对I shouldn't do that. This is really wrong.幻灯片上的字甚至都红了It's [the text on the slides] even in red.这个观点的问题就在于没有And what this fails to do is make a distinction 把终极导因和引信导因区分开between ultimate causation and proximate causation.这两个术语的意思是终极导因是指And those are technical terms referring to--Ultimate causation is某事物在数百万年的历史中the reason why something is there in the first place,存在的第一原因over millions of years of history.引信导因是指Proximate causation is现在做某事的原因why you're doing it now.这二者不同很明显比如And these are different. Obviously, for instance,动物会做各种事情animals do all sorts of things来保证他们的生存及繁衍to help survive and reproduce但是蟑螂却不会想but a cockroach doesn't think我要做这个来"oh,I'm doing this帮助我生存繁衍和传播基因to help survive and reproduce and spread my genes."一只蟑螂根本不知道什么是基因A cockroach doesn't know anything about genes.所以驱使它去这么做Rather, the mechanisms that make it do的机制与其自身心理状态what it does are different不同如果它有的话为什么这么做from its own mental states, if it has any--why it does them.威廉姆·詹姆斯有一个很棒的观点This is a point nicely made by William James.有人问威廉姆·詹姆斯So, William James is asked,我们为什么吃东西他写道"Why do we eat?" and he writes,十亿个人中也不会有一个人Not one man in a billion when taking his dinner 吃饭时会考虑其目的ever thinks of utility.他吃饭因为食物味道好并且使他想多吃些He eats because the food tastes good and makes him want more.如果你问他为什么他要多吃If you asked him why you should want to eat more那个味道的食物of what tastes like that,如果你没说自己是哲学家instead of revering you as a philosopher,他很可能会笑你是个傻瓜he will probably laugh at you for a fool.而且这真的是很普遍的答案And it's really the common sense answer.你为什么吃饭没人会回答"Why are you eating?" Nobody's going to answer,因为我必须维持我的身体"Because I must sustain my body用于将来传播我的基因so as to spread my genes in the future."相反你吃饭是因为你饿了Rather, you eat because you're hungry.这两个解释你吃饭因为你饿了Those two theories, you eat because you're hungry和你吃饭是为了维持身体and you eat to sustain your body用于在未来能传播基因 so you could spread your genes in the future,并非对立are not alternative.更确切的说Rather,它们是对同一事物在不同层次上的解释they're different levels of explanation.你们不能把它们混淆了And you can't confuse them.为了生存和繁衍The ultimate level which does appeal to survival的终极层面and reproduction does not--与心理层面不相关is independent from the psychological level.再举个例子To give another example,人们保护它们的孩子那么你问people protect their children so you ask,为什么人们保护它们的孩子呢"Why do people protect their children?为什么会有人花那么大的精力Why would somebody devote so much effort 去保护帮助喂养他们的孩子呢to protecting and helping and feeding their children?"进化论的解释为Well, the evolutionary explanation is不保护自己后代的那些动物很难在animals that don't protect their offspring don't last进化史中生存下来over evolutionary time.我们保护后代We protect our offspring是因为他们继承了我们百分之五十的基因because they contain fifty percent of our genes,但是这可不是心理层次上的解释but that's not the psychologicalexplanation.除了精神错乱的心理学家Nobody but a deranged psychologist没有谁会这么回答would ever answer,我爱我的孩子是因为"Oh, I love my children because他们继承了我百分之五十的基因they contain fifty percent of my genes."心理层次上的解释更深入Rather, the psychological explanation is a deeper--并且特征不同is different and has a different texture.这一点在我们谈到感情的时候会更清楚And this will be a lot clearer when we talk about the emotions,那时你们就可以更好的区分开where you could really see a distinction between the question of为什么有些事从进化论角度的解释why we feel something from an evolutionary point of view有些是要从日常生活中去感知and why we feel it from a day-to-day point of view.第二个错误是The second misconception认为自然选择is that natural selection使得所有事物都具有适应性entails that everything is adaptive,包括我们所做的一切that everything we do,所想的一切都是为了更好的适应everything we think is adaptive.这是错误的This is wrong.自然选择进化基本来说Natural selection and evolution, more generally,将适应性与副产品和意外区分开来distinguish between adaptations and byproducts and accidents.你们许多人正在Many of you are currently,或者将来老了时会被背痛折磨or will as you get older, suffer back pain.如果我问你你为何会背痛If I was to ask you, "So, why do you suffer back pain?背痛如何帮助你存活和繁衍的呢How does back pain help you survive and reproduce?"答案并非适应性Well, the answer is it's not an adaptation.背痛是我们背部形态的意外副产品Back pain is an accidental byproduct of how our backs are shaped.不要期待找出打嗝自怜Don't go looking for an adaptive reason for hiccups 或者饭后腹胀的适应目的or self-pity or bloating after you eat.身体会做各种各样的没有任何There's all sorts of things a body will do适应目的只是意外的事情that have no adaptive value, rather just accidents.我们有个会做各种事情的身体We have a body that does all sorts of things.有一些事属于意外Some things it will do by accident这一点在心理学上毫无疑问and this is certainly true for psychology.所以很多东西比如So, a lot of the things, for instance,日常生活中让我们感兴趣that occupy our interest or our fascination或者着迷的事物in day-to-day life几乎可以肯定都是进化意外are almost certainly evolutionary accidents.人类现在最热衷的三大事物The number--The three--Three of the main preoccupations of分别为色情片电视巧克力humans are pornography,television, and chocolate但是如果我问你 but if I asked you,你为何喜欢毛片你回答"Why do you like porn?" and you'd say,因为我喜欢毛片的祖先比那些"Because my ancestors who liked porn reproduced more不喜欢的有更多后代than those who didn't,"这肯定不是事实it's not true.你喜欢毛片假设你喜欢毛片的话Rather, you like porn, assuming you do,作为一个意外as an accident.你进化出 You have evolved--例如假设你是一个异性恋的男性的话For instance, should you be a heterosexual male,你进化出了吸引女性的特点you have evolved to be attracted to women.这更像是一个进化论适应性观点That is most likely to be an evolutionary adaptation因为吸引女性并且想和女性发生性关系because being attracted to women and wanting to have sex with women是产生后代的第一步is one step to the road to having kids,从进化论的角度来讲是件大好事which is very good from an evolutionary perspective.但是在现代社会中It so happens, though, in our modern environment人们创造了图片替代品that people have created images that substitute.无需再出去寻找女性So, instead of actually going out and seeking out women你只要花几个小时上网you could just surf the web for hours and hours看色情电影和书籍就可以了and watch dirty movies and read dirty books进化适应论的死胡同evolutionary adaptive dead ends.这些只是意外而已They're accidents.为何你喜欢巧克力呢假设你喜欢Why do you like chocolate bars, assuming that you do?不是因为你非洲草原上喜欢巧克力It is not because your ancestors in the African savanna的祖先比那些不喜欢的人后代多who enjoyed chocolate bars reproduced more than those who didn't.而是因为我们进化出了一种对甜食的喜好Rather, it is because we've evolved a taste for sweet things.这种对甜食的喜好的部分原因And we've evolved a taste for sweet things, in part,在于自然界里的甜食比如水果because the sweet things in our natural environment like fruit对我们是很有好处的were good for us.现代社会里我们创造出了像巧克力这种In the modern world we have created things like chocolate,对我们没好处但是我们依然喜欢吃的东西which are not so good for us but we eat anyway.很多争论心理学领域对于A lot of the debates--There's a lot of controversy 用进化论来解释问题是很有争议的in psychology over the scope of evolutionary explanations.很多争论的焦点在于And a lot of the debate tends to be over什么是适应性什么不是what's an adaptation and what isn't.有些例子是很明显的There are some clear cases.我们拥有彩色视觉 We have color vision.我们为什么有彩色视觉呢Why do we have color vision?我想每个人都会认同我们的彩色视觉Well, I think everybody would agree we have color vision作为一种适应性使我们在as an adaptation because of the advantages it gives us看东西以及视觉辨别时占有优势for seeing and making visual distinctions.我们怕蛇We are afraid of snakes.我们以后会更细节的讨论这个问题We're going to talk about that in more detail但是这里有个很简单的解释but there's a straightforward adaptive story about that.。
