会计准则外文翻译(适用于毕业论文外文翻译+中英文对照)

一个共同的会计准则框架财务会计准则外文文献翻译 3000多字 2013年A Common Framework for Accounting StandardsIn November 2013.Bruce Pounder published an article in XXX Accounting Standards Board (FASB) and the nal Accounting Standards Board (IASB) in the development of a common framework for global accounting standards.The project。

which began in September 2010.XXX of the two boards。

The n of the first phase of the project was a significant achievement。

as it will influence global standards setting for many years to come.XXX。

as it will allow them to XXX countries.XXX discuss some of the key changes that were made to the conceptual frameworks as a result of the project。

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the Boards clarified the ns of assets and liabilities。

and XXX "XXX.Overall。

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He notes that there is still work to be done to fully align the standards of the two boards。

本科毕业论文（设计）外文翻译外文题目International Accounting Standard 38Intangible Assets外文出处IASCF38 Pages857－859外文作者 International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) 原文：International Accounting Standard 38Intangible Assets Objective1 The objective of this Standard is to prescribe the accounting treatment for intangible assets that are not dealt with specifically in another Standard. This Standard requires an entity to recognise an intangible asset if, and only if, specified criteria are met. The Standard also specifies how to measure the carrying amount of intangible assets and requires specified disclosures about intangible assets.Scope2 This Standard shall be applied in accounting for intangible assets, except:(a) intangible assets that are within the scope of another Standard;(b) financial assets, as defined in IAS 32 Financial Instruments: Presentation;(c) the recognition and measurement of exploration and evaluation assets (see IFRS 6 Exploration for and Evaluation of Mineral Resources);(d) expenditure on the development and extraction of minerals, oil, natural gasand similar non-regenerative resources.3 If another Standard prescribes the accounting for a specific type of intangible asset, an entity applies that Standard instead of this Standard. For example, this Standard does not apply to:(a) intangible assets held by an entity for sale in the ordinary course of business (see IAS 2 Inventories and IAS 11 Construction Contracts).(b) deferred tax assets (see IAS 12 Income Taxes).(c) leases that are within the scope of IAS 17 Leases.(d) assets arising from employee benefits (see IAS 19 Employee Benefits).(e) financial assets as defined in IAS 32. The recognition and measurement of some financial assets are covered by IAS 27 Consolidated and Separate Financial Statements, IAS 28 Investments in Associates and IAS 31 Interests in Joint Ventures.(f) goodwill acquired in a business combination (see IFRS 3 Business Combinations).(g) deferred acquisition costs, and intangible assets, arising from an insurer’s contractual rights under insurance contracts within the scope of IFRS 4 Insurance Contracts. IFRS 4 sets out specific disclosure requirements for those deferred acquisition costs but not for those intangible assets. Therefore, the disclosure requirements in this Standard apply to those intangible assets.(h) non-current intangible assets classified as held for sale (or included in a disposal group that is classified as held for sale) in accordance with IFRS 5 Non-current Assets Held for Sale and Discontinued Operations.4 Some intangible assets may be contained in or on a physical substance such asa compact disc (in the case of computer software), legal documentation (in the case of a licence or patent) or film. In determining whether an asset that incorporates both intangible and tangible elements should be treated under IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment or as an intangible asset under this Standard, an entity uses judgement to assess which element is more significant. For example, computer software for a computer-controlled machine tool that cannot operate without that specific software is an integral part of the related hardware and it is treated as property, plant and equipment. The same applies to the operating system of a computer. When the software is not an integral part of the related hardware, computer software is treated as an intangible asset.5 This Standard applies to, among other things, expenditure on advertising, training, start-up, research and development activities. Research and development activities are directed to the development of knowledge. Therefore, although theseactivities may result in an asset with physical substance (eg a prototype), the physical element of the asset is secondary to its intangible component, ie the knowledge embodied in it.6 In the case of a finance lease, the underlying asset may be either tangible or intangible. After initial recognition, a lessee accounts for an intangible asset held under a finance lease in accordance with this Standard. Rights under licensing agreements for items such as motion picture films, video recordings, plays, manuscripts, patents and copyrights are excluded from the scope of IAS 17 and are within the scope of this Standard.7 Exclusions from the scope of a Standard may occur if activities or transactions are so specialised that they give rise to accounting issues that may need to be dealt with in a different way. Such issues arise in the accounting for expenditure on the exploration for, or development and extraction of, oil, gas and mineral deposits in extractive industries and in the case of insurance contracts. Therefore, this Standard does not apply to expenditure on such activities and contracts. However, this Standard applies to other intangible assets used (such as computer software), and other expenditure incurred (such as start-up costs), in extractive industries or by insurers.Definitions8 The following terms are used in this Standard with the meanings specified:An active market is a market in which all the following conditions exist:(a) the items traded in the market are homogeneous;(b) willing buyers and sellers can normally be found at any time;(c) prices are available to the public.Amortisation is the systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an intangible asset over its useful life.An asset is a resource:(a) controlled by an entity as a result of past events;(b) from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity.Carrying amount is the amount at which an asset is recognised in the statement of financial position after deducting any accumulated amortisation and accumulatedimpairment losses thereon.Cost is the amount of cash or cash equivalents paid or the fair value of other consideration given to acquire an asset at the time of its acquisition or construction, or, when applicable, the amount attributed to that asset when initially recognised in accordance with the specific requirements of other IFRSs, eg IFRS 2 Share-based Payment.Depreciable amount is the cost of an asset, or other amount substituted for cost, less its residual value.Development is the application of research findings or other knowledge to a plan or design for the production of new or substantially improved materials, devices, products, processes, systems or services before the start of commercial production or use.Entity-specific value is the present value of the cash flows an entity expects to arise from the continuing use of an asset and from its disposal at the end of its useful life or expects to incur when settling a liability.Fair value of an asset is the amount for which that asset could be exchanged between knowledgeable, will ing parties in an arm’s length transaction.An impairment loss is the amount by which the carrying amount of an asset exceeds its recoverable amount.An intangible asset is an identifiable non-monetary asset without physical substance.Monetary assets are money held and assets to be received in fixed or determinable amounts of money.Research is original and planned investigation undertaken with the prospect of gaining new scientific or technical knowledge and understanding.The residual value of an intangible asset is the estimated amount that an entity would currently obtain from disposal of the asset, after deducting the estimated costs of disposal, if the asset were already of the age and in the condition expected at the end of its useful life.Useful life is:(a) the period over which an asset is expected to be available for use by an entity;(b) the number of production or similar units expected to be obtained from the asset by an entity.Intangible assets9 Entities frequently expend resources, or incur liabilities, on the acquisition, development, maintenance or enhancement of intangible resources such as scientific or technical knowledge, design and implementation of new processes or systems, licences, intellectual property, market knowledge and trademarks (including brand names and publishing titles). Common examples of items encompassed by these broad headings are computer software, patents, copyrights, motion picture films, customer lists, mortgage servicing rights, fishing licences, import quotas, franchises, customer or supplier relationships, customer loyalty, market share and marketing rights.10 Not all the items described in paragraph 9 meet the definition of an intangible asset, ie identifiability, control over a resource and existence of future economic benefits. If an item within the scope of this Standard does not meet the definition of an intangible asset, expenditure to acquire it or generate it internally is recognised as an expense when it is incurred. However, if the item is acquired in a business combination, it forms part of the goodwill recognised at the acquisition date (see paragraph 68).DisclosureGeneral118 An entity shall disclose the following for each class of intangible assets, distinguishing between internally generated intangible assets and other intangible assets:(a) whether the useful lives are indefinite or finite and, if finite, the useful lives or the amortisation rates used;(b) the amortisation methods used for intangible assets with finite useful lives;(c) the gross carrying amount and any accumulated amortisation (aggregated with accumulated impairment losses) at the beginning and end of the period;(d) the line item(s) of the statement of comprehensive income in which any amortisation of intangible assets is included;(e) a reconciliation of the carrying amount at the beginning and end of the period showing:(i) additions, indicating separately those from internal development, those acquired separately, and those acquired through business combinations;(ii) assets classified as held for sale or included in a disposal group classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5 and other disposals;(iii) increases or decreases during the period resulting from revaluations under paragraphs 75, 85 and 86 and from impairment losses recognised or reversed in other comprehensive income in accordance with IAS 36 (if any);(iv) impairment losses recognised in profit or loss during the period in accordance with IAS 36 (if any);(v) impairment losses reversed in profit or loss during the period in accordance with IAS 36 (if any);(vi) any amortisation recognised during the period;(vii) net exchange differences arising on the translation of the financial statements into the presentation currency, and on the translation of a foreign operation into the presentation currency of the entity;(viii) other changes in the carrying amount during the period.119 A class of intangible assets is a grouping of assets of a similar nature and use in an entity’s operations. Examples of separa te classes may include:(a) brand names;(b) mastheads and publishing titles;(c) computer software;(d) licences and franchises;(e) copyrights, patents and other industrial property rights, service and operating rights;(f) recipes, formulae, models, designs and prototypes;(g) intangible assets under development.The classes mentioned above are disaggregated (aggregated) into smaller (larger) classes if this results in more relevant information for the users of the financial statements.120 An entity discloses information on impaired intangible assets in accordance with IAS 36 in addition to the information required by paragraph 118(e)(iii)–(v).121 IAS 8 requires an entity to disclose the nature and amount of a change in an accounting estimate that has a material effect in the current period or is expected to have a material effect in subsequent periods. Such disclosure may arise from changes in:(a) the assessment of an intangible asset’s useful life;(b) the amortisation method;(c) residual values.122 An entity shall also disclose:(a) for an intangible asset assessed as having an indefinite useful life, the carrying amount of that asset and the reasons supporting the assessment of an indefinite useful life. In giving these reasons, the entity shall describe the factor(s) that played a significant role in determining that the asset has an indefinite useful life.(b) a description, the carrying amount and remaining amortisation period of any individual intangible asset that is material to the entity’s financial statements.(c) for intangible assets acquired by way of a government grant and initially recognised at fair value (see paragraph 44):(i) the fair value initially recognised for these assets;(ii) their carrying amount;(iii) whether they are measured after recognition under the cost model or the revaluation model.(d) the existence and carrying amounts of intangible assets whose title is restricted and the carrying amounts of intangible assets pledged as security for liabilities.(e) the amount of contractual commitments for the acquisition of intangible assets.123 When an entity describes the factor(s) that played a significant role in determining that the useful life of an intangible asset is indefinite, the entity considers the list of factors in paragraph 90.Intangible assets measured after recognition using the revaluation model124 If intangible assets are accounted for at revalued amounts, an entity shall disclose the following:(a) by class of intangible assets:(i) the effective date of the revaluation;(ii) the carrying amount of revalued intangible assets;(iii) the carrying amount that would have been recognised had the revalued class of intangible assets been measured after recognition using the cost model in paragraph 74;(b) the amount of the revaluation surplus that relates to intangible assets at the beginning and end of the period, indicating the changes during the period and any restrictions on the distribution of the balance to shareholders;(c) the methods and significant a ssumptions applied in estimating the assets’ fair values.125 It may be necessary to aggregate the classes of revalued assets into larger classes for disclosure purposes. However, classes are not aggregated if this would result in the combination of a class of intangible assets that includes amounts measured under both the cost and revaluation models.Foreign source：International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) .International Accounting Standard38—Intangible Assets.IASCF38.2003：857－859.译文：国际会计准则第38 号无形资产目的1．本准则的目的是对其他国际会计准则中没有具体涉及的无形资产的会计处理进行规范。

本科毕业论文（设计）外文翻译题目外币报表折算方法分析及中国的选择初探专业会计学外文题目Effect of Changes in Exchage Rates of Foreign Currencies 外文出处International Accounting Standard No 21 (IAS 21)外文作者International Accounting Standards Board原文：International Accounting Standard No 2 (IAS 2)Effect of changes in exchange rates of foreign currenciesObjectiveAn institution may conduct business abroad in two different ways. You can make transactions in foreign currency or may have business abroad. In addition, the entity may file its financial statements in a foreign currency. The purpose of this rule is to prescribe how they are incorporated in the financial statements of an entity, foreign currency transactions and business abroad, and how to convert the financial statements to the presentation currency of choice.The main problems that arise are the type or types of change to use and how to report on the effects of changes in exchange rates within the financial statements.DefinitionsOne group is the group formed by the parent and all its subsidiaries.Net investment in a foreign operation is the amount that corresponds to the participation of the entity that submitted their financial statements in the net assets of that business.Foreign currency (or currency) is any currency other than the functional currency of the entity.Functional currency is the currency of the primary economic environment in which the entity operates.Presentation currency is the currency in which the financial statements are presented.Business abroad is an entity dependent partner, joint venture or branch of the reporting entity, whose activities are based or carried out in a country or a currency different from those of the reporting entity.Currency monetary items are kept in cash and assets and liabilities to be received or paid by a fixed or determinable amount of monetary units.Exchange rate is the ratio of exchange between two currencies.End exchange rate is the rate of existing cash on the balance sheet date.Exchange rate spot is the exchange rate used in transactions with immediate delivery.Fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged, canceled or a liability,among stakeholders and duly informed in a transaction conducted at arm's length.Initial Recognition1. A foreign currency transaction is any transaction whose value is called or requires winding up in a foreign currency, including those in which the entity:(a) buys or sells goods or services whose price is denominated in a foreign currency;(b) lends or borrows funds, if the amounts are set to charge or pay in a foreign currency(c) acquires or disposes provides another avenue for assets or liabilities incurred or liquidation, provided that these operations are denominated in foreign currencies.2. Any foreign currency transaction is recorded at the time of its initial recognition,using the functional currency, by applying to the amount in foreign currency exchange spot at the date of the transaction between the functional currency and foreign currency.The date of the transaction is the date on which the transaction meets the conditions for recognition in accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards. For practical reasons, often using an exchange rate closer to existing at the time of the transaction, for example, may be used for weekly or monthly average rate for all transactions that take place at that time In each of the classes of foreign currency used by the entity.However, it is not appropriate to use average rates if during the interval, the changes have fluctuated significantly.Financial information on the dates of the balance sheets post3. At each balance sheet date:(a) monetary items in foreign currencies are converted using the exchange rate of closure;(b) the non-monetary foreign currency being valued in terms of historical cost, will be converted using the exchange rate on the date of the transaction; and(c) the non-monetary foreign currency being valued at fair value, will be converted using the exchange rates of the date it was determined that fair value.4. To determine the amount of an item is taken into account, in addition, other rules that apply. For example, tangible assets can be valued in terms of historical cost or revalued amount, in accordance with IAS 16 Property, plant and equipment. Regardless of whether it has determined the amount by using the historical cost or revalued amount,provided that this amount has been established in foreign currency is converted to the functional currency using the rules set out in this Standard.Recognition of exchange differences5.Exchange differences that arise in the settlement of monetary items, or to convert monetary items at rates different from those used for its initial recognition, have already occurred during the year or in previous financial statements, are recognized in the outcome of year in which they appear.See a difference when you have change monetary items as a result of a transaction in foreign currency, and there is a change in the exchange rate between the date of the transaction and the settlement date. When the transaction is settled in the same year in which they occurred, the entire exchange difference will be recognized in that period.However, when the transaction is settled in a later period, the exchange difference recognized in each period, until the settlement date, will be determined from the change that has occurred in the exchange rate for each year. When recognized directly in equity gain or loss on a non-monetary, any exchange difference, including in such losses or gains were also recognized directly in equity. By contrast, when the gain or loss on a non-monetary recognition in profit or loss, any exchange difference, including in such losses or gains, was also recognized in profit or loss.6. Exchange differences arising on a monetary item that forms part of the netinvestment in a business of the foreign entity, are recognized in profit or loss of the separate financial statements of the reporting entity or in the separate financial statements of business abroad, as appropriate. Financial statements containing the business abroad and the reporting entity (for example,the consolidated financial statements if the business abroad is a dependent), such exchange differences are recognized initially as a separate component of equity,and subsequently recognized in the outcome when it becomes available or disposed of by other means business abroad.When a monetary item is part of the net investment, carried out by the reporting entity in a foreign operation, and is denominated in the functional currency of the reporting entity,an exchange difference arises in the separate financial statements of the business abroad.When the entity bears its records and ledgers in a currency other than their functional currency and proceed to prepare their financial statements, will convert all amounts to the functional currency, as set out in paragraphs 1 to 26.As a result, will produce the same amounts, in terms of functional currency, which would have been earned if the items were originally recorded in the functional currency. For example, monetary items are translated into the functional currency using the exchange rates of closure, and nonmonetary items which are valued at historical cost, will be converted using the exchange rate at the date of the transaction that created its appreciation.7. The results and financial position of an entity whose functional currency is not in accordance with the currency of a hyperinflationary economy, translated into the presentation currency, should it be different, using the following procedures:(a) the assets and liabilities of each balance sheet presented (i.e., including comparative figures), will be converted at the rate of closure on the date of the corresponding stock;(b) revenue and expenses for each profit and loss accounts (i.e., including comparative figures), will become the exchange rates at the date of each transaction; and(c) all exchange differences arising out of this, it is recognized as a separate component of equity.8. Often, for the conversion of items of income and expenditure, is used for practical purposes an approximate rate, representative of changes in the dates of transactions,such as the average exchange rate of the period. However, when exchange rates have changed significantly, it is inappropriate to use the average rate for the period.9. Exchange differences referred to in paragraph (c) of paragraph 39 are listed by:(a) The conversion of expenditure and revenue to the exchange rates of the dates oftransactions, and of the assets and liabilities at the rate of closure. These differencesappear to change both the expenditure items and revenue recognized in the results, as recognized by the directly in equity.(b) Conversion of assets and liabilities to an early Net-end exchange rate that is different from the type used in the previous closing. Such exchange differences are not recognized in profit or loss because of the variations in exchange rates have little or no direct effect on cash flows arising from current and future activities. When the above exchange differences relating to a business abroad that while consolidating, is not involved in its entirety, the cumulative exchange differences arising from the conversion that is attributable to the minority stake, will be allocated to it and be recognized as part of the minority interest in the consolidated balance sheet.10. When the entity's functional currency is that of a hyperinflationary economy, it will restate its financial statements before implementing the conversion method set out in paragraph 42, according to IAS 29 Financial reporting in hyperinflationary economies, except the comparative figures, in the case of conversion to the currency of a hyperinflationary economy.When the economy in question ceases to be hyperinflationary and the entity ceases to restate its financial statements in accordance with IAS 29, used as the historic costs to be converted to the presentation currency, the amounts restated according to the level of prices on the date that the entity ceased to do this restatement.11. When converting to a presentation currency, the results and financial position of a foreign operation, as a preliminary step to their inclusion in the financial statements of the reporting entity, whether through consolidation, or using the proportional consolidation method of Participation will apply paragraphs 45 to 47, in addition to the provisions of paragraphs 38 to 10.The incorporation of the results and financial position of a foreign operation to the reporting entity will follow the normal procedures of consolidation, such as the elimination of intra-group transactions and balances of a dependent (see IAS 27 States Consolidated and separate financial and IAS 31 Interests in joint ventures). However, an asset (or liability) intragroup money, either short or long term, it may not be eliminated against the corresponding liability (or asset) Intra, without showing the results of changes in exchange rates within the states Consolidated Financial. This is because the monetary item represents a commitment to convert one currency into another, which exposes the reporting entity at a loss or gain on exchange fluctuations between the currencies. In line with this, in the consolidated financial statements of the reporting entity, the exchange difference should continue to be recognized in profit or loss, or, if they arise from the circumstances described in paragraph 32, is classified as a component of equity until the disposition or disposal by other means business abroad.12. When the financial statements of business abroad and the reporting entity are referred to different dates, he often produces additional financial statements with the same date as this one. When it is not, IAS 27 allows the use of different dates of submission, provided that the difference is not greater than three months, and have performed the appropriate adjustments to reflect the effects of significant transactions and other events that occurred between the dates reference. In this case, the assets and liabilities of the business abroad will be converted at the rate of the balance sheet date business abroad.It was also carried out the appropriate adjustments for significant variations in exchange rates until the balance sheet date of the reporting entity, in accordance with IAS 27.Disposition or disposal by other means of a foreign13. To alienate or otherwise dispose of a foreign operation, exchange differences deferred as a component of shareholders' equity, related to that business abroad, be recognized in the results at the same time they recognize the outcome of the alienation or disposition.It may have all or part of their participation in a business abroad through the sale,liquidation, recovery of capital contributed or neglect. The receipt of a dividend will be part of this provision only if it constitutes a recovery in investment, for example when it is paid from income in prior years to the acquisition. In the case of disposal or partial disposal, only included in the result of the exercise, the proportionate share of the difference in accumulated corresponding conversion. The correction of the value of a business abroad will not constitute a sale or partial disposal. Accordingly, at the time of accounting for this correction, shall not be recognized in profit or loss accrued no difference conversion.Source:（Excerpt from）International Accounting Standard No 21 (IAS 21)，International Accounting Standards Board 1993译文：国际会计准则第21号外汇汇率变动的影响（1993年12月修订）目的企业可以用两种方式从事对外的活动。

会计基本准则英文版The first principle is the economic entity assumption. This principle states that the financial activities of an entity should be kept separate from the personal finances of its owners or other entities. This ensures that the financial information is solely related to the specific entity and can be used for evaluating its performance.The fourth principle is the cost principle. It states that accounting for assets should be based on their original cost rather than their current market value. This principle ensures objectivity and reduces the possibility of subjective valuation of assets.The fifth principle is the full disclosure principle. It requires that all significant information relevant to the financial statements be disclosed. This includes not only the financial statements themselves but also supplementary information in the form of footnotes, management's discussion and analysis, and other disclosures.The sixth principle is the going concern assumption. It assumes that the entity will continue to operate in the foreseeable future. This allows for the recognition and measurement of assets and liabilities based on their long-term usefulness to the entity.The seventh principle is the matching principle. It states that expenses should be recognized in the same accounting period as the revenues they help generate. This principle ensures that expenses are matched with the revenues they help to generate, providing a more accurate representation of the entity's financial performance.The eighth principle is the revenue recognition principle. It states that revenue should be recognized when it is earned and the related expenses can be reasonably estimated. This principle prevents the manipulation of revenue recognition to improve short-term financial performance.The ninth principle is the materiality principle. It states that financial information should be disclosed if its omission or misstatement could influence the economic decisions of users. This allows for a focus on the relevant and significant information in financial statements.The tenth principle is the conservatism principle. It states that when there are uncertainties or doubts regarding the recognition and measurement of assets and liabilities, a more conservative approach should be taken. This principle ensures that financial statements do not overstate assets or revenues and understate liabilities or expenses.。

企业会计准则——基本准则Accounting Standard for Business Enterprises:Basic Standard第一章总则Chapter 1 General Provisions第一条为了规范企业会计确认、计量和报告行为，保证会计信息质量，根据《中华人民共和国会计法》和其他有关法律、行政法规，制定本准则。

Article 1 In accordance with The Accounting Law of the People’ s Republichinaof andC other relevant laws and regulations, this Standard is formulated to prescribe the recognition, measurement and reporting activities of enterprises for accounting purposesand to ensure the quality of accounting information.第二条本准则适用于在中华人民共和国境内设立的企业(包括公司，下同)。

Article 2 This Standard shall apply to enterprises (including companies) established within the People’s Republic of China.第三条企业会计准则包括基本准则和具体准则，具体准则的制定应当遵循本准则。

Article 3Accounting Standards for Business Enterprises include the Basic Standard andSpecific Standards. Specific Standards shall be formulated in accordance with this Standard.第四条企业应当编制财务会计报告(又称财务报告，下同)。

随着经济全球化的迅猛发展,会计国际化不断取得重大进展。

自2001年4月国际会计准则委员会(IASC) 改组为国际会计准则理事会(IASB) 并宣称制定“全球会计准则”以来, 会计准则国际趋同的步伐明显加快, 2005年全世界累计将有91个国家和地区允许或要求采用IFRS。

2000年5月欧盟委员会宣布,到2005年,所有欧盟的上市公司必须使用国际会计准则。

当月,证券委员会国际组织又通过对IASC 的核心准则的审核,并正式建议其所有成员要求跨国筹资和上市的公司采用该核心准则进行财务信息揭示。

With the rapid development of economic globalization, the international accounting make significant progress continually .Since the reorganization of the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) as the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) since April 2001 , and declared that the development of international accounting standards, significantly speeding up the international convergence of accounting standards worldwide. In 2005 will have 91 cumulative countries and regions allow or require the use of IFRS. In May 2000, the European Commission announced that, all listed companies in the EU must use the International Accounting Standards till 2005. In the same month, the International Organization of Securities Commission examine the IASC's core standards, and formally recommended all of its members when cross-border financing and listed companies to reveal financial information to use the core standard.由IASC制定,经证券委员会国际组织认可的核心准则的发布实施,意味着只要一个公司的财务报表遵循其本国的会计要求和国际会计准则,或者其本国的会计准则已经符合国际会计准则,这家公司就可以在世界各地接受IASC核心准则的证券交易所上市,而无须重编其财务报表。

本科毕业论文（设计）外文翻译外文出处International Financial Reporting Standards, 2002：412-415．外文作者International Accounting Standards Board原文：IAS24 Related Party DisclosuresThis reformatted International Accounting Standard supersedes the Standard originally approved by the Board in March 1984. It is presented in the revised format adopted for International Accounting Standards in 1991 onwards. No substantive changes have been made to the original approved text. Certain terminology has been changed to bring it into line with current IASC practice.The standards, which have been set in bold italic type, should be read in the context of the background material and implementation guidance in this Standard, and in the context of the Preface to International Accounting Standards. International Accounting Standards are not intended to apply to immaterial items (see paragraph 12 of the Preface).ObjectiveThe objective of this Standard is to ensure that an entity's financial statements contain the disclosures necessary to draw attention to the possibility that its financial position and profit or loss may have been affected by the existence of related parties and by transactions and outstanding balances with such parties.Scope1. This Standard should be applied in dealing with related parties and transactions between a reporting enterprise and its related parties. The requirements of this Standard apply to the financial statements of each reporting enterprise.2. This Standard applies only to those related party relationships described in paragraph 3, as modified by paragraph 6.3. This Standard deals only with those related party relationships described in (a) to (e) below:(a) Enterprises that directly, or indirectly through one or more intermediaries, control, or are controlled by, or are under common control with, the reporting enterprise. (This includes holding companies, subsidiaries and fellow subsidiaries);(b) Associates (see IAS 28, Accounting for Investments in Associates);(c) Individuals owning, directly or indirectly, an interest in the voting power of the reporting enterprise that gives them significant influence over the enterprise, and close members of the family [1] of any such individual;(d) Key management personnel, that is, those persons having authority and responsibility for planning, directing and controlling the activities of the reporting enterprise, including directors and officers of companies and close members of the families of such individuals; and(e) Enterprises in which a substantial interest in the voting power is owned, directly or indirectly, by any person described in (c) or (d) or over which such a person is able to exercise significant influence. This includes enterprises owned by directors or major shareholders of the reporting enterprise and enterprises that have a member of key management in common with the reporting enterprise. In considering each possible related party relationship, attention is directed to the substance of the relationship, and not merely the legal form.4. No disclosure of transactions is required:(a) In consolidated financial statements in respect of intra-group transactions;(b) In parent financial statements when they are made available or published with the consolidated financial statements;(c) In financial statements of a wholly-owned subsidiary if its parent is incorporated in the same country and provides consolidated financial statements in that country; and(d) In financial statements of state-controlled enterprises of transactions with other state- controlled enterprises.Definitions5. The following terms are used in this Standard with the meanings specified:Related party - parties are considered to be related if one party has the ability to control the other party or exercise significant influence over the other party in making financial and operating decisions.Related party transaction - a transfer of resources or obligations between related parties, regardless of whether a price is charged.Control - ownership, directly, or indirectly through subsidiaries, of more than one half of the voting power of an enterprise, or a substantial interest in voting power and the power to direct, by statute or agreement, the financial and operating policies of the management of the enterprise.Significant influence (for the purpose of this Standard) - participation in the financial and operating policy decisions of an enterprise, but not control of those policies. Significant influence may be exercised in several ways, usually by representation on the board of directors but also by, for example, participation in the policy making process, material intercompany transactions, Inter change of managerial personnel or dependence on technical information. Significant Influence may be gained by share ownership, statute or agreement. With share ownership, significant influence is presumed in accordance with the definition contained in IAS 28, Accounting for Investments in Associates.6. In the context of this Standard, the following are deemed not to be related parties:(a) Two companies simply because they have a director in common, notwithstanding paragraphs 3 (d) and (e) above, (but it is necessary to consider the possibility, and to assess the likelihood, that the director would be able to affect the policies of both companies in their mutual dealings);(b) (i) Providers of finance;(ii) Trade unions;(iii) Public utilities;(iv) Government departments and agencies,In the course of their normal dealings with an enterprise by virtue only of thosedealings (although they may circumscribe the freedom of action of an enterprise or participate in its decision-making process); and(c) A single customer, supplier, franchisor, distributor, or general agent with whom an enterprise transacts a significant volume of business merely by virtue of the resulting economic dependence.The Related Party Issue7. Related party relationships are a normal feature of commerce and business. For example, enterprises frequently carry on separate parts of their activities through subsidiary or associated enterprises and acquire interests in other enterprises - for investment purposes or for trading reasons - that are of sufficient proportions that the investing company can control or exercise significant influence on the financial and operating decisions of its investee.8. A related party relationship could have an effect on the financial position and operating results of the reporting enterprise. Related parties may enter into transactions which unrelated parties would not enter into. Also, transactions between related parties may not be effected at the same amounts as between unrelated parties.9. The operating results and financial position of an enterprise may be affected by a related party relationship even if related party transactions do not occur. The mere existence of the relationship may be sufficient to affect the transactions of the reporting enterprise with other parties. For example, a subsidiary may terminate relations with a trading partner on acquisition by the parent of a fellow subsidiary engaged in the same trade as the former partner. Alternatively, one party may refrain from acting because of the significant influence of another - for example, a subsidiary may be instructed by its parent not to engage in research and development.10. Because there is an inherent difficulty for management to determine the effect of influences which do not lead to transactions, disclosure of such effects is not required by this Standard.11. Accounting recognition of a transfer of resources is normally based on the price agreed between the parties. Between unrelated parties the price is an arm's length price. Related parties may have a degree of flexibility in the price-settingprocess that is not present in transactions between unrelated parties.12. A variety of methods is used to price transactions between related parties.13. One way of determining a price for a transaction between related parties is by the comparable uncontrolled price method, which sets the price by reference to comparable goods sold in an economically comparable market to a buyer unrelated to the seller. Where the goods or services supplied in a related party transaction, and the conditions relating thereto, are similar to those in normal trading transactions, this method is often used. It is also often used for determining the cost of finance.14. Where goods are transferred between related parties before sale to an independent party, the resale price method is often used. This reduces the resale price by a margin, representing an amount from which the re-seller would seek to cover his costs and make an appropriate profit, to arrive at a transfer price to the re-seller. There are problems of judgment in determining compensation appropriate to the re-seller's contribution to the process. This method is also used for transfers of other resources, such as rights and services.15. Another approach is the cost-plus method, which seeks to add an appropriate mark-up to the supplier's cost. Difficulties may be experienced in determining both the elements of cost attributable and the mark-up. Among the yardsticks that may assist in determining transfer prices are comparable returns in similar industries on turnover or capital employed.16. Sometimes prices of related party transactions are not determined under one of the methods described in paragraphs 13 to 15 above. Sometimes, no price is charged - as in the examples of the free provision of management services and the extension of free credit on a debt.17. Sometimes, transactions would not have taken place if the relationship had not existed. For example, a company that sold a large proportion of its production to its parent company at cost might not have found an alternative customer if the parent company had not purchased the goods.Disclosure18. In many countries the laws require financial statements to give disclosuresabout certain categories of related parties. In particular, attention is focused on transactions with the directors of an enterprise, especially their remuneration and borrowings, because of the fiduciary nature of their relationship with the enterprise, as well as disclosures of significant intercompany transactions and investments in and balances with group and associated companies and with directors. IAS 27, Consolidated Financial Statements and Accounting for Investments in Subsidiaries, and IAS 28, Accounting for Investments in Associates require disclosure of a list of significant subsidiaries and associates. IAS 8, Net Profit or Loss for the Period, Fundamental Errors and Changes in Accounting Policies, requires disclosure of extraordinary items and items of income and expense within profit or loss from ordinary activities that are of such size, nature or incidence that their disclosure is relevant to explain the performance of the enterprise for the period.19. The following are examples of situations where related party transactions may lead to disclosures by a reporting enterprise in the period which they affect:(a) Purchases or sales of goods (finished or unfinished);(b) Purchases or sales of property and other assets;(c) Rendering or receiving of services;(d) Agency arrangements;(e) Leasing arrangements;(f) Transfer of research and development;(g) License agreements;(h) Finance (including loans and equity contributions in cash or in kind);(i) Guarantees and collaterals; and(j) Management contracts.20. Related party relationships where control exists should be disclosed irrespective of whether there have been transactions between the related parties.21. In order for a reader of financial statements to form a view about the effects of related party relationships on a reporting enterprise, it is appropriate to disclose the related party relationship where control exists, irrespective of whether there have been transactions between the related parties.22. If there have been transactions between related parties, the reporting enterprise should disclose the nature of the related party relationships as well as the types of transactions and the elements of the transactions necessary for an understanding of the financial statements.23. The elements of transactions necessary for an understanding of the financial statements would normally include:(a) An indication of the volume of the transactions, either as an amount or as an appropriate proportion;(b) Amounts or appropriate proportions of outstanding items; and(c) Pricing policies.24. Items of a similar nature may be disclosed in aggregate except when separate disclosure is necessary for an understanding of the effects of related party transactions on the financial statements of the reporting enterprise.25. Disclosure of transactions between members of a group is unnecessary in consolidated financial statements because consolidated financial statements present information about the parent and subsidiaries as a single reporting enterprise. Transactions with associated enterprises accounted for under the equity method are not eliminated and therefore require separate disclosure as related party transactions. Effective Date26. This International Accounting Standard becomes operative for financial statements covering the periods beginning on or after 1 January 1986.[1] Close members of the family of an individual are those that may be expected to influence, or be influenced by, that person in their dealings with the enterprise.International Accounting Standards Board, International Financial Reporting Standards, 2002：412-415．译文：国际会计准则第24号——关联方披露本国际会计准则重编版取代了理事会于1884批准的原准则，并按国际会计准则自1991年以来采用的修订格式重新编排。

LNTU---Acc附录A国际会计准则第 37 号或有负债和或有资产目的本准则的目的是确保将适当的确认标准和计量基础运用于准备、或有负债和或有资产，并确保在财务报表的附注中披露充分的信息，以使使用者能够理解它们的性质、时间和金额。

范围1．本准则适用于所有企业对以下各项之外的准备、或有负债和或有资产的会计核算：（1）以公允价值计量的金融工具形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产：（2）执行中的合同（除了亏损的执行中的合同）形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产；（3）保险公司与保单持有人之间签订的合同形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产；（4）由其他国际会计准则规范的准备、或有负债和或有资产。

2．本准则适用于不是以公允价值计量的金融工具（包括担保）。

3．执行中的合同是指双方均未履行任何义务或双方均同等程度地履行了部分义务的合同。

本准则不适用于执行中的合同，除非它是亏损的。

4．本准则适用于保险公司的准备、或有负债和或有资产，但不适用于其与保单持有人之间签订的合同形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产。

5．如果其他国际会计准则规范了特定的准备、或有负债和或有资产，企业应运用该准则而不是本准则，例如，关于以下项目的准则也规范了特定的准备：（1）建造合同（参见《国际会计准则第11号建造合同》）；（2）所得税（参见《国队会计准则第12号所得税》）；（3）租赁（参见《国际会计准则第17 号租赁》），但是，《国际会计准则第17 号》未对已变为亏损的经营租质的核算提出具体要求，因而本准则应适用于这些情况；（4）雇员福利（参见《国际会计准则第19号一雇员福利》）。

6．一些作为准备处理的金额可能与收入的确认有关，例如企业提供担保以收取费用，本准则不涉及收入确认，《国际会计准则第18 号收入》明确了收入确认标准，并就确认标准的应用提供了实务指南，本准则不改变《国际会计准则第18 号》的规定。

7．本准则将准备定义为时间或金额不确定的负债，在某些国家，“准备”也与一些项目相联系使用，例如折旧，资产减值和坏账：这些是对资产账面金额的调整，本准则不涉及。

中小企业会计准则的应用外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Nerudova D, Bohusova H. The application of an accounting standard for SMEs[J]. International Journal of Liability & Scientific Enquiry, 2009, 2(2):233-246.英文原文The application of an accounting standard for SMEsDanuse Nerudova and Hana BohusovaAbstractSmall and medium-sized companies have a very important position in the European Union (EU) economy, mainly in the area of employment. Their activities in the internal market are limited by a great deal of obstacles. The most important obstacles are the different national accounting and tax systems. At present, it is obvious that a certain degree of accounting and tax harmonization has to take place. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) for Small- and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) is designed to apply to the general-purpose harmonized financial statements of all profit-oriented SMEs. General-purpose financial statements are directed toward the common information needs (an entity’s financial position, performance, cash flow) of a wide range of users (shareholders, creditors,employees). Determining taxable income requires special-purpose financial statements designed to comply with the tax laws and regulations in a particular jurisdiction. An entity taxable income is defined by the laws and regulations of the country or other jurisdictions in which it is domiciled. Tax authorities are also important external users of the financial statements of SMEs. Profit or loss recognized under IFRS for SMEs could be a starting point for determining taxable income. Keywords: small- and medium-sized enterprises; SMEs; taxable income; International Financial Reporting Standards; IFRS; cash flow; tax; accounting.1 IntroductionSmall- and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) comprise a substantial part of thecompanies operating in the European Union (EU) member states. Based on the latest statistics, there are 25 million SMEsoperating in 27 member states, which represent 234 D. Nerudováand H. Bohušov á99% of all business. These companies create more than 100 million jobs in the EU (Eurostat, 2003). In some industry sectors, such as textiles or construction, they even create more than 75% of the jobs. SMEs are considered the key factor of economic growth and employment in the EU. Therefore, they have received a great deal of attention in the EU in the last ten years. The structure of the EU 25 businesseconomy by the number of persons employed is shown in Table.There are 988 787 SMEs (with less than 250 employees), which represent 99.81% of all the enterprises operating in the Czech market (Czech Statistical Office, 2003). SMEs employ 1 961 000 people, which represent a 62.21% share of the total employment in the Czech Republic. The share is even 80% higher than the other sectors of the national economy –agriculture 85% and restaurant services 89.34%. For this reason, SMEs also play a very important role in the Czech Republic not only in the area of employment, but also in the economy as a whole.The increase in the importance of SMEs in the EU economy has propelled the European Commission to commission several studies, such as COM (2001)582 final and COM (2005)532 final in this area. These studies have dealt with the SMEs’position in the internal market and have identified the obstacles which these types of enterprises face while operating in the internal market. The existence of obstacles mainly in the form of 25 different accounting and tax systems, which generate disproportionate high compliance costs for SMEs (in comparison with large enterprises), is the reason why SMEs are less involved in cross-border activities and operate less in the internal market in comparison with large enterprises. The studies have revealed that SMEs operate mainly in the domestic (national) markets. It seems that in today’s globalised world, a higher involvement of SMEs in cross-borderactivities and its higher operation on the internal market could bring an increase in their competitiveness and performance, which would remarkably influence the economy and growth of the EU as a whole.The aims of the paper are to evaluate the Exposure Draft (ED) of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) for SMEs and design some modifications of SME financial reporting harmonization. The theoretical background of the paper presents the objectives of SME financial reporting harmonization and the efforts of the European Commission to harmonies the area of corporate taxation and introduce the recommended taxation models of EU companies. This paper contains a research on the implementation used in harmonising SME financial reporting. The full IFRS is transformed for SMEs by the simplification of some standards and by the omission of irrelevant standards. Finally, the paper summarises the results of the research and suggests alternative solutions.2 The characteristics of SMEsThe application of an accounting standard for SMEs 235 At present, various definitions which have been developed for application in different countries can be found. The criteria often used for classifying enterprises are turnover, the number of employees, capital base, profits, etc. Whether an enterprise appears to be large, medium or small differs widely across the countries and depends on their degree of development and the generalscale of economic activity.1 According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2005), the characteristics of SMEs reflect not only economic, but also the cultural and social dimensions of a country. The paper uses the definition of SMEs which has been introduced in the EU by the adoption of the Commission There is at present relatively little cross-country experience with generalised approaches to SMEs’taxation and accounting. On the other hand, there are available literature on the challenges faced in designing tax regimes for SMEs. Different accounting and tax systems which trigger high compliance costs represent the barrier for SMEs wishing to take part in cross-border activities in the EU.The efforts to unify the accounting systems of the EU member states are connected with the establishment of the European Economic Community (EEC) –the harmonisation of accounting and taxes is confirmed in the Treaty of Rome signed in 1957. The aim was to coordinate the protective rules of companies not only in the interest of shareholders and third parties (creditors, employees), but also in the interest of equal competitive conditions and equal business relations in the member states.The first harmonisation efforts in the area of accounting were accomplished by the adoption of directives (Fourth Directive No. 78/660/EEC, Seventh Directive No. 83/349/EEC and Eighth Directive No.84/253/EEC). They create the code of EU accounting legislation and represent the basic harmonisation tool of the European Commission. These directives comprise elements from the continental legal system typified by Germany or France, as well as the elements from the Anglo-Saxon system. Both approaches differ mainly in the area of financial statements’arrangements.The most important directive in the area of accounting is represented by the fourth directive, which concerns the financial statements of large and medium-sized capital companies. The directive reflects the compromises between the continental and Anglo-Saxon approaches –the structure and form of financial statements are variable and its final form is left to national competence.Since the 1970s, the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) has played a very important role in the area of accounting harmonisation. The IASC was followed in 2001 by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), which was asked to create unified International Accounting Standards (IAS) and later, the IFRS.The efforts to harmonise taxation systems for SMEs within the EU have started mainly in 2001, when the European Commission introduced the green paper which surveyed the tax obstacles for the companies in the internal market. Until that time, the European Commission was always trying to harmonise or coordinate the system of direct taxation in generalwithout any special emphasis on SMEs. After the publication of the abovementioned study in 2001, the European Commission suggested four possible models of corporate tax harmonisation.2 One of them –Home State Taxation (HST) –was aimed at SMEs. Under that system, the companies will use for the taxation of their European activities the rules which are valid in the country where the company has a seat or headquarters. HST is voluntary –companies could opt to use domestic taxation rules or not.The model does not represent harmonisation, for under this system, 27 different national taxation systems, would still exist. The application of the model could also increase tax competition in order to attract the companies that would tax their profits from the European activities in the country. The European Commission has prepared the pilot project, under which the model should be tested for five years in selected countries. However, no member state applied to participate; therefore, the Commission turned its attention to a second model –the Common Consolidated Corporate Tax Base (CCCTB). At present, the CCCTB represents the priority of the European Commission –the draft of the CCCTB directive should be finished by the end of 2008. The problem is that the model is mainly aimed at large companies and will probably not be reachable for SMEs (for details, see Nerudová, 2007).At present, the directives connected with accounting are undergoingthe revision. The aims are to adopt the directives to the requirements connected with the internalisation of the business environment and harmonise the directives with IFRS. In 2003, Directive No. 2003/51/EC was adopted, which enables the member states which do not apply IAS/IFRS on all companies to use the similar financial reporting systems.The situation in the area of accounting harmonisation is solved for large companies listed on the world stock markets. SMEs have a legal obligation to prepare financial statements in accordance with a set of accounting principles accepted in their country. Those statements are available to creditors, suppliers and the government in their country, but they could be difficult to understand for creditors, suppliers and those in other countries.The financial statements of SMEs that are comparable from one country to the next are needed for the following reasons. Firstly, financial institutions make loans across borders and operate on a multinational level. Secondly, vendors want to evaluate the financial health of buzzers in other countries before they sell goods or services on credit. Credit rating agencies try to develop ratings uniformly across borders. Furthermore, many SMEs have overseas suppliers and use a supplier’s financial statement to assess the prospects of a viable long-term business relationship. V enture capital firms also provide funding to SMEs across borders.Many SMEs have external investors who are not involved in the day-to-day management of the entity. Global accounting standards for general-purpose financial statements and the resulting comparability are especially important when those external investors are located in a different jurisdiction from the entity and when they have interests in other SMEs. Moreover, global standards also improve the consistency in audit quality and facilitate education and training. On the other hand, good accounting and more disclosures add to SMEs’burdens rather than reduce them; SMEs are also often concerned about the competitive harmfulness of greater transparency.The benefit of global financial reporting standards is not limited to enterprises whose securities are traded in public capital markets. SMEs –and those who use their financial statements –can benefit from a common set of accounting standards different from full IFRS. Users may have less interest in some information in general-purpose financial statements prepared in accordance with full IFRS than the users of financial statements of publicly traded entities (users of the financial statements of SMEs may have greater interest in short-term cash flows, liquidity, balance sheet strength and interest coverage or they may need some information that is not ordinarily presented in the financial statement of publicly traded companies).The differences between full IFRS and IFRS for SMEs must bedetermined on the basis of users’needs and cost-benefit analyses as quotes (Bohušová, 2007). There can be found different attitudes to the introduction of standards for SMEs in accounting theory. As stated by Březinová(2004), it is very important to consider who the users of financial statements are while making the decision about the application of accounting standards for SMEs. Also, V eerle (2005) and Street and Larson (2004) were in opposition to SMEs’accounting harmonisation based on full IFRS, which is applied in Malta, Cyprus or Croatia (mainly because of the different needs of users of the information from the financial statements). With quotes (Březinová, 2004), the basic problem is the approaches to the valuation methods used by IFRS for companies which are not the subjects of public interest. The philosophy of IFRS is primarily to provide the information for financial investors and supervising institutions while the standards for SMEs (which are not the subjects of public interest) should reflect the needs of different accounting information users (owners, managers, state, tax authorities, insurance companies, creditors, etc.). On the contrary, Haller (2002) asked whether the size of the enterprise is the reason for the application of different methodical approaches to financial statements. Furthermore, Oberreiter (2005) expressed doubt about the harmonisation of the standards for SMEs mainly because of its local character. According to the author, SMEs lack the ambition to become large or listed companies.He suggested different approaches to the individual SMEs.3 BackgroundSince 2004, the IASB has been working on a project to develop accounting standards suitable for enterprises that are not obliged to prepare financial statements in accordance with IAS/IFRS. In June 2004, the discussion paper Preliminary Views on Accounting Standards for SMEs was published. The responses (120 responses) to the discussion paper showed a clear demand for an IFRS for SMEs and the preference to adopt the IFRS for SMEs rather than locally or regionally developed standards. Based on the responses to the discussion paper, the enterprises which should prepare their financial statements in accordance with IFRS for SMEs were defined. They were defined by the IASB as enterprises that either do not have public accountability or publish general-purpose financial statements for external users.The IASB definition of SMEs does not include quantified size criteria for determining what a small or medium-sized entity is because those standards could be used in over 100 countries (from the reasons already mentioned). It is not feasible to develop a quantified test that would be applicable and long-lasting in all of those countries. In deciding which entities should be required or permitted to use the IFRS for SMEs, jurisdiction may prescribe the quantified size criteria in a particular country. Despite this fact, the IASB approach focuses on ‘the typicalSME’with about 50 employees. It is a quantified size test for defining SMEs, but rather, for helping it decide the kind of transactions, events and conditions that should be explicitly addressed in the IFRS for SMEs.中文译文中小企业会计准则的应用Danuse Nerudova和Hana Bohusova摘要中小企业在欧盟经济中占有非常重要的地位，主要集中在就业领域。

外文翻译原文1The logic of pension accounting2. Pensions as an expense2.1. Early approaches to pension accountingIn the USA and UK, private-sector employer-sponsored pension arrangements began to appear in the second half of the 19th century, and were often associated with large organizations such as railways, in sura nee compa nies and banks (Ha nn ah, 1986: 10 -2; Chan dar and Miranti,2007: 206). Accounting for these arrangements was often very simple. The cost recognized by the employer was effectively the cash paid in a given period. Some schemes operated on a ‘pa-yas-you-go'basis, where the employer made no advance provision for retirement benefits. In this case, the cost each period equaled the benefits paid. In a scheme where the employer made contributions to an external fund invested in securities, out of which benefits would be paid, or made notional contributions to an internal account, the cost would be the contributions arising in each period, possibly augmented by interest on notional contributions if these were not used to purchase securities. However, many employers granted pensions to enable employees to retire, even though no advance provision had been made.The ‘expens-aes-you-pay'accounting for pensions was rationali zed through the ‘gratuity theory 'of retirement benefits (McGill et al., 2004: 16).This theory proposed that retirement benefits were awarded to retirees at the discretion of the employer, ‘as a kindly act on the par an employer towards old retainers who have served him faithfull y and well '(Pilch and Wood, 1979: 2). Paying a pension was not necessarily an act of pure benevolence, because it could allow an employer to retire an employee who was no longer performing adequately, without incurring public criticism. The gratuity theory implied that the employer received an efficiency gain when superannuated employees retired, and that the appropriate point at which to recognize the cost of pensions was as the pensions were paid. If the employer wanted to earmark some earnings in a distinct pension reserve before employees retired, then this would be regarded as an appropriation of profit rather than as an expense. Even in structured pension schemes, the employer might include clauses denying the existence of an enforceable contract, stressing that pension benefits我国企业养老金会计确认、计量、列报研究were paid en tirely at the employer ' s discreti on and could be disc on ti nued at any time (St one, 1984: 24).However, the gratuity theory rapidly came under challenge from the view that pensionscon stitute ‘ deferred pay ' , ansdnplayees in effect sacrifice curre nt in come in excha nge for the expectati on of in come in the future. On this basis, early acco unting theorists such as Henry Rand Hatfield suggested that employers should in clude in operati ng expe nses tdhe amount n ecessary provide for future pensions ' (Hatfield, 1916: 194). A nu mber of comme ntators observed that thecalculation of such an expense was potentially highly complex, but they suggested that the calculations fell within the domain of actuaries (Stone, 1984: 26).Members of the actuarial profession had already been involved in advising on appropriate contribution rates for pensionschemes involving either external or internal ‘ notional ' funding. In accounting terms, the employer would measure the annual cost of pension provision either directly in terms of amounts calculated by actuaries, if the route of internal funding was followed, or through the contributions (themselves determined by actuaries) to an external pension fund. In the case of external funding, cost would be equal to contributions due for the period, and, other than short-term accruals,pension expense would be based on cash payments (or other assets transferred) to the pension fund.2.2. The begi nnings of acco unting regulati onEarly authoritative acco unting pronoun ceme nts en dorsed this esse ntially cash-based approachto pension cost determi natio n. The Committee on Acco un ti ng Procedure of the America n In stituteof Certified Public Acco un ta nts (AICPA) issued Accou nting Research Bulletin No. 47 Accou ntingfor Costs of Pension Plans in 1956, and expressed the view that ‘ costs based on current and futuiservices should be systematically accrued during the expected period of active service of the covered employees ' (CAP, 1956). On closer an alysissystematic accrual ' implied that employerswould use the method recommended by the actuary for funding the pension plan to determine the pension expense in respect of current service. This approach was endorsed by the AccountingPrinciples Board (APB) in their Opinion No. 8 Accounting for the Cost of Pension Plans, issued in1966. APB 8 is en tirely cost-based -there are references to -s'hleatepieesi on accruals ' and‘ balanceheet pension prepayments or deferred charges but no explanation of these terms or howthey are to be determ in ed. Much of the Opinion addresses not the issue of determ ining‘ nocost ' ( ‘the annual cost assigned, under the actuarial cost method in use, to years subsequent to the inception of a pension plan or to a particular valuation date' )but rather ‘ passt ervice cost ' ( ‘ pension cost assigned under the actuarial cost method in use, to years prior to the inception of a pension plan ') and ‘ prior service cost' ( ‘ pension cost assigned, under the actuarial cost method inuse, to years prior to the date of a particular actuarial valuation 'Th)e. Opinion goes to great lengths to provide guidance on how these components of pension cost should be recognized, recommending spreading of the costs over a period up to 40 years. A number of features of the accounting treatment of pension costs need to be highlighted. First although it is not made explicit, there is an under-lying desire to arrive at a pension expense in each period that is not materially different from the employer 's contributions to the pension fund. APB 8 notes ‘the amount o pension cost determined under this Opinion may vary from the amounfunded (APB, 1966: para'.43), but this situation is not analyzed in detail. For unfunded pension plans, costs are to be determined using an actuarial cost method. The criteria for the selection of an appropriate actuarial cost method are that the method is ‘ rational and systematic and should be consistently applied so that it results in a reasonable measure of pension cost from year to year .'Author: Christopher J. Napier Nationality: English Originate from: The CPA Journal我国企业养老金会计确认、计量、列报研究译文一养老金会计的逻辑2养老金费用2.1早先的养老金会计在19世纪后期的美国和英国，出现了私人部门雇主赞助的养老金计划，主要集中于铁路公司和保险业、银行业等大型机构(Ha nn ah, 1986: 10 - 12;Chan dar and Mira nti,2007: 206)。

本科毕业论文（设计）外文翻译外文出处International Financial Reporting Standards, 2002：412-415．外文作者International Accounting Standards Board原文：IAS24 Related Party DisclosuresThis reformatted International Accounting Standard supersedes the Standard originally approved by the Board in March 1984. It is presented in the revised format adopted for International Accounting Standards in 1991 onwards. No substantive changes have been made to the original approved text. Certain terminology has been changed to bring it into line with current IASC practice.The standards, which have been set in bold italic type, should be read in the context of the background material and implementation guidance in this Standard, and in the context of the Preface to International Accounting Standards. International Accounting Standards are not intended to apply to immaterial items (see paragraph 12 of the Preface).ObjectiveThe objective of this Standard is to ensure that an entity's financial statements contain the disclosures necessary to draw attention to the possibility that its financial position and profit or loss may have been affected by the existence of related parties and by transactions and outstanding balances with such parties.Scope1. This Standard should be applied in dealing with related parties and transactions between a reporting enterprise and its related parties. The requirements of this Standard apply to the financial statements of each reporting enterprise.2. This Standard applies only to those related party relationships described in paragraph 3, as modified by paragraph 6.3. This Standard deals only with those related party relationships described in (a) to (e) below:(a) Enterprises that directly, or indirectly through one or more intermediaries, control, or are controlled by, or are under common control with, the reporting enterprise. (This includes holding companies, subsidiaries and fellow subsidiaries);(b) Associates (see IAS 28, Accounting for Investments in Associates);(c) Individuals owning, directly or indirectly, an interest in the voting power of the reporting enterprise that gives them significant influence over the enterprise, and close members of the family [1] of any such individual;(d) Key management personnel, that is, those persons having authority and responsibility for planning, directing and controlling the activities of the reporting enterprise, including directors and officers of companies and close members of the families of such individuals; and(e) Enterprises in which a substantial interest in the voting power is owned, directly or indirectly, by any person described in (c) or (d) or over which such a person is able to exercise significant influence. This includes enterprises owned by directors or major shareholders of the reporting enterprise and enterprises that have a member of key management in common with the reporting enterprise. In considering each possible related party relationship, attention is directed to the substance of the relationship, and not merely the legal form.4. No disclosure of transactions is required:(a) In consolidated financial statements in respect of intra-group transactions;(b) In parent financial statements when they are made available or published with the consolidated financial statements;(c) In financial statements of a wholly-owned subsidiary if its parent is incorporated in the same country and provides consolidated financial statements in that country; and(d) In financial statements of state-controlled enterprises of transactions with other state- controlled enterprises.Definitions5. The following terms are used in this Standard with the meanings specified:Related party - parties are considered to be related if one party has the ability to control the other party or exercise significant influence over the other party in making financial and operating decisions.Related party transaction - a transfer of resources or obligations between related parties, regardless of whether a price is charged.Control - ownership, directly, or indirectly through subsidiaries, of more than one half of the voting power of an enterprise, or a substantial interest in voting power and the power to direct, by statute or agreement, the financial and operating policies of the management of the enterprise.Significant influence (for the purpose of this Standard) - participation in the financial and operating policy decisions of an enterprise, but not control of those policies. Significant influence may be exercised in several ways, usually by representation on the board of directors but also by, for example, participation in the policy making process, material intercompany transactions, Inter change of managerial personnel or dependence on technical information. Significant Influence may be gained by share ownership, statute or agreement. With share ownership, significant influence is presumed in accordance with the definition contained in IAS 28, Accounting for Investments in Associates.6. In the context of this Standard, the following are deemed not to be related parties:(a) Two companies simply because they have a director in common, notwithstanding paragraphs 3 (d) and (e) above, (but it is necessary to consider the possibility, and to assess the likelihood, that the director would be able to affect the policies of both companies in their mutual dealings);(b) (i) Providers of finance;(ii) Trade unions;(iii) Public utilities;(iv) Government departments and agencies,In the course of their normal dealings with an enterprise by virtue only of thosedealings (although they may circumscribe the freedom of action of an enterprise or participate in its decision-making process); and(c) A single customer, supplier, franchisor, distributor, or general agent with whom an enterprise transacts a significant volume of business merely by virtue of the resulting economic dependence.The Related Party Issue7. Related party relationships are a normal feature of commerce and business. For example, enterprises frequently carry on separate parts of their activities through subsidiary or associated enterprises and acquire interests in other enterprises - for investment purposes or for trading reasons - that are of sufficient proportions that the investing company can control or exercise significant influence on the financial and operating decisions of its investee.8. A related party relationship could have an effect on the financial position and operating results of the reporting enterprise. Related parties may enter into transactions which unrelated parties would not enter into. Also, transactions between related parties may not be effected at the same amounts as between unrelated parties.9. The operating results and financial position of an enterprise may be affected by a related party relationship even if related party transactions do not occur. The mere existence of the relationship may be sufficient to affect the transactions of the reporting enterprise with other parties. For example, a subsidiary may terminate relations with a trading partner on acquisition by the parent of a fellow subsidiary engaged in the same trade as the former partner. Alternatively, one party may refrain from acting because of the significant influence of another - for example, a subsidiary may be instructed by its parent not to engage in research and development.10. Because there is an inherent difficulty for management to determine the effect of influences which do not lead to transactions, disclosure of such effects is not required by this Standard.11. Accounting recognition of a transfer of resources is normally based on the price agreed between the parties. Between unrelated parties the price is an arm's length price. Related parties may have a degree of flexibility in the price-settingprocess that is not present in transactions between unrelated parties.12. A variety of methods is used to price transactions between related parties.13. One way of determining a price for a transaction between related parties is by the comparable uncontrolled price method, which sets the price by reference to comparable goods sold in an economically comparable market to a buyer unrelated to the seller. Where the goods or services supplied in a related party transaction, and the conditions relating thereto, are similar to those in normal trading transactions, this method is often used. It is also often used for determining the cost of finance.14. Where goods are transferred between related parties before sale to an independent party, the resale price method is often used. This reduces the resale price by a margin, representing an amount from which the re-seller would seek to cover his costs and make an appropriate profit, to arrive at a transfer price to the re-seller. There are problems of judgment in determining compensation appropriate to the re-seller's contribution to the process. This method is also used for transfers of other resources, such as rights and services.15. Another approach is the cost-plus method, which seeks to add an appropriate mark-up to the supplier's cost. Difficulties may be experienced in determining both the elements of cost attributable and the mark-up. Among the yardsticks that may assist in determining transfer prices are comparable returns in similar industries on turnover or capital employed.16. Sometimes prices of related party transactions are not determined under one of the methods described in paragraphs 13 to 15 above. Sometimes, no price is charged - as in the examples of the free provision of management services and the extension of free credit on a debt.17. Sometimes, transactions would not have taken place if the relationship had not existed. For example, a company that sold a large proportion of its production to its parent company at cost might not have found an alternative customer if the parent company had not purchased the goods.Disclosure18. In many countries the laws require financial statements to give disclosuresabout certain categories of related parties. In particular, attention is focused on transactions with the directors of an enterprise, especially their remuneration and borrowings, because of the fiduciary nature of their relationship with the enterprise, as well as disclosures of significant intercompany transactions and investments in and balances with group and associated companies and with directors. IAS 27, Consolidated Financial Statements and Accounting for Investments in Subsidiaries, and IAS 28, Accounting for Investments in Associates require disclosure of a list of significant subsidiaries and associates. IAS 8, Net Profit or Loss for the Period, Fundamental Errors and Changes in Accounting Policies, requires disclosure of extraordinary items and items of income and expense within profit or loss from ordinary activities that are of such size, nature or incidence that their disclosure is relevant to explain the performance of the enterprise for the period.19. The following are examples of situations where related party transactions may lead to disclosures by a reporting enterprise in the period which they affect:(a) Purchases or sales of goods (finished or unfinished);(b) Purchases or sales of property and other assets;(c) Rendering or receiving of services;(d) Agency arrangements;(e) Leasing arrangements;(f) Transfer of research and development;(g) License agreements;(h) Finance (including loans and equity contributions in cash or in kind);(i) Guarantees and collaterals; and(j) Management contracts.20. Related party relationships where control exists should be disclosed irrespective of whether there have been transactions between the related parties.21. In order for a reader of financial statements to form a view about the effects of related party relationships on a reporting enterprise, it is appropriate to disclose the related party relationship where control exists, irrespective of whether there have been transactions between the related parties.22. If there have been transactions between related parties, the reporting enterprise should disclose the nature of the related party relationships as well as the types of transactions and the elements of the transactions necessary for an understanding of the financial statements.23. The elements of transactions necessary for an understanding of the financial statements would normally include:(a) An indication of the volume of the transactions, either as an amount or as an appropriate proportion;(b) Amounts or appropriate proportions of outstanding items; and(c) Pricing policies.24. Items of a similar nature may be disclosed in aggregate except when separate disclosure is necessary for an understanding of the effects of related party transactions on the financial statements of the reporting enterprise.25. Disclosure of transactions between members of a group is unnecessary in consolidated financial statements because consolidated financial statements present information about the parent and subsidiaries as a single reporting enterprise. Transactions with associated enterprises accounted for under the equity method are not eliminated and therefore require separate disclosure as related party transactions. Effective Date26. This International Accounting Standard becomes operative for financial statements covering the periods beginning on or after 1 January 1986.[1] Close members of the family of an individual are those that may be expected to influence, or be influenced by, that person in their dealings with the enterprise.International Accounting Standards Board, International Financial Reporting Standards, 2002：412-415．译文：国际会计准则第24号——关联方披露本国际会计准则重编版取代了理事会于1884批准的原准则，并按国际会计准则自1991年以来采用的修订格式重新编排。

新会计准则中英对照1.企业会计准则-基本准则（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprises-BasicStandard）2.企业会计准则第1号-存货（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.1-Inventories）3.企业会计准则第2号-长期股权投资（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.2-Long-termequityinvestme nts）4.企业会计准则第3号-投资性房地产（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.3-Investmentproperties）5.企业会计准则第4号-固定资产（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.4-Fixedassets）6.企业会计准则第5号-生物资产（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.5-Biologicalassets）7.企业会计准则第6号-无形资产（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.6-Intangibleassets）8.企业会计准则第7号-非货币性资产：）（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.7-Exchangeofnon-monetarya ssets）9.企业会计准则第8号-资产减值（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.8-Impairmentofassets）10.企业会计准则第9号-职工薪酬（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.9–Employeecompensat ion）11.企业会计准则第10号企业年金基金（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.10-Enterpriseannuityfund）12.企业会计准则第11号股份支付（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.11-Share-basedpayment）13.企业会计准则第12号债务重组（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.12-Debtrestructurings）14.企业会计准则第13号或有事项（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.13-Contingencies）15.企业会计准则第14号收入（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.14-Revenue）16.企业会计准则第15号建造合同（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.15-Constructioncontracts）17.企业会计准则第16号政府补助（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.16-Governmentgrants）18.企业会计准则第17号借款费用（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.17-Borrowingcosts）19.企业会计准则第18号所得税（AccountingStandardforBusinessEnterprisesNo.18-Incometaxes）小编寄语：会计学是一个细节致命的学科，以前总是觉得只要大概知道意思就可以了，但这样是很难达到学习要求的。

企业的社会责任：一种趋势和运动，但社会责任是什么，是为了什么？1企业社会责任（CSR ）已成为一个全球趋势，涉及企业，国家，国际组织和民间社会组织。

但这远远不能清楚CSR的主张，有什么真正的趋势，是从哪里开始，在哪里发展，谁是项目的主要行动者。

如果把它作为一种社会运动，我们必须要问：什么运动和谁执行？讨论有助于我们反思形成的趋势和如何管理某些特点来迅速和广泛地在全球各地进行扩展，并增加了以下体制变革,特别是对变化中国家之间、企业法人和民间社会组织关系之间的界限的作用。

企业社会责任的趋势在三个方面：作为一个管理框架，新的要求，地方企业;作为动员企业行为，以协助国家的发展援助;和作为管理趋势。

每一个这些画像表明，中心的某些行为，关系，驾驭团队和利益。

我的例子表明，没有人对这些意见似乎比别人更准确，而是，活动包括规范的不同利益、作用因素、起源和轨迹。

这些多重身份的趋势可以部分描述其成功以及它的争论，脆弱性和流动性。

许多公司现在有具体的计划和小节在其网站上处理企业社会责任。

在过去，软条例和指导网络，国际公认的规则一直是一种重要机制，作用在公司、国家和国家间组织的需求，例如，发布指导方针和条例的公司。

在这背景下，国际组织仍然是重要的行动者，他们正在寻求与跨国公司进行对话，而不是试图通过国家控制企业社会责任。

各国际组织不是对企业的社会责任监管机构;而他们却是监管和自我约束的倡议之间的经纪人的最合适人选。

对社会负责行为和监测这些行为的需求越来越多地以国家以外的这些组织为渠道，并强调赞成高比例的自律。

因此，我们看到了软法律(Morth, 2004)的出现，或者是Knill 和Lehmkuhl (2002) 所说的“被规管的自律”，和Moran (2002)所归纳的“精细”或“非正式”规章。

我更喜欢“软法律”和“软规章”的说法，因为他们并不总是非正式的。

软规章常常包括正式报告和统筹程序。

还有，从统筹和行政的观点来看，那些规章和精细还是相去甚远的。

The Optimization Method of Financial Statements Based on Accounting Management TheoryABSTRACTThis paper develops an approach to enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) was fundamentally flawed by fair value accounting and asset-impairment accounting. According to legal theory and accounting theory, accounting data must have legal evidence as its source document. The conventional “mixed attribute” accounting system should be replaced by a “segregated” system with historical cost and fair value being kept strictly apart in financial statements. The proposed optimizing method will significantly enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements.I.. INTRODUCTIONBased on international-accounting-convergence approach, the Ministry of Finance issued the Enterprise Accounting Standards in 2006 taking the International Financial Reporting Standards (hereinafter referred to as “the International Standards”) for reference. The Enterprise Accounting Standards carries out fair value accounting successfully, and spreads the sense that accounting should reflect market value objectively. The objective of accounting reformation following-up is to establish the accounting theory and methodology which not only use international advanced theory for reference, but also accord with the needs of China's socialist market economy construction. On the basis of a thorough evaluation of the achievements and limitations of International Standards, this paper puts forward a stand that to deepen accounting reformation and enhance the stability of accounting regulations.II. OPTIMIZATION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEM: PARALLELING LISTING OF LEGAL FACTS AND FINANCIAL EXPECTATIONAs an important management activity, accounting should make use of information systems based on classified statistics, and serve for both micro-economic management and macro-economic regulation at the same time. Optimization of financial statements system should try to take all aspects of the demands of the financial statements in both macro and micro level into account.Why do companies need to prepare financial statements? Whose demands should be considered while preparing financial statements? Those questions are basic issues we should consider on the optimization of financial statements. From the perspective of "public interests", reliability and legal evidence are required as qualitative characters, which is the origin of the traditional "historical cost accounting". From the perspective of "private interest", security investors and financial regulatory authoritieshope that financial statements reflect changes of market prices timely recording "objective" market conditions. This is the origin of "fair value accounting". Whether one set of financial statements can be compatible with these two different views and balance the public interest and private interest? To solve this problem, we design a new balance sheet and an income statement.From 1992 to 2006, a lot of new ideas and new perspectives are introduced into China's accounting practices from international accounting standards in a gradual manner during the accounting reform in China. These ideas and perspectives enriched the understanding of the financial statements in China. These achievements deserve our full assessment and should be fully affirmed. However, academia and standard-setters are also aware that International Standards are still in the process of developing .The purpose of proposing new formats of financial statements in this paper is to push forward the accounting reform into a deeper level on the basis of international convergence.III. THE PRACTICABILITY OF IMPROVING THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEMWhether the financial statements are able to maintain their stability? It is necessary to mobilize the initiatives of both supply-side and demand-side at the same time. We should consider whether financial statements could meet the demands of the macro-economic regulation and business administration, and whether they are popular with millions of accountants.Accountants are responsible for preparing financial statements and auditors are responsible for auditing. They will benefit from the implementation of the new financial statements.Firstly, for the accountants, under the isolated design of historical cost accounting and fair value accounting, their daily accounting practice is greatly simplified. Accounting process will not need assets impairment and fair value any longer. Accounting books will not record impairment and appreciation of assets any longer, for the historical cost accounting is comprehensively implemented. Fair value information will be recorded in accordance with assessment only at the balance sheet date and only in the annual financial statements. Historical cost accounting is more likely to be recognized by the tax authorities, which saves heavy workload of the tax adjustment. Accountants will not need to calculate the deferred income tax expense any longer, and the profit-after-tax in the solid line table is acknowledged by the Company Law, which solves the problem of determining the profit available for distribution.Accountants do not need to record the fair value information needed by security investors in the accounting books; instead, they only need to list the fair value information at the balance sheet date. In addition, because the data in the solid line table has legal credibility, so the legal risks of accountants can be well controlled. Secondly, the arbitrariness of the accounting process will be reduced, and the auditors’ review process will be greatly simplified. The independent auditors will not have to bear the considerable legal risk for the dotted-line table they audit, because the risk of fair value information has been prompted as "not supported by legalevidences". Accountants and auditors can quickly adapt to this financial statements system, without the need of training. In this way, they can save a lot of time to help companies to improve management efficiency. Surveys show that the above design of financial statements is popular with accountants and auditors. Since the workloads of accounting and auditing have been substantially reduced, therefore, the total expenses for auditing and evaluation will not exceed current level as well.In short, from the perspectives of both supply-side and demand-side, the improved financial statements are expected to enhance the usefulness of financial statements, without increase the burden of the supply-side.IV. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONSThe current rule of mixed presentation of fair value data and historical cost data could be improved. The core concept of fair value is to make financial statements reflect the fair value of assets and liabilities, so that we can subtract the fair value of liabilities from assets to obtain the net fair value.However, the current International Standards do not implement this concept, but try to partly transform the historical cost accounting, which leads to mixed using of impairment accounting and fair value accounting. China's accounting academic research has followed up step by step since 1980s, and now has already introduced a mixed-attributes model into corporate financial statements.By distinguishing legal facts from financial expectations, we can balance public interests and private interests and can redesign the financial statements system with enhancing management efficiency and implementing higher-level laws as main objective. By presenting fair value and historical cost in one set of financial statements at the same time, the statements will not only meet the needs of keeping books according to domestic laws, but also meet the demand from financial regulatory authorities and security investorsWe hope that practitioners and theorists offer advices and suggestions on the problem of improving the financial statements to build a financial statements system which not only meets the domestic needs, but also converges with the International Standards.基于会计管理理论的财务报表的优化方法摘要本文提供了一个方法，以提高财务报表的可靠性和实用性。

外文翻译--国际会计准则第36号-资产减值本科毕业论文（设计）外文翻译外文题目 International Accounting Standard 36外文出处 International Accounting Standard原文：International Accounting Standard 36 Impairment of AssetsObjective1. The objective of this Standard is to prescribe the procedures that an entity applies to ensure that its assets are carried at no more than their recoverable amount. An asset is carried at more than its recoverable amount if its carrying amount exceeds the amount to be recovered through use or sale of the asset. If this is the case, the asset is described as impaired and the Standard requires the entity to recognise an impairment loss. The Standard also specifies when an entity should reverse an impairment loss and prescribes disclosures.Scope2. This Standard shall be applied in accounting for the impairment of all assets, other than:a inventories see IAS 2 Inventories ;b assets arising from construction contracts see IAS 11 Construction Contracts ;c deferred tax assets see IAS 12 Income Taxes ;d assets arising from employee benefits see IAS 19 Employee Benefits ;e financial assets that are within the scope of IAS 32 Financial Instruments.f investment property that is measured at fair value see IAS 40 Investment Property ;g biological assets related to agricultural activity that are measured at fair value less costs to sell see IAS 41 Agriculture ;h deferred acquisition costs, and intangible assets, arising from an insurer’s contractual r ights under insurance contracts within the scope of IFRS 4 Insurance Contracts; andi non-current assets or disposal groups classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5 Non-current Assets Held for Sale and Discontinued Operations.3. This Standard does not apply to inventories, assets arising from construction contracts, deferred tax assets, assets arising from employee benefits, or assets classified as held for sale or included in a disposal group that is classified as held for sale, because existing IFRSs applicable to these assets contain requirements for recognising andmeasuring these assets.4. This Standard applies to financial assets classified as:a subsidiaries, as defined in IAS 27 Consolidated and Separate Financial Statements;b associates, as defined in IAS 28 Investments in Associates; andc joint ventures, as defined in IAS 31 Interests in Joint Ventures.For impairment of other financial assets, refer to IAS 39.5. This Standard does not apply to financial assets within the scope of IFRS 9, investment property measured at fair value in accordance with IAS 40, or biological assets related to agricultural activity measured at fair value less costs to sell in accordance with IAS 41. However, this Standard applies to assets that are carried at revalued amount ie fair value in accordance with other IFRSs, such as the revaluation model in IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment. Identifying whether a revalued asset may be impaired depends on the basis used to determine fair value:a if the asset’s fair value is its market value, the only difference between the asset’s fair value and its fair value less costs to sell is the direct incremental costs to dispose of the asset:i if the disposal costs are negligible, the recoverable amount of the revalued asset is necessarily close to, or greater than, its revalued amount ie fair value . In this case, after the revaluation requirements have been applied, it is unlikely that the revalued asset is impaired andrecoverable amount need not be estimated.ii if the disposal costs are not negligible, the fair value less costs to sell of the revalued asset is necessarily less than its fair value. Therefore, the revalued asset will be impaired if its value in use is less than its revalued amount ie fair value . In this case, after the revaluation requirements have been applied, an entity applies this Standard to determine whether the asset may be impaired.b if the asset s fair value is determined on a basis other than its market value,its revalued amount ie fair value may be greater or lower than its recoverable amount. Hence, after the revaluation requirements have been applied, an entity applies this Standard to determine whether the asset may be impaired.Definitions6. The following terms are used in this Standard with the meanings specified:Carrying amount is the amount at which an asset is recognised after deducting any accumulated depreciation amortisation and accumulated impairment losses thereon.A cash-generating unit is the smallest identifiable group of assets that generates cash inflows that are largely independent of the cash inflows from other assets or groups of assets.Corporate assets are assets other than goodwill that contribute tothe future cash flows of both the cash-generating unit under review and other cash-generating units.Costs of disposal are incremental costs directly attributable to the disposal of an asset or cash-generating unit, excluding finance costs and income tax expense.Depreciable amount is the cost of an asset, or other amount substituted for cost in the financial statements, less its residual value.Depreciation Amortisation is the systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an asset over its useful life.Fair value less costs to sell is the amount obtainable from the sale of an asset or cash-generating unit in an arm’s length transaction between knowledgeable, willing parties, less the costs of disposal.An impairment loss is the amount by which the carrying amount of an asset or a cash-generating unit exceeds its recoverable amount.The recoverable amount of an asset or a cash-generating unit is the higher of its fair value less costs to sell and its value in use.Useful life is either:a the period of time over which an asset is expected to be used by the entity; orb the number of production or similar units expected to be obtained from the asset by the entity.Value in use is the present value of the future cash flows expectedto be derived from an asset or cash-generating unit.Identifying an asset that may be impaired7. Paragraphs 8 17 specify when recoverable amount shall be determined. These requirements use the term ‘an asset’ but apply equally to an individual asset or a cash-generating unit. The remainder of this Standard is structured as follows:a paragraphs 18 57 set out the requirements for measuring recoverable amount. These requirements also use the term ‘an asset’ but apply equally to an individual asset and a cash-generating unit.b paragraphs 58 108 set out the requirements for recognising and measuring impairment losses. Recognition and measurement of impairment losses for individual assets other than goodwill are dealt with in paragraphs 58 64.Paragraphs 65 108 deal with the recognition and measurement of impairment losses for cash-generating units and goodwill.In the case of an intangible asset, the term ‘amortisation’ is generally used instead of ‘depreciation’. The two terms have the same meaning.c paragraphs 109 116 set out the requirements for reversing an impairment loss recognised in prior periods for an asset or a cash-generating unit. Again, these requirements use the term ‘an asset’ but apply equally to an individual asset or a cash-generating unit.Additional requirements for an individual asset are set out in paragraphs 117 121, for a cash-generating unit in paragraphs 122 and 123, and for goodwill in paragraphs 124 and 125.d paragraphs 126 133 specify the information to be disclosed about impairment losses and reversals of impairment losses for assets and cash-generating units. Paragraphs 134 137 specify additional disclosure requirements for cash-generating units to which goodwill or intangible assets with indefinite useful lives have been allocated for impairment testing purposes.8. An entity shall assess at the end of each reporting period whether there is any indication that an asset may be impaired. If any such indication exists, the entity shall estimate the recoverable amount of the asset.9. In assessing whether there is any indication that an asset may be impaired, an entity shall consider, as a minimum, the following indications:External sources of informationa during the period, an asset’s market value has declined significantly more than would be expected as a result of the passage of time or normal use;b significant changes with an adverse effect on the entity have taken place during the period, or will take place in the near future, inthe technological, market, economic or legal environment in which the entity operates or in the market to which an asset is dedicated;c market interest rates or other market rates of return on investments have increased during the period, and those increases are likely to affect the discount rate used in calculating an asset’s value in use and decrease the asset’s recoverable amount materially;d the carrying amount of the net assets of the entity is more than its market capitalisation.Internal sources of informatione evidence is available of obsolescence or physical damage of an asset.f significant changes with an adverse effect on the entity have taken place during the period, or are expected to take place in the near future, in the extent to which, or manner in which, an asset is used or is expected to be used. These changes include the asset becoming idle, plans to discontinue or restructure the operation to which an asset belongs, plans to dispose of an asset before the previously expected date, and reassessing the useful life of an asset as finite rather than indefinite.g evidence is available from internal reporting that indicates that the economic performance of an asset is, or will be, worse than expected.10. The list in paragraph 9 is not exhaustive. An entity may identifyother indications that an asset may be impaired and these would also require the entity to determine the asset’s recoverable amount.13 Evidence from internal reporting that indicates that an asset may be impaired includes the existence of:a cash flows for acquiring the asset, or subsequent cash needs for operating or maintaining it, that are significantly higher than those originally budgeted;b actual net cash flows or operating profit or loss flowing from the asset that are significantly worse than those budgeted;c a significant decline in budgeted net cash flows or operating profit, or a significant increase in budgeted loss, flowing from the asset;d operating losses or net cash outflows for the asset, when current period amounts are aggregated with budgeted amounts for the future.12. The concept of materiality applies in identifying whether the recoverable amount of an asset needs to be estimated. For example, if previous calculations show that an asset’ s recoverable amount is significantly greater than its carrying amount, the entity need not re-estimate the asset’ s recoverable amount if no events have occurred that would eliminate that difference. Similarly, previous analysis may show that an asset’s recoverable amount is not sensitive to one or more of the indications listed in paragraph 9.13 As an illustration of paragraph 12, if market interest rates or other market rates of return on investments have increased during the period, an entity is not required to make a formal estimate of an asset’ s recoverable amount in the following cases:a if the discount rate used in calculating the asset’ s value in use is unlikely to be affected by the increase in these market rates. For example, increases in short-term interest rates may not have a material effect on the discount rate used for an asset that has a long remaining useful life; orb if the discount rate used in calculating the asset’ s value in use is likely to be affected by the increase in these market rates but previous sensitivity analysis of recoverable amount shows that:i it is unlikely that there will be a material decrease in recoverable amount because future cash flows are also likely to increase eg in some cases, an entity may be able to demonstrate that it adjusts its revenues to compensate for any increase in market rates ; or ii the decrease in recoverable amount is unlikely to result in a material impairment loss.14. If there is an indication that an asset may be impaired, this may indicate that the remaining useful life, the depreciation amortisation method or the residual value for the asset needs to be reviewed and adjusted in accordance with the Standard applicable to the asset, evenif no impairment loss is recognised for the asset.From：IAS36，Impairment of Assets[S].译文：《国际会计准则第36号-资产减值》目的本准则的目的是，规定企业用以确保其资产以不超过可收回价值的金额进行计量的程序。