中国人和美国人语言交际中的面子观探索摘要：礼貌是人类交际中的普遍现象。
布朗和列文森在1978年提出的礼貌原则中的面子理论极具影响。
不同民族的人对面子的看法千差万别。
面子在顺利成功的社会交往中扮演着关键的角色，不考虑面子问题，人际交往将无法进行。
关键词：语言交际；礼貌；面子一、礼貌、面子和交际交际中的礼貌可以被定义为“一种用来显示意识到他人面子的手段。
”（Yule）在社会交往中找出一些不同的显示礼貌的原则是可能的。
其中包括得体、慷慨、谦虚和对他人的同情。
交际活动的参与者通常都会意识到这些准则和原则在社会生活中的大量存在。
打招呼、握手和寄送礼物，所有这些行为都展示了某种确定存在的好感和友谊。
人们表现得彬彬有礼是为了显示他们开始友好真诚的交际活动的愿望，或者是维持一种业已存在的与他人的和谐关系，或者当这种关系面临损害时去修补它。
要想维持一种和谐的人际关系和实现平稳有效的交际，礼貌是随时需要的重要手段。
但是，在一次交际活动中有时存在着一种更狭窄的但是作用更大的礼貌类型，要描述这种礼貌类型就要用到面子这一概念。
面子这一说法在1950年代末由戈夫曼提出。
他认为面子是每个人最神圣的东西，是所有交际者都必须予以关注的关键因素。
对面子的需求是相互的。
假如一个人要想得到面子，他就应该留意别人的面子。
这一点可以被《圣经》中的一条精练全面的原则所证明：要想别人怎样对待你，你就应该怎样对待别人。
因此面子是个体的一种社会意识。
个体在其中倾注了情感，也希望每一其他个体对此认可。
面子在交际活动中可能丢失、挽回、维护或者加强，必须随时给予关注。
通常，人们会有意无意地合作，在交际中展示他们对增强彼此面子的兴趣，因为大家都有各自想要实现的目的。
也只有每个人都接受和保护他人的面子，成功的交际活动也才可能顺利进行；也只有如此，社会才能相对平稳地发展，人际关系才得以拓宽，商业交易才能顺利进行。
交际活动可以被定义为一种包括发生在不同文本和情境之中的广义的概念。
是一种至少发生在两个交际者当中的信息传递过程。
语言作为主要的交际渠道或者工具，将语言信息从出发点/发出者传输到目的地/接收者。
信息发出者希望该信息或者语言会对听者产生某种效果。
然而，交际不仅是一种信息交换，也不只是一种交际双方都要积极组织信息建构的合作，它包括所有这些人们相互影响的过程。
所有行为都可以说是交际性质的。
用餐时的讨论、电话交谈和路上招呼提供的信息很少，但对于维持和谐的人际关系却是一种极其重要的手段。
一般而言，要知道什么是被推崇的，而什么不是；我们在何时何地应如何表现得适度和礼貌，以此来维护自己和他人的面子。
二、中国人的面子交际观几千年来。
面子在中国文化中一直扮演着非常重要的角色。
可以毫不夸张地说，不给对方面子，交际活动就难以顺利有效地进行。
中国人在交际中都有意识地关注面子问题。
正如一句广为人知的中国俗语说的那样：“人要脸树要皮。
”一个失了脸面的中国人将会对他参与的交际活动失去兴趣。
而导致某人丢面子也很可能危及此人在等级制度中的固有地位。
失面子不仅仅是一个让个人难堪的问题，还可能会影响一个集团的凝聚力或者整体面子，因此它也有着潜在的扰乱社会秩序的危险。
中国人之所以如此重视面子问题有两大原因：一是中国人千百年来一直在自己栖息的土地上耕耘生存，和周围的朋友、邻居和亲戚共同生活，很少有机会迁移。
当一个人和特定群体的生活息息相关时，保持成员间的和谐关系就尤为重要。
所以，保持融洽和谐的关系、避免冲突和保护每一个体和集体的面子就成为大家自然而且必要的选择。
其次，孔子强调大部分人类关系的实质是不平等的。
他不认为这种不平等有何不妥，因为上下尊卑长幼之间存在着不同的义务。
他认为只有当某种社会场景中的各方都克己守礼时，社会和谐才可能实现。
而实现此目标的方式之一就是接受和尊重每一个个体对保护自己面子的需求。
职位高的一方通常是行使权力的，但也应使自己具备道德上的同情心和正义感。
同样，下级则被要求尊重和服从上级的同时也期望着上级对自己的保护、关照和指导。
当某种难以处理的、不愉快的事情出现时，面子问题就更需要考虑。
与中国人交流时当然要小心面子问题，但老是担心谈话太随意会冒犯对方面子则大可不必。
为了更好地和中国人交往，胡文仲和格罗夫提出了以下八条原则：一是对那些在年龄和职务上高于自己的人恭敬谦让。
二是善待那些在年龄和职务上低于自己的人。
三是不要指望中国人会以违背集体原则的方式行事。
四是不要坚持认为你的上级尊重你自己的权利和观点。
五是不要以任何方式挑战上级认可的道德规范。
六是不要显示愤怒，要避免对抗。
七是如果你必须说“不”，尽可能说的委婉迂回。
八是如果必须提出批评和指责，最好私下进行，同时对对方的说法予以肯定。
尽管中国人并不是在每种情形中都考虑面子问题，但采取上述策略还是安全和有益的。
现代中国一直受到外国文化的影响，中国人在物质生活和思想模式方面都经历着巨大的改变，许多中国人正在调整和形成新的面子观。
但是，如果因此就认为中国人不再关注面子问题就大错特错了。
如果你在和中国人交往中使对方失了面子，你该如何应对？如果你发现一个中国朋友或者同事对你的态度和行为有着明显的负面变化，或者你发现要从一个你曾经信赖的中国朋友那里得到帮助信息变得更难了，那你就得认真对待这种情况了。
原因可能是你使对方失了面子，以下做法将有助于挽回面子：首先，停止任何可能继续导致丢面子的行为；其次，找一个和大家关系都好的熟人，请他在你们之间调解；再次，不管你是否做第二步，你都应该向被你冒犯的人道歉并请求谅解；最后，以后要尊重和体谅对方，要在各方面都考虑到对方的地位、需求和内心隐秘的愿望。
总之，要想方设法恢复曾被你伤害过的对方的面子。
三、美国人在交际中的面子问题不同民族的人对面子的看法千差万别。
美国人很少谈及面子，有人因此认为美国人不关心面子。
然而事实并非如此。
研究面子问题的社会学者和语言学家已经证明了面子问题是人类交际活动中共同关注的问题，所以美国人也绝不例外。
我们需要注意的是交际中中国人和美国人对面子概念在认识上的差别。
在第三部分中我们已经谈到中国人的面子问题存在于大多数人的意识之中。
而美国人可能将其看作一种和个人隐私、自由、自立、人权、独立、财富以及声誉等等相关的东西。
这些东西并不等同于面子，但美国人对它们非常看重。
美国人除了本土印地安人外，都是来自世界各地尤其是欧洲的移民或者移民后裔。
他们的生活自殖民时期以来一直处于流动之中。
如果他们厌倦了一个地方，或者发现在该地生活不再感到舒适，那他们会毫不犹豫地迁往他乡以追求更好的生活，这样他们人生中的朋友、邻居、同事和熟人都会不停地变换。
正因为这种集体成员的不断变动，美国人更关注个体而不是集体。
对他们而言，保持和保护集体的凝聚力和和谐关系自然就不如中国人认为的那么重要了。
在美国这样一个相对中央集权制度较低和对维持特定等级制度相对忽略的国家，失面子会导致个体难堪而不一定会威胁到集团的团结，或者导致社会生活结构的解体。
尽管美国也有等级制度，但人们总是试图缩短这种社会差距来显示人生平等这一信条。
他们也尽可能地模糊权力和地位间的差异，认为所有人本质上都是一样的。
另外，整个社会的高度流动性始终是美国社会生活的一大特点，而大多数人也都认为这是件好事。
在大多数普通的社会交往中，美国人喜欢直截了当。
他们欣赏开门见山和直抒胸臆。
当他们不懂时，他们就说：“我不知道”；当他们没有被赋予某种权利时，他们就说：“我不能那样做”。
他们当然知道，这种直接真实的回答在情感上会令他人不快，但是他们还是会实话实说。
他们认为只有把目前情况用最直接明白的语言阐释清楚，大家才能更好地维护自己的权益。
他们不是不重视礼貌和他人的感受，恰恰相反，他们非常在意。
每当别人的感受和面子会遭受风险时，他们都会尽可能地察觉。
只不过他们高度认可直截了当，所以在敏感情形中，他们的职责是用一种直接而且尽可能委婉的方式提供完整的信息。
四、结语任何人际交往都会面临风险，这对交际双方的面子也是如此。
对交际双方而言，面子问题必须谨慎处理。
面子作为身份的一个重要方面，已被视为所有交际活动中的一个至关重要的组成部分。
语言学家们对此进行了大量的研究，想了解交际参与者如何决定自己的相对地位，他们要使用什么语言来说明这种地位差别，同时考虑到参与者的面子问题。
既然面子概念在不同人际交往形式中不同程度地存在，参与者必须在开始交际前就做到心中有数。
简言之，可以不考虑面子的交际活动是不存在的。
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Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language and Educ at ion Press, 2000.［8］何兆熊. 语用学概要［M ］. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 1987.［9］何自然. 语用学与英语学习［M ］. 上海:上海教育出版社, 1996.［10］陈融. 面子•留面子•丢面子［J］.外国语, 1986,(04).［11］陈治安等. 英汉对比语用学与英语教学［M］. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 2 002.［12］周榕，胡永红.Politeness Strategies in English and Chinese ［M］. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.［13］祝畹.社会语言学概论［M］. 长沙：湖南教育出版社, 1994.Chinese and American Language Communication in the face view of explorationAbstract: The politeness is a common phenomenon in human communication. Brown and Levinson's politeness in 1978 proposed the principle of high-impact theo ry in the face. Of different nationalities of people's views vary widely on the face. Face in the smooth and successful social interaction plays a key role, regardless o f losing face, interpersonal communication would be impossible.Keywords: language communication; politeness; faceFirst, politeness, face and communicationCommunication politeness can be defined as' a kind of used to display the m eans to realize that other people face. '(Yule) in social interaction to identify a num ber of different principles of courtesy which is possible. Including tact, generosity, h umility and compassion for others. Communicative activities of the participants are usually aware of these norms and principles in social life abound. Hello, shaking h ands and send gifts, all of which show some kind of established the existence of g oodwill and friendship. People behave politely to show that they began to communi cative activities, friendship and sincere desire to, or already exists to maintain a ha rmonious relationship with others, or when such relations are facing an injury to fix it. To maintain a harmonious interpersonal relationships and achieving a smooth a nd effective communication, courtesy is an important tool at all times. However, in a communicative activities, there is sometimes a more narrow type of courtesy, but is even more necessary to describe this type of courtesy is necessary to use the concept of face.Face of this argument in the late 1950s made by Goffman. He believes that everyone face the most sacred thing is that all communication must be of concern to those who are a key factor. On the face of the demand is mutual. If a person i s to obtain a face, he should pay attention to someone else's face. This can be 't he Bible' in a concise and comprehensive proof of principle: If we want other peopl e to treat you, how you should treat others. Therefore, individuals face is a kind of social consciousness. In which individuals have devoted feelings, I hope every oth er individual on this recognition. Face may be lost in the communicative activities t o restore, maintain or strengthen, we must keep attention. Usually, people will cons ciously or unconsciously cooperate in communication to demonstrate their interest in enhancing each other's face, because everyone of us want to achieve their own purposes. Only individuals are taking and the protection of other people's face, until the success of communication activities may be carried out smoothly; only this, so ciety can be relatively stable development, interpersonal skills, was able to expand, business transactions can be carried out smoothly. Communicative activities can b e defined as a place, including among the different texts and contexts of the broad concept. Is a place for at least two communication of information among those wh o transfer process. Language as the main communication channel, or tools, the lan guage information from the starting point / sender transmitted to the destination / r ecipient. Information issued by the hope that the information or language would have an effect on the listener. However, the communication is not only an exchange of information, not just a kind of communication that both sides should actively orga nize and construct information on the cooperation, which includes all of these peopl e are interactive process. All behavior can be described as communicative in natur e. Meals discussions, telephone conversations and provided little information on the road greeting, but for the maintenance of harmonious interpersonal relationships is an extremely important tool. Generally speaking, we must know what is being res pected, and what is not; when and where we are on how to behave appropriately and courtesy as a way to safeguard themselves and others face.Second, the Chinese concept of face communicationFor thousands of years. Face in Chinese culture have always played a very i mportant role. It is no exaggeration to say that, not to each other face communicat ion activities would be difficult to smooth and efficient manner. Chinese people hav e a sense of attention to communication in the face. As a well-known as the Chin ese saying goes: 'people have to face the tree to be leather. 'A lost face, the Chin ese people will be involved in the communicative activities of his losing interest. W hich result in a person losing face is also very likely to endanger the person in the hierarchy inherent in the status. Loss of face is not just an embarrassing problem for individuals, but also may affect the cohesion of a group or a whole face, it als o has the potential to disrupt social order risk.The reason why the Chinese people attach importance to face the problem t here are two main reasons: First, the Chinese people in their own habitat for thous ands of years have been hard to survive on land, and the surrounding friends, nei ghbors and relatives to live together, rarely have the opportunity to migrate. When a particular group's daily lives and when to maintain a harmonious relationship amo ng members is particularly important. Therefore, to maintain harmonious relations, to avoid conflict and protect each individual and collectively we face has become a natural and necessary choice. Second, Confucius stressed that most of the human nature of the relationship is unequal. He did not think that what is wrong with this inequality, because the bottom of hierarchy exists between the different inter-genera tional obligations. He believes that only when some kind of social scene Katsumi S hurei all parties, social harmony can be realized. But one of the ways to achieve t his goal is to accept and respect the right of every individual to protect their face needs. The party in high positions are often the exercise of power, but should also equip itself with the moral compassion and sense of justice. Similarly, the lower w ere required to respect and obey their superiors and also look forward to higher au thorities for their protection, care and guidance.When a difficult to deal with unpleasant things arise, face the problem even more to consider. Exchanges with the Chinese of course have to be careful when you face problems, but too casual conversation would always worry about offending each other's face is totally unnecessary. In order to better and the Chinese peopl e contacts, Hu Wenzhong and Grove proposed the following eight principles:First, for those in age and position higher than themselves respectful humility. The second is to treat those in age and position lower than themselves. Third, do not expect the Chinese people will act in a manner contrary to the principle of col lective. Fourth, do not insist that you respect your superiors of their rights and vie ws. Fifth, the challenges do not in any way approved by higher moral standards. 6 is not to show anger, it is necessary to avoid confrontation. 7 is that if you have to say 'no', as the euphemism that roundabout. Eighth, if you have to criticize and blame, preferably in private, while the other's claim be affirmed.Although the Chinese people did not take into account in each case both face problems, but to take such strategies are still safe and beneficial. Modern China h as been the impact of foreign culture, the Chinese people in the material life and t hought patterns have undergone tremendous changes, many Chinese people are a djusting and the formation of a new concept of face. If, however, decided that it n o longer care about the Chinese people face the problem wrong.If you contact convinces the other side and the Chinese lost face, how do y ou respond? If you find a Chinese friend or colleague on your attitude and behavio r that has significant negative changes, or you find that you have from a trusted fri end of China, where information becomes more difficult to get help, and then you have to take seriously this case scenario. Reason may be that you bring the other side lost face, the following approach will help to save face: first, to stop anything that might continue to cause loss of face behavior; secondly, to find a relationship, and we have a good acquaintance, invited him to mediate between you; Again, regardless of whether you do the second step, you should be the person you offend ed an apology and a request for understanding; Finally, the future should respect a nd understanding each other, we must take into account all aspects of each other's status, needs and aspirations of inner secret . In short, we must find ways to rest ore once you've hurt each other's face.Third, the Americans face problems in communicationOf different nationalities of people's views vary widely on the face. Few Amer icans are talking about face, some argue that the Americans do not care about fac e. But the fact is not true. Face the problem of social studies scholars and linguist s have proved to save the face of human communicative activities of common con cern, so Americans are no exception. We need to note that the communication in t he Chinese and Americans face the concept of understanding the difference. In the third section, we have already talked about the Chinese people face the problem exists in most people's consciousness. The Americans may be viewed as a sort of personal privacy, freedom, independence, human rights, independence, wealth and reputation, and so related to things. These things is not the same face, but the A mericans they are very valued.In addition to native American Indians, they are all from around the world es pecially in Europe, immigrants or descendants of immigrants. Their lives since the colonial period has been in a flow into. If they are tired of a place, or found in the way of life no longer feel comfortable, then they will not hesitate to move to forei gn land in pursuit of a better life, so that they life friends, neighbors, colleagues and acquaintances will be non-stop to change. It is precisely because of this collective members of the ever-changing, Americans are more concerned about the individu al rather than collective. For them, to preserve and protect the collective cohesion and harmonious relations will naturally not as good as Chinese people think that's l ess important.In the U.S., with a relatively low and the maintenance of a centralized syste m for a particular hierarchy of the relative neglect of the country, loss of face woul d result in embarrassment for the individual and not necessarily a threat to group s olidarity, or lead to the disintegration of the structure of social life. Although the Un ited States also has caste system, but people always try to shorten the life of this social gap to show the equality of this doctrine. They also blur as much as possibl e the differences between power and status that all people are essentially the sam e. In addition, the high mobility of society as a whole has always been the United States a major feature of social life, and most people think that this is a good thin g.In most ordinary social interactions, Americans like straightforward. They appr eciate the straight to the point and direct express one's mind. When they do not k now, they say: 'I do not know'; when they have not been given certain rights, they say: 'I can not do that'. Of course they know the real answer to such a direct em otional will make other people unhappy, but they still tell the truth. They believed t hat only the current situation in a language understood by the most direct interpret ation of clear, we can better protect their interests. Either they do not attach import ance to good manners and the feelings of others, on the contrary, they are very c oncerned about. Whenever other people's feelings and reputation would be at risk, they will be aware of as much as possible. However, they highly recognized straig htforward, so in sensitive cases, their duty is to use a direct but tactful way possibl e to provide complete information.4 ConclusionAny person who will face the risk of interpersonal relationships, which both fa ce communication as well. The two sides of the communication, the face must be handled with care. Face as an important aspect of identity has been regarded as a ll the communication activities in a critical component of. Linguists have done a gre at deal of research, the participants would like to know how to determine their own communicative relative position, what language they use to illustrate the difference between this status, taking into account the participants face. Since the concept of face in different forms of interpersonal communication exist to varying degrees, pa rticipants must be aware of before starting communication. In short, they do not co nsider the face of the communication activities does not exist.。
