2016年北京工商大学外国语学院考研大纲--新祥旭考研辅导

2016年北京外国语大学翻译硕士考研复习规划英语翻译基础：词组翻译：《中国日报》英语点津的时政新词和新词新译（每周总结背诵）第五版最新汉英特色词汇词典（共400页，熟记熟背）北外历年真题词组总结英汉互译：每周至少三组翻译练习，练完对照译文总结背诵（推荐书籍：《张培基散文翻译》，专八阅读，政府工作报告，108篇，二笔二口考试书籍）百科知识：1.词条：整理好的1300词条（令可以多看《中国文化要略》，英美文化概况等书）2.应用文写作：公文写作各个题材整理联系，保证两星期一个题材3.大作文：高考满分作文，每月一篇练手4.北外历年真题日语：1.标日前四册---上，中（大四开学前完成）2.N2词汇，语法3.北外历年真题政治：1.肖秀荣系列（肖秀荣精讲精练，肖秀荣1000题，肖秀荣的命题人讲真题，肖秀荣最后八套，风中劲草大纲，肖四任四，肖秀荣时政）2.临考前一个月的小册子2015北京外国语大学翻译硕士汉语写作与百科知识考研真题百科词条1、尼罗河2、战略伙伴关系3、四大菩萨4、十字军资料来源：育明考研考博官网5、中亚五国6、日心说7、元素周期律8、丝绸之路经济带9、金字塔10、APEC11、金砖四国12、九大行星13、六部（唐朝）14、牡丹亭15、东盟16、IS17、南北战争18、二十八宿19、《俄狄浦斯王》20、“三一律”21、“新寓言”派22、《菊与刀》23、北约24、苏辛资料来源：育明考研考博官网25、《说文解字》应用文是写一则消息（新闻）大作文是“让失去变得可爱”为题目增词法与减词法翻译时无法一个萝卜一个坑，将原文中每一个词转换成译文中的另一个词，而应该有所增减，即有时需在译文中增加一些原文字面上没有的词语，有时则要将原文需要而译文显得多余的词省去不译，前者称为增词法，后者称为减词法。

不管增词还是减词，目的都是为了使译文变得更加通顺流畅，符合译入语的行文习惯。

采用增词法应特别注意：增词不增意，所增之词，其意义虽然在原文字面上没有清楚地表现出来，但却隐藏在原文中，因此，增词法并未违背忠实原则。

2016年北京第二外国语学院《综合考试（日）》考研招生目录及参考书北京第二外国语学院攻读硕士学位研究生入学考试《综合考试（日）》考试大纲一、适用的招生专业日语语言文学专业二、考试的基本要求本考试大纲作为日语语言文学专业硕士研究生考试综合日语的考试大纲。

要求学生对日本文学、日本概况、翻译三方面的语言运用能力以及相关知识的掌握能力达到一定的水平和高度。

三、试卷结构总分：150分（日本文学30分；日本概况50；翻译70分）题型：1，日本文学：选择题、判断题、作品阅读理解题。

2，日本概况：填空、解释名词、简述题、综合概述题。

3，翻译：文章翻译（日翻中、中翻日两部分）。

四、考试的主要内容与要求（一）日本文学主要内容：中外文学的基础知识、日本文学常识的内容、具体的作品分析。

要求：1.要求考生具备世界文学基础知识，同时对于日本文学史要有一个比较全面的了解，要有一定的文学作品赏析能力。

2.能够对日本文学作品进行适当分析，给予评价。

（二）日本概况主要内容：日本的地理、历史、政治、经济、社会、文化、科学技术、军事外交、观光等方面。

要求：对日本的历史、社会、文化、政治、经济等诸多领域有较为全面地掌握和理解，具备日本各个领域的基础知识以及相关知识，具有较强的思辨能力以及综述能力。

对日本社会结构、文化特质有较全面的知识水准和认识。

（三）翻译主要内容：日本的新闻报道、时事文章等应用文的翻译；文学翻译；社科类文章的翻译。

包括中翻日、日翻中两大部分。

要求：要求学生能够达到较高的语言理解能力，能够运用常规手段或变通手段等翻译方法以及加译、顺译、倒译、分译、合译、简译、意译、变译、反译等翻译技巧忠实地表达原文的真实意义和风格。

掌握中日语言中词语、句型、句式、修辞和文体等的异同、具有较好的中日语言的运用能力和表达能力。

五、主要参考书目1.《汉日翻译教程》苏琦商务印书馆重排版，2008.102.《日本概况》江新兴等旅游教育出版社，2007.43.《新综合国语便览》(日)三好行雄等编东京，第一学习社，1978北京第二外国语学院攻读硕士学位研究生入学考试《基础日语》考试大纲一、适用的招生专业日语语言文学专业二、考试的基本要求本考试大纲作为考察考生是否具备攻读日语语言文学专业硕士研究生的日语水平的考试大纲，需要考生在日语音韵、语法、词汇、文字等方面的知识掌握和运用能力达到一定的水平和高度，要求考生在一定的时间内，在不参阅任何工具书的情况下独立完成答卷。

北京大学翻译硕士考研信息院校名称报录比推荐参考书备注北京大学1:251-《中式英语之鉴》Joan Pinkham、姜桂华著，2000年，外语教学与研究出版社。

2-《英汉翻译简明教程》庄绎传著，2002年，外语教学与研究出版社。

3-《高级英汉翻译理论与实践》叶子南著，2001年，清华大学出版社。

4-《非文学翻译理论与实践》罗进德主编，2004年，中国对外翻译出版公司。

5-《非文学翻译》，李长栓著，2009年9月外语教学与研究出版社出版。

6-《非文学翻译理论与实践》，李长栓著，中国对外翻译出版公司。

7-《百科知识考点精编与真题解析》，光明日报出版社8-《全国翻译硕士考研真题解析》天津科技翻译出版社英语翻硕20人左右，日语翻译硕士20人左右，2年，学生须按学年交纳学费，学费总额为8万元。

复试分数线一般在330分左右，15年分数线340.育明教育咨询师分析认为，北大翻译硕士考查题目难度较高，推荐英语本专业，尤其是重点本科的英语专业的报考。

北大翻硕百科侧重文学、法律、时政等方面，自然科学考查的不多，翻译理论考查的也不多。

具体考查侧重点，考生可以根据育明教育辅导课程进行学习。

此外，少数民族的考生也可以考虑这个专业。

育明教育解析：翻译硕士考研大纲考试科目：除去全国统考的政治外，备战MTI的同学们还有三门专业课需要复习：150分的百科知识与中文写作，100分的基础英语，以及150分的英汉互译。

1.百科写作大纲考试目的本考试是全日制翻译硕士专业学位研究生的入学资格考试之专业基础课，各语种考生统一用汉语答题。

各招生院校根据考生参加本考试的成绩和其他三门考试的成绩总分来选择参加第二轮，即复试的考生。

性质范围本考试是测试考生百科知识和汉语写作水平的尺度参照性水平考试。

考试范围包括大纲规定的百科知识和汉语写作水平。

基本要求①具备一定中外文化，以及政治经济法律等方面的背景知识。

②对作为母语的现代汉语有较强的基本功。

③具备较强的现代汉语写作能力。

16年翻译硕士考研详解与指导中华文化概论知识点串讲297.元朝四大悲剧：关汶卿的《窦娥冤》，马致远的《汶宫秋》，白朴的《梧桐雨》、纪君祥的《赵氏孤儿》。

298.四大南戏：《荆钗记》、《白兔记》、《拜月亭》、《杀狗记》，也叫“四大传奇”。

299.《琵琶记》：元明之际，高明著，南戏渐趋定型化的代表作品。

300.《浣纱记》：梁辰鱼著，第一个昆曲剧本，又叫《吴越春秋》。

301.徐渭：最有影响的南杂剧作家，《四声猿》。

302.汤显祖：临川派，代表作《玉茗堂四梦》（又叫《临川四梦》）包括：《牡丹亭》《紫钗记》《邯郸记》《南柯记》四部传奇剧。

明代最伟大的文学家、戏剧家。

303.《牡丹亭》：汤显祖著，主人公杜丽娘是继崔莺莺之后又一光彩照人的女性形象。

304.南洪北孔：洪升剧作《长生殿》和孔尚任剧作《桃花扇》代表清代传奇的最后高峰。

305.章回体小说：第一部成熟的章回体小说是《三国志通俗演义》。

306.明代四大奇书：《三国演义》、《水浒传》、《西游记》（神魔小说最高成就）和《金瓶梅》（古代人情小说帷幕，第一部文人独立创作的长篇小说)。

307.《红楼梦》：代表古典小说即章回体小说的最高成就，也是中国古代四大名著之_，标志古代长篇白话章回体小说的终结。

308.青铜器：中国青铜器在世界各地青铜器中堪称艺术价值最高，代表着中国在先秦时期高超的技术与文化。

309.甲骨文：中国已发现的古代文字中时代最早、体系较为完整的文字。

甲骨文主要指殷墟甲骨文，又称为“殷墟文字”。

310.金文：指铸刻在殷周青铜器上的铭文，也叫钟鼎文。

商周是青铜器的时代，青铜器的礼器以鼎为代表，乐器以钟为代表，“钟鼎”是青铜器的代名词。

中国在夏代就已进入青铜时代，因为周以前把铜也叫金，所以铜器上的铭文就叫作“金文”或“吉金文字”。

311.阿房宫---秦始皇，兵马俑---世界第八奇迹，乐府---汶武帝音乐机构，唐代大曲代表---《霓裳羽衣曲》。

312.唐三彩：一种盛行于唐代的陶器，以黄、白、绿为基本釉色。

2016年北京工商大学翻译硕士考研专业目录、招生人数、参考书目、历年真题、复试分数线、答题方法、复习经验指导一、2016年北京工商大学翻译硕士专业考研招生目录专业代码、名称及研究方向招生人数考试科目备注009-外国语学院055100翻译硕士10①101思想政治理论②211翻译硕士英语③357英语翻译基础④448汉语写作与百科知识复试科目：口笔译二、2015年北京工商大学翻译硕士专业考研复试分数线考试科目A类考生B类考生单科（满分=100）单科（满分>100）总分单科（满分=100）单科（满分>100）总分翻译硕士52783454974335三、2016年北京工商大学翻译硕士专业考研参考书科目名称书名作者出版社211翻译硕士英语《高级英语》修订本(一、二册)外语教学与研究出版社张汉熙357英语翻译基础《实用汉英翻译教程》曾诚外语教学与研究出版社357英语翻译基础《英汉翻译简明教程》庄绎传外语教学与研究出版社448汉语写作与百科知识《汉语写作与百科知识》刘军平武汉大学出版社出版四、2015年北京工商大学翻译硕士专业考研模拟题357英语翻译基础题型：英汉特色词汇翻译三十个，三十分，英汉汉英各15个。

英译汉一篇，汉译英一篇，各六十分。

词汇翻译：英译汉：1.the UN General Assembly【联合国大会】，2.Federal Reserve System【美联储】，3.NAFTA【北美自由贸易协定】，额，我写的北美自由贸易区，有道上可以查到，不知道算不算5.WTO【世贸组织】,6.Achilles'heel【软肋、要害】,7.Oedipus complex【恋母情结】,8.OPEC【石油输出国组织】,9.Catch-22【进退两难的困境】,10.domestication and foreignization(intranslation)【归化和异化】，11.iambic pentameter【五步抑扬格】12.The Old Testament【旧约全书】13.Spenserian stanza【斯宾塞诗体】14.schema theory【图式理论】15.transcendentalism【超验主义】汉译英：1.平等互利，和平共处2.二十四节气3.象形文字4.秦陵兵马俑5.中医6.计划生育7.政协8.香港特别行政区9.春秋战国时期10.教育部11.一国两制12.希望工程13.1911辛亥革命（老师还是很人性化的，特意写上了1911年，翻译成：theRevolution of1911）英译汉：关于动物油、植物油和矿物油三者的用途，有点儿长，A4三分之二，但是生词不多，也比较好理解。

2016考研英语二考研大纲原文I. 考试性质英语(二)考试主要是为高等院校和科研院所招收专业学位硕士研究生而设置的具有选拔性质的全国统一入学考试科目。

其目的是科学、公平、有效地测试考生对英语语言的运用能力，评价的标准是高等学校非英语专业本科毕业生所能达到的及格或及格以上水平，以保证被录取者具有一定的英语水平，并有利于各高等学校和科研院所在专业上择优选拔。

II .考查内容考生应掌握下列语言知识和技能：(一)语言知识1. 语法知识考生应能熟练地运用基本的语法知识，其中包括：(1)名词、代词的数和格的构成及其用法;(2)动词时态、语态的构成及其用法;(3)形容词与副词的比较级和最高级的构成及其用法;(4)常用连接词的词义及其用法;(5)非谓语动词(不定式、动名词、分词)的构成及其用法;(6)虚拟语气的构成及其用法;(7)各类从句(定语从句、主语从句、表语从句等)及强调句型的结构及其用法;(8)倒装句、插入语的结构及其用法。

2. 词汇考生应能较熟练地掌握5 500个左右常用英语词汇以及相关常用词组(详见附录相关部分)。

考生应能根据具体语境、句子结构或上下文理解一些非常用词的词义。

(二)语言技能1. 阅读考生应能读懂不同题材和体裁的文字材料。

题材包括经济、管理、社会、文化、科普等，体裁包括说明文、议论文和记叙文等。

根据阅读材料，考生应能：(1)理解主旨要义;(2)理解文中的具体信息;(3)理解语篇的结构和上下文的逻辑关系;(4)根据上下文推断重要生词或词组的含义;(5)进行一定的判断和推理;(6)理解作者的意图、观点或态度。

2. 写作考生应能根据所给的提纲、情景或要求完成相应的短文写作。

短文应中心思想明确、切中题意、结构清晰、条理清楚、用词恰当、无明显语言错误。

III. 考试形式、考试内容与试卷结构(一)考试形式考试形式为笔试。

考试时间为180分钟。

满分为100分。

试卷包括试题册和1张答题卡。

考生应将英语知识运用和阅读理解部分的答案按要求涂写在答题卡相应题号的选项上，将英译汉和写作部分的答案书写在答题卡指定位置的边框区域内。

2016年硕士研究生入学考试校自命题科目复习提纲261 日语二外复习大纲：考查要点：1．语汇1.1要求掌握体言、用言的性质和特征。

包括：数词的用法、コソアド体系和指示词、常用的形式体言。

动词的活用形、自动词和他动词、授受关系的动词、形容词、形容动词的活用形。

1.2要求掌握连体词、副词、接续词、感叹词的性质和特征。

包括：状态副词、程度副词、叙述副词。

表示感叹、呼唤、应答的感叹词。

2．文法2.1要求掌握使役、被动、可能、敬语、否定、希望、推量、比况、样态助动词的性质和特征及其用法。

2.2要求掌握格助词、接续助词、副助词、终助词的性质和特征及其用法。

3．读解3.1要求了解以意义和性能进行表现的方式。

包括：理由、逆接、条件、结果、追加、范围、目的、时间、说明、文末、敬语的表现方式。

参考书目：《标准日本语》（初级上、下册；中级上册）, 人民教育出版社, 人民教育出版社、光村图书出版株式会社, 1988年第一版262 德语二外复习大纲：考查要点：1. 词汇和语法1.1 掌握德语基本词汇与短语2000个左右。

1.2 掌握《大学德语》修订版第一、二册中所涉及的名词变格、动词变位、动词时态、语态等基本语法知识并能在阅读和写作中综合运用这些知识。

2 阅读2.1 具备阅读不同体裁（故事、随笔、报道等）和不同题材（经济、历史、文化、新闻、科技等）一般德语资料的能力。

2.2阅读速度为50个词左右/每分钟；阅读文章生词量为3%—10%之间3. 翻译3.1 具备短语和句子的德译汉或汉译德基本能力，或短文的德译汉基本能力。

参考书目：《大学德语》（第一册、第二册）,姜爱红, 高等教育出版社, 2008年8月第三版263 法语二外复习大纲：考查要点：1. 词汇和语法1.1 掌握法语基本词汇与短语2000个左右。

1.2 掌握法语中动词变位、动词时态、语态等语法知识并能综合运用这些知识。

2 阅读2.1 具备阅读不同体裁（故事、随笔、报道等）和不同题材（经济、历史、文化、新闻、科技等）一般法语资料的能力。

语言学1language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically,rather than randomly.Arbitrary,in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work(like“book”)and the object it refers to.This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different“books”:“book”in English,“livre”in French,“shu”in Chinese.It is symbolic,because words are associated with objects,actions,ideas etc.by nothing but ly,people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.It is vocal,because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages.Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms.The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak(and listen)before they write (and read)also indicates that language is primarily vocal,rather than written.The term“human”in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.2features of language?“Design features”here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.They are arbitrariness,duality, productivity,displacement,cultural transmission and interchangeability3.arbitrariness?By“arbitrariness”,we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a nguage is therefore largely arbitrary.But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association,if we think of echo words,like“bang”,“crash”,“roar”,which are motivated in a certain sense.Secondly,some compounds(words compounded to be one word)are not entirely arbitrary either.“Type”and“write”are opaque or unmotivated words,while“type-writer”is less so,or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it.So we can say“arbitrariness”is a matter of degree.4duality?Linguists refer“duality”(of structure)to the fact that in all languages so far investigated,one finds two levels of structure or patterning.At the first,higher level,language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units(such as morphemes,words etc.);at the second,lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves,but which combine to form units of meaning.According to Hu Zhanglin et al.,language is a system of two sets of structures,one of sounds and the other of meaning.This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic units(words),and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences(note that we have dictionaries of words,but no dictionary of sentences!).Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge.No animal communication system enjoys this duality.5productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language,including those that has never heard before,but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.No one has ever said or heard“A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”,but he can say it when necessary,and he can understand it in right register.Different from artistic creativity,though,productivity never goes outside the language,thus also called“rule-bound creativity”(by N.Chomsky).6displacement?“Displacement”,as one of the design features of the human language,refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present,as easily as he does things present.In other words,one can refer to real and unreal things,things of the past,of the present,of the nguage itself can be talked about too.When a man,for example,is crying to a woman,about something,itmight be something that had occurred,or something that is occurring,or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking,however,you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there.It couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost.The bee’s system,nonetheless,has a small share of“displacement”,but it is an unspeakable tiny share.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation,but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker.It is true that the capacity for language in human beings(N.Chomsky called it“language acquisition device”,or LAD)has a genetic basis,but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system.If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language.The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring“tongue”when he was saved.He learned thereafter,with no small difficulty,the ABC of a certain human language.8What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions:phatic,directive,Informative,interrogative,expressive, evocative and performative.According to Wang Gang(1988,p.11),language has three main functions:a tool of communication,a tool whereby people learn about the world,and a tool by which people learn about the world,and a tool by which people create art.M.A.K.Halliday, representative of the London school,recognizes three“Macro-Functions”:ideational, interpersonal and textual.9.linguistics?“Linguistics”is the scientific study of language.It studies not just one language of any one society,but the language of all human beings.A linguist,though,does not have to know and use a large number of languages,but to investigate how each language is constructed.He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect,from class to class,how it changes from century to century,how children acquire their mother tongue,and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language.In short,linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.10branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time,thus the arise of various branches: phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,pragmatics,sociolinguistics,applied linguistics,psycholinguistics etc.11.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time(as if it stopped developing)is a synchrony study(synchrony).The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic).An essay entitled“On the Use of THE”,for example,may be synchronic,if the author does not recall the past of THE,and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.12What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is“descriptive”if it only describes and analyses the facts of language,and “prescriptive”if it tries to lay down rules for“correct”language behavior.Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on“high”(literary or religious)written records.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive,however.It(the latter)believes that whatever occurs in natural speech(hesitation,incomplete utterance,misunderstanding,etc.)should be described in the analysis,and not be marked as incorrect,abnormal,corrupt,or lousy.These,with changes in vocabulary and structures,need to be explained also.13What is the difference between langue and parole?F.de Saussure refers“langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers“parole”to the actual or actualized language,or the realization of ngue is abstract,parole specific to the speaking situation;langue not actually spoken by an individual,parole always a naturally occurring event;langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts,thus not suitable for systematic investigation.What a linguist ought to do,according to Saussure,is to abstract langue from instances of parole,i.e.to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics.The langue-parole distinction is of great importance,which casts great influence on later linguists.14What is the difference between competence and performance?According to N.Chomsky,“competence”is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and“performance”is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors.So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence,rather than performance.In other words,they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as,though similar to,F.de Saussure’s langue-parole ngue is a social product,and a set of conventions for a community,while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual.Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N.Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.15phonetics?“Phonetics”is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making,especially those sounds used in speech,and provides methods for their description,classification and transcription,speech sounds may be studied in different ways,thus by three different branches of phonetics.(1)Articulatory phonetics;the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process.(2)Auditory phonetics,the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view,looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear,the auditory nerve and the brain.(3)Acoustic phonetics:the study of the physical properties of speech sounds,as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians,however,are interested in articulatory phonetics.16place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where,for example,the obstruction occurs,resulting in the utterance of a consonant.Whatever sound is pronounced,at least some vocal organs will get involved,e.g.lips,hard palate etc.,so a consonant may be one of the following(1)bilabial:[p,b, m];(2)];(4)alveolar:[t,d,l,n,s,z];(5)T,Plabiodental:[f,v];(3)dental:[retroflex;(6)palato-alveolar:[];(7)palatal:[j];(8)velar[k,g];(9)uvular;(10)glottal:[h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation.For example,the English[w]has both an approximation of the two lips and that two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate,and may be termed“labial-velar”.18manner of articulation?The“manner of articulation”literally means the way a sound is articulated.At a given place of articulation,the airstream may be obstructed in various ways,resulting in various manners of articulation,are the following:(1)plosive:[p,b,t,d,k,g];(2)nasal:[m,n,];(3)trill;(4)tap or flap;(5)lateral:[l];(6)fricative:[f,v,s,z];(7)approximant:[w,j];(8)affricate:[].19IPAThe IPA,abbreviation of“International Phonetic Alphabet”,is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources,including diacritics indicating length,stress and intonation,indicating phonetic variation.Ever since it was developed in1888,IPA has undergone a number of revisions.20phonology“Phonology”is the study of sound systems-the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall.Minimal pair,phonemes,allophones,free variation,complementary distribution,etc.,are all to be investigated by a phonologist.Phonetics is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description,classification and transcription.A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds,whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features,morphological features,and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances,to recognize a foreign“accent”,to make up new words,to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses,to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.21Phone phoneme allophoneA“phone”is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit],[tip],[spit], etc.,the similar phones we have heard are[p]for one thing,and three different[p]s,readily making possible the“narrow transcription or diacritics”.Phones may and may not distinguish meaning.A“phoneme”is a phonological unit;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.As an abstract unit,a phoneme is not any particular sound,but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.For example,the phoneme[p]is represented differently in [pit],[tip]and[spit].The phones representing a phoneme are called its“allophones”,i.e.,the different(i.e.,phones)but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof.So the different[p]s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p].How a phoneme is represented by a phone,or which allophone is to be used,is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs.But the choice of an allophone is not random.In most cases it is rule-governed;these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.22minimal pairsWhen two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string,the two forms(i.e.,word)are supposed to form a“minimal pair”,e.g.,“pill”and“bill”,“pill”and“till”,“till”and“dill”,“till”and“kill”,etc.All these words together constitute a minimal set.They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English,which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes.It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language.23assimilation rule&deletion ruleThe“assimilation rule”assimilates one segment to another by“copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones more similar.This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n]that occurs within a word.The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n]assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant.The negative prefix“in-“serves as a good example.It may be pronounced as[in],[i]or[im]when occurring in different phonetic contexts:e.g.,indiscrete-[](alveolar)inconceivable-[](velar)input-[‘imput](bilabial)The“deletion rule”tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter“g”is mute in“sign”,“design”and“paradigm”,it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives:“signature”,“designation”and“paradigmatic”.The rule then can be stated as:delete a[g]when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling.24morphology“Morphology”is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words,and the rules by which words are formed.It is generally divided into two fields:inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology.25inflection/inflexion?“Inflection”is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect,and case,which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.26morpheme&allomorphThe“morpheme”is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.The word“boxes”,for example,has two morphemes:“box”and“-es”, neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don’t wish to sacrifice meaning. Therefore a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning.Allomorphs,like allophones vs. phones,are the alternate shapes(and thus phonetic forms)of the same morphemes.Some morphemes,though,have no more than one invariable form in all contexts,such as“dog”,“cat”, etc.The variants of the plurality“-s”make the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map-maps,mouse-mice,sheep-sheep etc.27free morpheme&bound morphemeA“free morpheme”is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself,such as‘bed”,“tree”,etc.A “bound morpheme”is one that appears with at least another morpheme,such as“-s”in“beds”,“-al”in“national”and so on.All monomorphemic words are free morphemes.Those polymorphemic words are either compounds(combination of two or more free morphemes)or derivatives(word derived from free morphemes).28root stem affixA“root”is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.In other words,a“root”is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.“Internationalism”is a four-morpheme derivative which keeps its free morpheme“nation”as its root when“inter-”,“-al”and“-ism”are taken away.A“stem”is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added.It may be the same as,and in other cases,different from,a root.For example,in the word“friends”,“friend”is both the root and the stem,but in the word“friendships”,“friendships”is its stem,“friend”is its root.Some words(i.e.,compounds)have more than one root,e.g.,“mailman”,“girlfriend”,ect.An“affix”is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used,only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes:prefix,suffix and infix,e.g.,“mini-”,“un-”, ect.(prefix);“-ise”,“-tion”,ect.(suffix).29open classes&closed classes?In English,nouns,verbs,adjectives,and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary.They are“open-class words”,since we can regularly add new lexical entries to these classes.The other syntactic categories are,for the most part,closed classes,or closed-class words.The number of them is hardly alterable,if they are changeable at all.30collocation“Collocation”is a term used in lexicology by some linguists to refer to the habitual co-occurrences of individual lexical items.For example,we can“read”a“book”;“correct”can narrowly occur with“book”which is supposed to have faults,but no one can“read”a“mistake”because with regard to co-occurrence these two words are not collocates.31syntax“Syntax”is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words,word groups and phrases are combined to form sentences in a language,or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.32syntactic relations“Syntactic relations”refer to the ways in which words,word groups or phrases form sentences; hence three kinds of syntactic relations:positional relations,relations of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence.“Positional relation”,or“word order”,refers to the sequentialarrangement to words in a language.It is a manifestation of a certain aspect of what F.de Saussure called“syntagmatic relations”,or of what other linguists call“horizontal relations”or“chain relations”.“Relations of substitutability”refer to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in same sentence structures.Saussure called them“associative relations”. Other people call them“paradigmatic/vertical/choice relations”.By“relations of co-occurrence”, one means that words of different sets of clauses may permit or require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations and partly to paradigmatic relations.33IC analysis What are immediate constituents(and ultimate constituents)?“IC analysis”is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence into two(or more) segments.This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are.What remain of the first cut are called “immediate constituents”,and what are left at the final cut are called“ultimate constituents”.For example,“John left yesterday”can be thus segmented:“John|left||yesterday”.We get two immediate constituents for the first cut(|),and they are“John”and“left yesterday”.Further split(||) this sentence generates three“ultimate constituents”:“John”,“left”and“yesterday”.34endocentric and exocentric constructions“Endocentric construction”is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents,i.e.,a word or a group of words,which serves as a definable“centre”or “head”.Usually noun phrases,verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the head.“Exocentric construction”,opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as whole;that is to say,there is no definable centre or head inside the group.Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence,prepositional phrase, predicate(verb+object)construction,and connective(be+complement)construction.35categoryThe term“category”in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense,e.g., noun,verb,subject,predicate,noun phrase,verb phrase,etc.More specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units:the categories of the noun,for example,include number, gender,case and countability;and of the verb,for example,tense,aspect,voice,etc.36Number gender case“Number”is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular,dual,plural,etc.In English,number is mainly observed in nouns,and there are only two forms:singular and plural.Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs.“Gender”displays such contrasts as“masculine”,“feminine”,“neuter”,or“animate”and “inanimate”,etc.,for the analysis of word classes.When word items refer to the sex of the real-world entities,we natural gender(the opposite is grammatical gender).“Case”identifies the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.In Latin grammar,cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word,and are given the terms “accusative”,“nominative”,“dative”,etc.In English,the case category is realized in three ways: by following a preposition and by word order.37concord&government“Concord”may be defined as requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories,e.g.,“man runs”,“men run”.“Government”requires that one word of a particular class in a given syntactic class shall exhibit the form of a specific category.In English,government applies only to pronouns among the variable words,that is,prepositions and verbs govern particular forms of the paradigms of pronouns according to their syntactic relation with them,e.g.,“I helped him;he helped me.”38semantics“Semantics”refers to the study of the communication of meaning through language.Or simply,it is the study of meaning.39meaningThough it is difficult to define,“meaning”has the following meaning:(1)an intrinsic property;(2) the connotation of a word;(3)the words put after a dictionary entry;(4)the position an object occupies in a system;(5)what the symbol user actually refers to;(6)what the symbol user should refer to;(7)what the symbol user believes he is referring to;(8)what the symbol interpreter refers to;(9)what the symbol interpreter believes it refers to;(10)what the symbol interpreter believes the user refers to…linguists argued about“meaning of meaning”fiercely in the result of“realism”,“conceptualism/mentalism”,“mechanism”,“contextualism”,“behaviorism”,“functionalism”,etc. Mention ought to be made of the“Semantic Triangle Theory”of Ogden&Richards.We use a word and the listener knows what it refers to because,according to the theory,they have acquired the same concept/reference of the word used and of the object/referent.40contextualism“Contextualism”is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from,or reduce it to, observable context:the“situational context”and the“linguistic context”.Every utterance occurs in a particular spatial-temporal situation,as the following factors are related to the situational context:(1)the speaker and the hearer;(2)the actions they are performing at the time;(3)various external objects and events;(4)deictic features.The“linguistic context”is another aspect of contextualism.It considers the probability of one word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning,and an important factor in communication.41synonymy“Synonymy”is used to mean sameness or close similarity of meaning.Dictionary makers (lexicographers)rely on the existence of synonymy for their definitions.Some semanticians maintain,however,that there are no real synonyms,because two or more words named synonyms are expected without exception to differ from one another in one of the following aspects:In shades of meaning(e.g.,finish,complete,close,conclude,terminate,finalize,end,etc.);In stylistic meaning;In emotive meaning(or affective meaning);In range of use(or collocative meaning);In British and American English usages[e.g.,autumn(BrE),fall(AmE)].Simeon Potter said,“Language is like dress.We vary our dress to suit the occasion.We do not appear at a friend’s silver-wedding anniversary in gardening clothes,nor do we go punting on the river in a dinner-jacket.”This means the learning of synonyms is important to anyone that wishes to use his language freely and well.42Antonymy How many kinds of antonyms are thereThe term“antonymy”is used for oppositions of meaning;words that stand opposite in meaning are called“antonyms”,or opposites,which fall in there categories1)gradable antonyms(e.g, good-bad);(2)complementary antonyms(e.g.,single-married);(3)relational antonyms(e.g.,buy-sell).43hyponymy hyponym superordinate?“Hyponymy”involves us in the notion of meaning inclusion.It is a matter of class membership. That is to say,when X id a kind of Y,the lower term X is the“hyponym”,and the upper term Y is the“superordinate”.Two or more hyponyms sharing the same one superordinate are called“co-hyponyms”.For example,“flower”is the superordinate of“tulip”,“violet”and“rose”,which are the co-hyponyms of“flower”.44entailment“Entailment”can be illustrated by the following two sentences,with Sentence A entailing Sentence B:A:He married a blonde heiress.B:He married a blonde.In terms of truth value,the following relationships exist between these two sentences1)When A is true,B is necessarily true;(2)When B is false,too;(3)when A is false,B may be true or false;(4)。

【北工商考研辅导班】北工商翻译硕士（专业学位）考研条件考试科目参考书考研大纲考研分数线考研经验一、北工商外国语学院简介-启道北京工商大学外国语学院下设英语系、公共外语教学一部、二部（含英语、日语、俄语、法语）和语言实验室。

英语系主要承担学院英语专业学生的英语教学；公共外语教学一部、二部承担全校各专业的公共外语教学、研究生外语教学及日语、俄语、法语等第二外语的教学任务。

外国语学院现设英语语言文学专业一个。

该专业以培养具有扎实的英语语言基础、丰富的文学文化、政治经济、历史哲学以及外事、贸易等方面的基础理论知识，能在外交、贸易、文化、教育、科研、旅游、新闻出版等部门从事翻译、教育和管理工作的高级专门人才为目标。

设有英语国际贸易方向和英语翻译方向。

主干课程有：基础英语、阅读、听力、口语、写作、高级英语、英译汉、汉译英、口译、语言学导论、英美概括、国际贸易实务、外贸函电、外贸英语谈判、外国报刊选读、商务英语。

该专业毕业要求最少修满173学分：理论教学2400学时、150学分，其中必修课1856学时，116学分，专业选修课304学时，19学分，全校选修课240学时，15学分；实践教学23学分，其中社会实践、专业实习、军训等6分，毕业实习、毕业论文17学分。

授予文学学士学位。

外国语学院英语系毕业生考研成功率一直很高，毕业生被北京外国语大学、中国人民大学、北京大学、复旦大学、北京师范大学、外交学院等高校录取为硕士研究生。

外国语学院曾有学生在CCTV杯和21世纪杯全国英语演讲大赛中获奖，第十四届“外研社杯”全国英语辩论赛中，学院代表队荣获三等奖。

外国语学院学生专业四级、八级通过率均高于全国同类院校平均通过率十到二十多个百分点。

外国语学院长年坚持教学第一，高质量地完成教学任务。

学院数名教师脱颖而出，成为北京市教学能手。

学院教师科研能力突出，曾主持国家社科基金、教育部人文社科项目及十几项省部级科研项目，有些研究项目在国内学术界有较大影响，荣获国际及国家级科研奖项。