Lecture Seven Meaning and context

Lecture 4 Noun and noun phrasesTeaching aims:(1) To know the definition, construction, classification, functions of NP(2) To the number of nouns and formation of nouns‘ plural forms(3)To master partitivesTeaching content:(1) Definition & Classification of noun(2) Number of Noun(3) Unit Noun4.1 DefinitionAs has been point out, the noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its head .It is the noun head that determines the way the noun phrase is organized.4.2 Classification of noun1)According to word building, Simple Noun, Compound Noun andDerivative NounA simple noun is a noun that contains only one free morpheme (e.g.:man, chair, land, faith). A compound noun is a noun that is composed of two or more morphemes (mostly free morphemes) (e.g.: armchair, farmland, seaside, and roommate). A derivative noun is a noun that comes from a verb, an adjective or a simple noun with affix (e.g.: arrangement, greatness, patriotism).2)According to word meaning, nouns fall into two major categories:Common Noun (Individual Noun, Collective Noun, Material Noun, and Abstract Noun) and Proper noun.A proper noun is a name used for a particular person, place or thing,and spelt with a capital initial letter (e.g. : Anderson, Brittan, New York Times).A common noun is a name to a call of people ,thing or abstract ideas. Common nouns can be further classified into individual,collective, material, and abstract nouns (e.g.: boy, tiger, family, team, water, air, honesty, glory).3)According to grammar character, Count/ Countable Noun andNon-count/ Uncountable Noun.A count noun ( or countable noun) is noun that has with suchdeterminers as (n), many , few, these, those, several, etc (e.g: a car twos, many cars, several cars) .A noncount noun (or uncountable noun )is a noun that cannot go with the above-mentioned words (eg: bread , furniture, merchandise).4.3 The functions of noun phrasesThe noun phrase can be used as the sentence elements except predicate verb.1) Subject: The children are playing basketball on the play ground.2) Complement: That is an attractive little black chair.They elected him chairman of the board.3) Object: I saw some extremely valuable picture.4) Appositive: Mr. Smith, a professor of the department, will give us a lecture.5) Complement of preposition/ object of preposition: for many years6) Adverbial: He returned last night.The meeting lasted three hours.4.4 Number of Noun1)Individual Noun is countable (regular plural –s/-es and irregularplural).2)Collective Noun: some is uncountable, some is countable3)Material Noun, generally speaking, is uncountable. But some appearin plural form, the meaning just changed.4)Abstract Noun: most are uncountable, a few are countable, some inplural form or singular form, are very different in meaning such as ―experience/ experiences‖. Some used as material noun are countable such as ―relations, youth, worry, distraction, business, kindness‖.5)Proper Noun, generally speaking, is uncountable.4.5 Formation of plural forms of nouns.1. Regular nouns‘ plural forms1.2 其它名词复数的规则变化1）以y结尾的专有名词，或元音字母+y 结尾的名词变复数时，直接加s变复数。

托福听力tpo40lecture1、2、3、4原文+题目+答案+译文Lecture1 (2)原文 (2)题目 (4)答案 (5)译文 (6)Lecture2 (7)原文 (7)题目 (9)答案 (11)译文 (11)Lecture3 (13)原文 (13)题目 (16)答案 (18)译文 (18)Lecture4 (20)原文 (20)题目 (22)答案 (24)译文 (24)Lecture1原文NARRATOR:Listen to part of a lecture in an art history class.MALE PROFESSOR:Last class I passed out your assignment for your first paper,and today I want to spend some time going over it.Mm…most people never take any art history until they get to college,so many of you have probably never written an art history paper before.I gave you a list of appropriate works of art for you to write about.So your next step in this process needs to be to go look at the work you've selected as your topic.And bring a pencil and a notepad with you,because I don't mean you should just drop by at the museum and glance at it so you can say you've seen it in real life.You need to go and sit in front of the work and really look at it—carefully and slowly.And keep careful notes about what you see—you’ll need them for the kind of art history paper you're going to be writing…it's what we call a formal analysis.A formal analysis of a work of art,any kind of art,is based on its formal qualities, which means qualities related to the form—things like color…texture…line…shapes…proportion…and composition.Probably the closest thing to a formal analysis you might have written is for an English class.If you've…say…written an analysis of a poem,you've used the same skills—you've given an analysis of the poem by describing and analyzing its form and meter.A formal analysis paper in art history is very similar.Now,before you begin writing your formal analysis,you'll want to start with a summary of the overall appearance of the work—a brief description of what you see. Are there figures—people?What are they doing?Or is it a landscape…or an abstract representation of something?Tell what the subject is,and what aspects are emphasized in the painting.This will give your reader an overview of what the work looks like before you analyze it.The next part of your paper—the actual formal analysis—will be the longest and most important section of your paper,where you describe and analyze individual design elements.For this portion of the paper,you're going to rely on the notes you took at the museum,because you should be able to describe in detail the design elements the artist uses,and how they are used.For example,does the artist use harsh lines or soft lines—are the colors bright or muted?Focus on the design elements that you feel are most strongly represented in that particular work of art. And if you don't know where to begin,take note of where your eye goes first.Then describe things in the order in which your eye moves around the work.This will help you understand how one part relates to another—the interaction between the different parts of the work.OK,this kind of analysis should occur throughout the main portion of the paper.In the last section of your paper—and this goes beyond formal analysis—you comment on the significance of what you have seen.What details of the work convey meaning?Some significant details will not be apparent to you right away,but if you look long enough,you realize how important they are for your interpretation of the work.Many years ago,I was writing a formal analysis of a painting of a little boy.In the painting,a little boy was standing in his nursery,and he was holding a toy bird in his hand,and there were more toys around him in the background of the painting. Because of the bird he was holding,I assumed at first that the painting was about the innocence of children.But as I looked at the painting longer,I realized that the boy's eyes looked sad even though there was no discernable expression on his face.And then it dawned on me that,even though he was surrounded by toys,he was all alone in his nursery.The boy's eyes were a significant detail in the painting,that I didn't notice at first.题目1.What point does the professor make about the writing of a formal analysis in art history?A.Its objective is to identify common features of several works of art.B.Its most important part is the explanation of an artwork's significance.C.Several styles of writing a formal analysis are used by art historians.D.A particular approach is required to present Information about an artwork.2.According to the professor,what will students need to do before writing the art history paper?A.Look at examples of formal analysis in textbooksB.Take notes on the artwork they will write aboutC.Go to different museums before selecting a topic for the paperD.Study the historical context of the artwork they will write about3.Why does the professor mention an English class?A.To explain the difference between visual language and written languageB.To explain that students need good writing skills for their assignmentC.To point out similarities between a poetry paper and the students'assignmentD.To point out that many art historians become writers4.What does the professor recommend as a way to understand the relationship between different parts of an artwork?A.Looking for lines that connect different parts of the workB.Examining the artwork from several different anglesC.Looking for similar colors the artist used throughout the workD.Determining how the viewer's eyes move around the work5.Why does the professor talk about his own experience analyzing the painting of a little boy?A.To point out a common misconception about formal analysisB.To stress the importance of looking at an artwork thoroughlyC.To show why a formal analysis should not emphasize small detailsD.To provide an example of an artwork that is easy to analyze6.The professor describes three sections the art history paper should contain.Place them in the order in which they should appear in the paper.Click on a phrase.Then drag it to the space where it belongs.A.Analysis of the design elements the artist usesB.Discussion of the meaning of the artworkC.Summary of the appearance of the artwork答案D B C D B CAB译文旁白：下面听一段艺术史课程的片段。

Chapter 8 Meaning and Context8.1 Types of ContextTypes of context: extra-linguistic context (non-linguistic context)非言语and linguistic context (verbal context)言语.Extra-linguistic context or non-linguistic context refers to the physical situation(自然语境）, embracing the people, time, place and even the whole cultural background. Extra-linguistic context is of great importance to pin down the meanings of the words and phrases. Look at the following examples (quick; look out; trade union; landlord and weekend).Linguistic context (verbal context) refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. Sometimes linguistic context may cover a paragraph, a chapter and even the entire book.Subdivision of linguistic context: lexical context and grammatical context.A . lexical context (词汇语境) refers to the words that occur together with the word in question. The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighboring words. For instance, “head” has quite a few meanings in the dictionary, yet in each of the following contexts, it conveys only one sense.from head to foot(从头到脚) a head of state (国家元首) a head of cabbage (一棵白菜) a department head(一个部门的主任) to count heads (点人数) one hundred head of sheep (一百头羊) at the head of the list (在名单的开头) to discuss the question under five heads（分五个小组讨论问题）to lose one’s head (丧命) to use your head (动动脑筋) Two heads are better than one (两人智慧胜一人)hard: hard work, hard blow, hard discipline, hard winter, hard heartpaper: a sheet of paper, a white paper（白皮书），a term paper, today’s paper, examination paperdo: do a sum, do one’s teeth, do the flowers, do fish（烹饪鱼）, do a city/country（到访一个城市）A car can do 160 miles an hour.I will do you if you do not stop.B. grammatical context (语法语境): In some cases, the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. This is what we call grammatical context. For instance, “make” can be used in different sentence patterns, its meanings will be different.SVO) God made the country, man made the town. (创造) SVOC) The bad news made everybody depressed. (使得……)SVC) She will make a good teacher. (成为……)SVOO) He is going to make us a report. (给……作……)8.2 Role of verbal or linguistic context1. Elimination of ambiguityAmbiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy. When a word with more than one meaning is used in inadequate contexts, it creates ambiguity.e.g. 1) Are you engaged? ---Are you busy?---Are you betrothed?2)This door is unlockable.---This door is not able to be locked.---This door is able to be unlocked.3) She is an ′English teacher. --- She is a teacher who teaches English.She is an English ′ teacher --- She is a teacher with British nationality.He is a hard businessman. (hardworking/ difficult)He ran an interesting game. (participate/organize)They saw her duck. (a kind of poultry/ lower ones ′ body quickly)The ball was attractive. (dancing party/ a round object to play in a game)Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity.e.g. 1) Jack and Jane are married.--- Jack is married to Jane. Or: Jack and Jane are married to each other.---Jack is married and so is Jane.2) a married man and woman. --- a married man and a married woman--- a married man and a woman.The fish is ready to eat. (The fish is ready to eat things/ The fish is cooked or served, so ready for people to eat.)I like Xiao Li better than Zhang Tong. (I like Xiao Li better than I like Zhang Tong./ I like Xiao Li better than Zhang Tong likes Xiao Li. )2. Indication of ReferentsEnglish has a large number of words such as now/then, here/there, I / you, this/that, these/those, which are often used to refer directly to people, time, place, etc. without clear contexts, the referent can be very confusing. e.g. city/town, afternoon/ evening, evening/night,forest/wood, etc. Their referents are very vague.3. Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning Context may prove extremely valuable in guessing the meanings of new words. In a piece of writing, the author generally gives hints which help readers to understand the idea or grasp the concept. Context clues vary a great deal but can be summed up as follows:1)Definition. We often find that the author gives formal definition immediately after the new term.Perhaps the most startling theory to come out of kinesics , the study of body movement, was suggested by Prof. Birdwhistell.2)Explanation. If the concept is complicated and must involve technical terms in its definition, the author might explain the idea in simple words.It’s just one more incredible result of the development of microprocessors—those tiny parts of a computer commonly known as “silicon chips”.3)Example. In some cases, instead of giving a formal definition or explanation, the author may cite an example which is sufficient to throw light on the meaning of the term.Many United Nations employees are polyglots. Mary, for example, speaks five languages.4)Synonymy同义. The author often uses synonyms or synonymous expressions to explain new words.Their greatest fear was of a conflagration, since fire would destroy their flimsy wooden settlement before help could arrive.5)Antonymy反义. The author frequently uses contrasting words or statements to explain unknown words.As the fighting on all fronts reached its peak, the economy neared its nadir.Unlike her gregarious sister, Jane is a shy, unsociable person.6)Hyponymy上下义关系. Superordinates and subordinates often define and explain each other, thus forming an important context clue.The village had most of the usual amenities: a pub, a library, a post office, a village hall, a medical centre, and a school.7)Relevant details. In some contexts, the author provides details relating to the unknown word, such as the functions, characteristics, nature, etc. of the referent.In spite of the fact that the fishermen were wearing sou’westers, the storm was so heavy that they were wet through.8)Word structure. The morphemic structure of words, especially compounds and derived words offers clues for inferring the meanings of unknown words.Copernicus believed in a heliocentric universe, rather than in the geocentric theory.8.3 questionsState the vital roles of context in determination of word meaning.Context is a vital clue in determining word meaning. Namely, it can eliminate ambiguity, indicate referents, and provide clues for inferring word meaning.First, a word or even a sentence without adequate context can be quite ambiguous. So it is hard to determine the exact meaning especially when the word is polysemous or the sentence structure has a difference in interpretation. Second, some referents like pronouns, nouns, may refer to anything or anybody. As for a pronoun or a noun, if we know what its exact meaning or referent is, we have to know it from its context. Third, context provides important clues in understanding unknown words or inexact meanings.The clues can be: 1) definition, 2) explanation, 3) example, 4) synonymy, 5) antonymy, 6) hyponymy, 7) relevant details, 8) word structure.。

Lecture10-《英语词汇学》第10章教案Lecture 10讲授题⽬：Word Meaning and Context所属章节：《现代英语词汇学概论》之第10章计划学时：2 periods教学⽅法：传统讲授法参考资料：《英语词汇学教程》、《英语词汇学》教学⽬的和要求：通过本单元的学习，学⽣应对词义与语境，语境的种类和语境的作⽤有较好学习掌握。

教学重点：1) Types of context;2) The role of context.教学难点：The role of context.As most words have more than one meaning, it is often impossible to tell the meaning of a word before it is used in context. Context is very important for the understanding of word-meaning because the meaning is influenced immediately by the linguistic context, and in many cases by the whole speech situation as well.When a writer or speaker uses a word, she makes it ‘mean just what he chooses it to mean —neither more or less’. Without context, there is no way to determine the very sense of the word that the speaker intended to convey; whereas with context there is generally no danger of misinterpretation, for meaning lives in context and the context defines the meaning.由于词义受语境的影响较⼤，语境在词义的理解上起到很⼤作⽤。