道路路桥工程中英文对照外文翻译文献

桥梁工程指桥梁勘测、设计、施工、养护和检定等的工作过程，以及研究这一过程的科学和工程技术，它是土木工程的一个分支。

桥梁工程学的发展主要取决于交通运输对它的需要。

以下是搜索整理的关于桥梁工程英文参考文献，欢迎借鉴参考。

桥梁工程英文参考文献一：[1]Liam J. Butler,Weiwei Lin,Jinlong Xu,Niamh Gibbons,Mohammed Z. E. B. Elshafie,Campbell R. Middleton. Monitoring, Modeling, and Assessment of a Self-Sensing Railway Bridge during Construction[J]. Journal of Bridge Engineering,2018,23(10).[2]Reza Akbari. Accelerated Construction of Short Span Railroad Bridges in Iran[J]. Practice Periodical on Structural Design and Construction,2019,24(1).[3]John C. Cleary,Bret M. Webb,Scott L. Douglass,Thomas Buhring,Eric J. Steward. Assessment of Engineering Adaptations to Extreme Events and Climate Change for a Simply Supported Interstate Bridge over a Shallow Estuary: Case Study[J]. Journal of Bridge Engineering,2018,23(12).[4]Keke Peng. Risk Evaluation for Bridge Engineering Based on Cloud-Clustering Group Decision Method[J]. Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities,2019,33(1).[5]Y. M. Zhang,H. Wang,J. X. Mao,F. Q. Wang,S. T. Hu,X. X. Zhao. Monitoring-Based Assessment of the Construction Influence of Benoto Pile on Adjacent High-Speed Railway Bridge: Case Study[J]. Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities,2019,33(1).[6]Deshan Shan,Y. H. Chai,Xiaohang Zhou,Inamullah Khan. Tension Identification of Suspenders with Supplemental Dampers for Through and Half-Through Arch Bridges under Construction[J]. Journal of Structural Engineering,2019,145(3).[7]Haofeng Xing,Liangliang Liu,Yong Luo. Effects of Construction Technology on Bearing Behaviors of Rock-Socketed Bored Piles as Bridge Foundations[J]. Journal of Bridge Engineering,2019,24(4).[8]Xiaoming Wang,Pengbo Fei,You Dong,Chengshu Wang. Accelerated Construction of Self-Anchored Suspension Bridge Using Novel Tower-Girder Anchorage Technique[J]. Journal of Bridge Engineering,2019,24(5).[9]Sattar Dorafshan,Kristopher R. Johnson,Marc Maguire,Marvin W. Halling,Paul J. Barr,Michael Culmo. Friction Coefficients for Slide-In Bridge Construction Using PTFE and Steel Sliding Bearings[J]. Journal of Bridge Engineering,2019,24(6).[10]Mustafa Mashal,Alessandro Palermo. Low-Damage Seismic Design for Accelerated Bridge Construction[J]. Journal of Bridge Engineering,2019,24(7).[11]Yeo Hoon Yoon,Sam Ataya,Mark Mahan,Amir Malek,M. Saiid Saiidi,Toorak Zokaie. Probabilistic Damage Control Application: Implementation of Performance-Based Earthquake Engineering in Seismic Design of Highway Bridge Columns[J]. Journal of Bridge Engineering,2019,24(7).[12]Sherif M. Daghash,Qindan Huang,Osman E. Ozbulut. Tensile Behavior and Cost-Efficiency Evaluation of ASTM A1010 Steel for Bridge Construction[J]. Journal of Bridge Engineering,2019,24(8).[13]Dongzhou Huang,Wei-zhen Chen. Cable Structures in Bridge Engineering[J]. Journal of Bridge Engineering,2019,24(8).[14]Fuyou Xu,Haiyan Yu,Mingjie Zhang. Aerodynamic Response of a Bridge Girder Segment during Lifting Construction Stage[J]. Journal of Bridge Engineering,2019,24(8).[15]Elmira Shoushtari,M. Saiid Saiidi,Ahmad Itani,Mohamed A. Moustafa. Design, Construction, and Shake Table Testing of a Steel Girder Bridge System with ABC Connections[J]. Journal of Bridge Engineering,2019,24(9).[16]Upul Attanayake,Haluk Aktan. Procedures and Guidelines for Design of Lateral Bridge Slide Activities[J]. Journal of Bridge Engineering,2019,24(9).[17]Nathan T. Davis,Ehssan Hoomaan,Anil K. Agrawal,Masoud Sanayei,Farrokh “Frank” Jalinoos. Foundation Reuse in Accelerated Bridge Construction[J]. Journal of Bridge Engineering,2019,24(10).[18]Cheng Wen,Hong-xian Zhang. Influence of Material Time-Dependent Performance on the Cantilever Construction of PSC Box Girder Bridge[J]. Journal of Highway and Transportation Research and Development (English Edition),2019,13(2).[19]Hosein Naderpour,Ali Kheyroddin,Seyedmehdi Mortazavi. Risk Assessment in Bridge Construction Projects in Iran Using Monte Carlo Simulation Technique[J]. Practice Periodical on Structural Design and Construction,2019,24(4).[20]Carlos M. Zuluaga,Alex Albert. Preventing falls: Choosing compatible Fall Protection Supplementary Devices (FPSD) for bridge maintenance work using virtual prototyping[J]. Safety Science,2018,108.[21]Zhe Wang,Kai-wei Zhang,Gang Wei,Bin Li,Qiang Li,Wang-jing Yao. Field measurement analysis of the influence of double shield tunnel construction onreinforced bridge[J]. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research,2018,81.[22]Michele Fabio Granata,Giuseppe Longo,Antonino Recupero,Marcello Arici. Construction sequence analysis of long-span cable-stayed bridges[J]. Engineering Structures,2018,174.[23]Mi Zhou,Wei Lu,Jianwei Song,George C. Lee. Application of Ultra-High Performance Concrete in bridge engineering[J]. Construction and Building Materials,2018,186.[24]Erxiang Song,Peng Li,Ming Lin,Xiaodong Liu. The rationality of semi-rigid immersed tunnel element structure scheme and its first application in Hong Kong Zhuhai Macao bridge project[J]. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research,2018,82.[25]Di Zhao,Yixuan Ku. Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex bridges bilateral primary somatosensory cortices during cross-modal working memory[J]. Behavioural Brain Research,2018,350.[26]Jia-Rui Lin,Jian-Ping Zhang,Xiao-Yang Zhang,Zhen-Zhong Hu. Automating closed-loop structural safety management for bridge construction through multisource data integration[J]. Advances in Engineering Software,2019,128.[27]Cunming Ma,Qingsong Duan,Qiusheng Li,Haili Liao,Qi Tao. Aerodynamic characteristics of a long-span cable-stayed bridge under construction[J]. Engineering Structures,2019,184.[28]Wenqin Deng,Duo Liu,Yingqian Xiong,Jiandong Zhang. Experimental study on asynchronous construction for composite bridges with corrugated steel webs[J]. Journal of Constructional Steel Research,2019,157.[29]Li Hui,Faress Hraib,Brandon Gillis,Miguel Vicente,Riyadh Hindi. A Simplified method to minimize exterior girder rotation of steel bridges during deck construction[J]. Engineering Structures,2019,183.[30]Faress Hraib,Li Hui,Miguel Vicente,Riyadh Hindi. Evaluation of bridge exterior girder rotation during construction[J]. Engineering Structures,2019,187.桥梁工程英文参考文献二：[31]Yaojun Ge,Yong Yuan. State-of-the-Art Technology in the Construction of Sea-Crossing Fixed Links with a Bridge, Island, and Tunnel Combination[J]. Engineering,2019,5(1).[32]Mingjie Zhang,Fuyou Xu,Zhanbiao Zhang,Xuyong Ying. Energy budget analysis and engineering modeling of post-flutter limit cycle oscillation of a bridge deck[J]. Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics,2019,188.[33]Alberto Leva. PID control education for computer engineering students: A step to bridge a cultural gap[J]. IFAC Journal of Systems and Control,2019,8.[34]Mustafa Mashal,Alessandro Palermo. Emulative seismic resistant technology for Accelerated Bridge Construction[J]. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering,2019,124.[35]. Science - Geoscience; Studies from Presidency University Provide New Data on Geoscience (Bridge construction and river channel morphology-A comprehensive study of flow behavior and sediment size alteration of the River Chel, India)[J]. Science Letter,2018.[36]. Engineering - Wind Engineering; Studies from Tongji University Update Current Data on Wind Engineering (Flutter performance and improvement for a suspension bridge with central-slotted box girder during erection)[J]. Energy Weekly News,2018.[37]. FirstEnergy Corp.; Mon Power Relocates Transmission Line for Construction of Corridor H Bridge in Tucker County[J]. Energy Weekly News,2018.[38]. Engineering - Wind Engineering; Recent Findings by A. Benidir and Colleagues in Wind Engineering Provides New Insights (The impact of circularity defects on bridge stay cable dry galloping stability)[J]. Energy Weekly News,2018.[39]Ron Stang. Gordie Howe bridge officials announce cost, 74-month construction schedule[J]. Daily Commercial News,2018,91(192).[40]. Biomedical Engineering - Tissue Engineering; Investigators at Skane University Hospital Report Findings in Tissue Engineering (Electrospun nerve guide conduits have the potential to bridge peripheral nerve injuries in vivo)[J]. Biotech Week,2018.[41]. Information Technology - Data Delivery; Researchers from Chung Ang University Provide Details of New Studies and Findings in the Area of Data Delivery (Three-Dimensional Information Delivery for Design and Construction of Prefabricated Bridge Piers)[J]. Computers, Networks & Communications,2018.[42]Anonymous. Construction begins on U.S. side of Presidio International Rail Bridge[J]. Railway Track & Structures,2018,114(11).[43]. Engineering - Structural Engineering; Beijing Jiaotong University Details Findings in Structural Engineering (Scour Risk Analysis of Existing Bridge Pier Based on Inversion Theory)[J]. Computers, Networks & Communications,2018.[44]. Notice of Availability of a Draft Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement for the New U.S. Land Port of Entry in Madawaska, Maine and Madawaska-Edmundston International Bridge Project[J]. The Federal Register / FIND,2018,83(232).[45]. Regulated Navigation Area and Safety Zone: Tappan Zee Bridge Construction Project, Hudson River; South Nyack and Tarrytown, NY[J]. The Federal Register / FIND,2018,83(245).[46]Anonymous. Bronte Construction is awarded $ 5M bridge job[J]. Daily Commercial News,2018,91(242).[47]. Kanazawa University; Proposed engineering method could help make buildings and bridges safer[J]. NewsRx Health & Science,2019.[48]. Notice of Availability of Draft Environmental Assessment for the Proposed Construction of Railroad Bridges Across Sand Creek and Lake Pend Oreille at Sandpoint, Bonner County, Idaho.[J]. The Federal Register / FIND,2019,84(025).[49]Anonymous. Bridge installation moves СТА95th/Dan Ryan Terminal Improvement Project forward[J]. Railway Track & Structures,2018,114(12).[50]Anonymous. Investments made in Hay River fish plant and bridge projects[J]. Daily Commercial News,2019,92(10).[51]. Reclamation work starts on $248m Bahrain bridge[J]. Gulf Construction,2019.[52]. Extension of Comment Period for the Draft Environmental Assessment for the Proposed Construction of Railroad Bridges Across Sand Creek and Lake Pend Oreille at Sandpoint, Bonner County, Idaho[J]. The Federal Register / FIND,2019,84(062).[53]. Notice of Final Federal Agency Actions on the Frank J. Wood Bridge Project in Maine[J]. The Federal Register / FIND,2019,84(071).[54]. Energy - Electric Power; Study Results from Electrical Engineering Department Update Understanding of Electric Power (Development of Dynamic Phasor Based Higher Index Model for Performance Enhancement of Dual Active Bridge)[J]. Energy Weekly News,2019.[55]. Engineering - Wind Engineering; Findings from Southwest Jiaotong University Provides New Data on Wind Engineering (Wind Characteristics Along a Bridge Catwalk In a Deep-cutting Gorge From Field Measurements)[J]. Energy Weekly News,2019.[56]. Work starts on Qatar bridge[J]. Gulf Construction,2019.[57]. Engineering - Wind Engineering; Data from Southeast University Provide New Insights into Wind Engineering (Non-stationary Turbulent Wind Field Simulation of Bridge Deck Using Non-negative Matrix Factorization)[J]. Energy Weekly News,2019.[58]. Engineering - Wind Engineering; Findings from University of Stavanger Update Understanding of Wind Engineering (Aerodynamic Performance of a Grooved Cylinder In Flow Conditions Encountered By Bridge Stay Cables In Service)[J]. Energy Weekly News,2019.[59]. Engineering - Wind Engineering; Study Findings from Hong Kong Polytechnic University Broaden Understanding of Wind Engineering (Buffeting-induced Stress Analysis of Long-span Twin-box-beck Bridges Based On Pod Pressure Modes)[J]. Energy Weekly News,2019.[60]. Engineering - Software Engineering; Researchers' Work from Polytechnic University of Valencia Focuses on Software Engineering (Valencia Bridge Fire Tests: Validation of Simplified and Advanced Numerical Approaches To Model Bridge Fire Scenarios)[J]. Computers, Networks & Communications,2019.桥梁工程英文参考文献三：[61]. Hood River-White Salmon Bridge Replacement Project; Notice of Intent To Prepare a Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement[J]. The Federal Register / FIND,2019,84(100).[62]. Engineering - Wind Engineering; Recent Studies from Southwest Jiaotong University Add New Data to Wind Engineering (Integrated Transfer Function for Buffeting Response Evaluation of Long-span Bridges)[J]. Energy Weekly News,2019.[63]. Engineering - Pipeline Systems Engineering; Recent Findings from W.J. Wang and Co-Authors Provide New Insights into Pipeline Systems Engineering (Wind Tunnel Test Study On Pipeline Suspension Bridge Via Aeroelastic Model With Pi Connection)[J]. Energy Weekly News,2019.[64]Dan O’Reilly. Baudette/ Rainy River International Bridge a construction collaboration at every crossing[J]. Daily Commercial News,2019,92(105).[65]. Archaeology; New Findings on Archaeology Reported by C.P. Dappert-Coonrod et al (Walking In Their Shoes: a Late Victorian Shoe Assemblage From the New Mississippi River Bridge Project In East St. Louis)[J]. Science Letter,2019.[66]Ron Stang. First signs of Gordie Howe bridge construction[J]. Daily Commercial News,2019,92(119).[67]Li Chuntong,Wang Deyu. Knowledge-Based Engineering–based method for containership lashing bridge optimization design and structural improvement with functionally graded thickness plates[J]. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,2019,233(3).[68]Ashley Delaney,Kari Jurgenson. Building Bridges: Connecting science and engineering with literacy and mathematics[J]. Science and Children,2019,57(1).[69]. Hydrodynamics; Investigators from School of Civil Engineering Report New Data on Hydrodynamics (Effects of Air Relief Openings On the Mitigation of Solitary Wave Forces On Bridge Decks)[J]. Science Letter,2019.[70]. Engineering - Wind Engineering; Reports Summarize Wind Engineering Study Results from Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) (Ale-vms Methods for Wind-resistant Design of Long-span Bridges)[J]. Energy Weekly News,2019.[71]. Engineering - Engineering Informatics; Reports Summarize Engineering Informatics Study Results from Seoul National University (Xgboost Application On Bridge Management Systems for Proactive Damage Estimation)[J]. Computers, Networks & Communications,2019.[72]. Microscopy; Recent Findings in Microscopy Described by Researchers from Chongqing Jiaotong University (Application of Long-distance Microscope In Crack Detection In Bridge Construction)[J]. Science Letter,2019.[73]Ghosh Soumadwip,Bierig Tobias,Lee Sangbae,Jana Suvamay,L?hle Adelheid,Schnapp Gisela,Tautermann Christofer S,Vaidehi Nagarajan. Engineering Salt Bridge Networks between Transmembrane Helices Confers Thermostability in G-Protein-Coupled Receptors.[J]. Journal of chemical theory and computation,2018.[74]Yainoy Sakda,Phuadraksa Thanawat,Wichit Sineewanlaya,Sompoppokakul Maprang,Songtawee Napat,Prachayasittikul Virapong,Isarankura-Na-Ayudhya Chartchalerm. Production and Characterization of Recombinant Wild Type Uricase from Indonesian Coelacanth ( L. menadoensis ) and Improvement of Its Thermostability by In Silico Rational Design and Disulphide Bridges Engineering.[J]. International journal of molecular sciences,2019,20(6).[75]Johnson Audrey M,Howell Dana M. Mobility bridges a gap in care: Findings from an early mobilisation quality improvement project in acute care.[J]. Journal of clinical nursing,2019.[76]Brzyski Przemys?aw,Grudzińska Magdalena,Majerek Dariusz. Analysis of the Occurrence of Thermal Bridges in Several Variants of Connections of the Wall and the Ground Floor in Construction Technology with the Use of a Hemp-lime Composite.[J]. Materials (Basel, Switzerland),2019,12(15).[77]Hager Keri,Kading Margarette,O'Donnell Carolyn,Yapel Ann,MacDonald Danielle,Albee Jennifer Nelson,Nash Cynthia,Renier Colleen,Dean Katherine,Schneiderhan Mark. Bridging Community Mental Health and Primary Care to Improve Medication Monitoring and Outcomes for Patients With Mental Illness Taking Second-Generation Antipsychotics-HDC/DFMC Bridge Project, Phase 1: Group Concept Mapping.[J]. The primary care companion for CNS disorders,2019,21(4).[78]Mardewi Jamal,M. Jazir Alkas,Supriyadi Yusuf. Study of Pre-Stressed Concrete Girders Planning on Flyover Project Overpass Bridges Mahakam IV Samarinda City[P]. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Materials Engineering and Management - Engineering Section (ICMEMe 2018),2019.[79]Aimin Zhang,Huijun Wu. Analysis of Internal Force in Construction of Asymmetric Continuous Rigid Frame Bridge[P]. Proceedings of the 2019 3rd International Forum on Environment, Materials and Energy (IFEME 2019),2019.[80]Jiang Wei,Sun Litong,Zhang Xiwen. Research on achievement assessment method for course objectives of bridge engineering based on OBE[P]. Proceedings of the 2019 4th International Conference on Social Sciences and Economic Development (ICSSED 2019),2019.[81]Welf Zimmermann,Stefan Kuss. New Composite Construction Method with STEEL/UHPFRC Constructing Railway Bridges[J]. Solid State Phenomena,2019,4809.[82]Michail M. Kozhevnikov,Sofia T. Kozhevnikova,Alexander V. Ginzburg,VitaliyA. Gladkikh. Improving the Efficiency of the Bridges Construction Organization on the Basis of Information Modeling[J]. Materials Science Forum,2018,4717.[83]Xiangmin Yu,Dewei Chen. Innovative Method for the Construction of Cable-Stayed Bridges by Cable Crane[J]. Structural Engineering International,2018,28(4).[84]Chuntong Li,Deyu Wang. Multi-objective optimisation of a container ship lashing bridge using knowledge-based engineering[J]. Ships and Offshore Structures,2019,14(1).[85]Hurley,Taiwo. Critical social work and competency practice: a proposal to bridge theory and practice in the classroom[J]. Social Work Education,2019,38(2).[86]Jamey Barbas,Matthew Paradis. Scalable, Modularized Solutions in the Design and Construction of the Governor Mario M. Cuomo Bridge[J]. Structural Engineering International,2019,29(1).[87]. The 2nd Bridge Engineering Workshop Mexico 2019[J]. Structural Engineering International,2019,29(3).[88]Wei Duan,Guojun Cai,Songyu Liu,Yu Du,Liuwen Zhu,Anand J. Puppala. SPT–CPTU Correlations and Liquefaction Evaluation for the Island and Tunnel Project of the Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macao Bridge[J]. International Journal of Civil Engineering,2018,16(10).[89]Seungjun Kim,Deokhee Won,Young-Jong Kang. Ultimate Behavior of Steel Cable-Stayed Bridges During Construction[J]. International Journal of Steel Structures,2019,19(3).[90]Shangqu Sun,Shucai Li,Liping Li,Shaoshuai Shi,Jing Wang,Jie Hu,Cong Hu. Slope stability analysis and protection measures in bridge and tunnel engineering: a practical case study from Southwestern China[J]. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment,2019,78(5).桥梁工程英文参考文献四：[91]Czes?aw Machelski. Effects of Surrounding Earth on Shell During the Construction of Flexible Bridge Structures[J]. Studia Geotechnica et Mechanica,2019,41(2).[92]Fan Dingqiang,Tian Wenjing,Feng Dandian,Cheng Jiahao,Yang Rui,Zhang Kaiquan. Development and Applications of Ultra-high Performance Concrete in Bridge Engineering[J]. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science,2018,189(2).[93]Xiaoyi Ma,Hailin Yang. The important role of civilized construction - a case study of flood control measures in a bridge construction of Gansu province, China[J]. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science,2018,189(2).[94]Ruixin Huang,Keke Peng,Wen Zhou. Study on Risk Assessment of Bridge Construction Based on AHP-GST Method[J]. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science,2018,189(4).[95]HanLin Zhou. Research on Bridge Construction Control Technology Based onMobile Formwork[J]. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science,2018,189(2).[96]Jasson Tan,Yen Lei Voo. Working Example on 70m Long Ultra High Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) Composite Bridge[J]. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering,2018,431(4).[97]N R Setiati. The feasibility study of bridge construction plan in Digoel River Province of Papua[J]. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science,2019,235(1).[98]Junhua Xiao,Miao Liu,Tieyi Zhong,Guangzhi Fu. Seismic performance analysis of concrete-filled steel tubular single pylon cable-stayed bridge with swivel construction[J]. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science,2019,218(1).[99]Zhengwei Feng,Longbin Lin. Discussion on manufacturing technology of steel box girder of cross-line bridge engineering in Xiamen Hele road[J]. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science,2019,233(3).[100]Jiann Tsair Chang,Ho Chieh Hsiao. Analytic Hierarchy Process for Evaluation Weights on Occupational Safety and Hygiene Items in the Bridge Construction Site[J]. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science,2019,233(3).[101]Yilong Huang,Xilin Yan,Jianying Wu,Guangqiang Peng. Cooperation research between electrode line transversal differential protection and bridge differential protection in HVDC project[J]. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science,2019,227(4).[102]Li He,Wenwei Zhu,Shiqiang Mei,Xinji Xie. Checking Calculation Analysis for Construction of Long-span Steel Box Girder Bridges[J]. Journal of Physics: Conference Series,2019,1176(5).[103]Norhidayu Kasim,Mohd Rozaiman Sulaiman,Kamarudin Abu Taib. Utilization of ultra - high performance concrete for bridge construction – a case study of Kg. Seberang Manong to Pekan Manong bridge[J]. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering,2019,512(1).[104]Mairizal,Edrizal,Mohammad Ismail,Rosli Mohamad Zin. Identifying occurrences of accident at work place in terms of occupational safety on roads and bridges infrastructure in Indonesia[J]. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering,2019,513(1).[105]S T Noor,M S Islam,M Mumtarin,N Chakraborty. Dynamic load test of full-scalepile for the construction and rehabilitation of bridges[J]. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering,2019,513(1).[106]P G Kossakowski. Recent Advances in Bridge Engineering – Application of Steel Sheet Piles as Durable Structural Elements in Integral Bridges[J]. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering,2019,507(1).[107]R Vrayudha,M Iqbal,M Foralisa. Role Analysis and Mandor Functions on Bridge and Building Construction Projects in District Ogan Komering Ulu[J]. Journal of Physics: Conference Series,2019,1198(8).[108]Fawen Zhu,Jianfeng Zhou,Tianyi Zhu,Baofeng Li. Construction and structure analysis of Yongshun Bridge in Lichuan[J]. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science,2019,267(5).[109]Qin Wang,Qiuxin Liu. Study of Mountainous Long Span Prestressed Concrete Box-Girder Bridge Cantilever Construction Safety Monitoring System Based on Multi-Agent System[J]. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science,2019,283(1).[110]Jiang Ziqi,Liu Bingwei. Stability analysis of double x-shape arch bridge during construction[J]. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science,2019,267(5).[111]Tiedong Qi,Yantao Du,Bo Peng. Sensitivity Analysis of Cantilever Construction Process of Long-Span Continuous V-Structure Composite Bridge[J]. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science,2019,267(5).[112]Jie Su,Qian Fang,Dingli Zhang,Xiaokai Niu,Xiang Liu,Yunming Jie,Pier Paolo Rossi. Bridge Responses Induced by Adjacent Subway Station Construction Using Shallow Tunneling Method[J]. Advances in Civil Engineering,2018,2018.[113]Ting-Yu Chen,Lucia Valentina Gambuzza. An Interval-Valued Pythagorean Fuzzy Compromise Approach with Correlation-Based Closeness Indices for Multiple-Criteria Decision Analysis of Bridge Construction Methods[J]. Complexity,2018,2018.[114]Benjamin Kromoser,Thomas Pachner,Chengcheng Tang,Johann Kollegger,Helmut Pottmann,Melina Bosco. Form Finding of Shell Bridges Using the Pneumatic Forming of Hardened Concrete Construction Principle[J]. Advances in Civil Engineering,2018,2018.[115]Lei Yan,Gang Wang,Min Chen,Kefeng Yue,Qingning Li,Belén González-Fonteboa. Experimental and Application Study on Underpinning Engineering of Bridge PileFoundation[J]. Advances in Civil Engineering,2018,2018.[116]Zhifang Lu,Chaofan Wei,Muyu Liu,Xiaoguang Deng,Moacir Kripka. Risk Assessment Method for Cable System Construction of Long-Span Suspension Bridge Based on Cloud Model[J]. Advances in Civil Engineering,2019,2019.[117]Dilendra Maharjan,Elijah Wyckoff,Marlon Agüero,Selene Martinez,Lucas Zhou,Fernando Moreu. Monitoring induced floor vibrations: dance performance and bridge engineering[P]. Smart Structures and Materials + Nondestructive Evaluation and Health Monitoring,2019.[118]Tianshu Li,Devin Harris. Automated construction of bridge condition inventory using natural language processing and historical inspection reports[P]. Smart Structures and Materials + Nondestructive Evaluation and Health Monitoring,2019.以上就是关于桥梁工程英文参考文献的分享，希望对你有所帮助。

桥梁工程中英文对照外文翻译文献BRIDGE ENGINEERING AND AESTHETICSEvolvement of bridge Engineering,brief reviewAmong the early documented reviews of construction materials and structu re types are the books of Marcus Vitruvios Pollio in the first century B.C.The basic principles of statics were developed by the Greeks , and were exemplifi ed in works and applications by Leonardo da Vinci,Cardeno,and Galileo.In the fifteenth and sixteenth century, engineers seemed to be unaware of this record , and relied solely on experience and tradition for building bridges and aqueduc ts .The state of the art changed rapidly toward the end of the seventeenth cent ury when Leibnitz, Newton, and Bernoulli introduced mathematical formulatio ns. Published works by Lahire (1695)and Belidor (1792) about the theoretical a nalysis of structures provided the basis in the field of mechanics of materials .Kuzmanovic(1977) focuses on stone and wood as the first bridge-building materials. Iron was introduced during the transitional period from wood to steel .According to recent records , concrete was used in France as early as 1840 for a bridge 39 feet (12 m) long to span the Garoyne Canal at Grisoles, but r einforced concrete was not introduced in bridge construction until the beginnin g of this century . Prestressed concrete was first used in 1927.Stone bridges of the arch type (integrated superstructure and substructure) were constructed in Rome and other European cities in the middle ages . Thes e arches were half-circular , with flat arches beginning to dominate bridge wor k during the Renaissance period. This concept was markedly improved at the e nd of the eighteenth century and found structurally adequate to accommodate f uture railroad loads . In terms of analysis and use of materials , stone bridgeshave not changed much ,but the theoretical treatment was improved by introd ucing the pressure-line concept in the early 1670s(Lahire, 1695) . The arch the ory was documented in model tests where typical failure modes were considere d (Frezier,1739).Culmann(1851) introduced the elastic center method for fixed-e nd arches, and showed that three redundant parameters can be found by the us e of three equations of coMPatibility.Wooden trusses were used in bridges during the sixteenth century when P alladio built triangular frames for bridge spans 10 feet long . This effort also f ocused on the three basic principles og bridge design : convenience(serviceabili ty) ,appearance , and endurance(strength) . several timber truss bridges were co nstructed in western Europe beginning in the 1750s with spans up to 200 feet (61m) supported on stone substructures .Significant progress was possible in t he United States and Russia during the nineteenth century ,prompted by the ne ed to cross major rivers and by an abundance of suitable timber . Favorable e conomic considerations included initial low cost and fast construction .The transition from wooden bridges to steel types probably did not begin until about 1840 ,although the first documented use of iron in bridges was the chain bridge built in 1734 across the Oder River in Prussia . The first truss completely made of iron was in 1840 in the United States , followed by Eng land in 1845 , Germany in 1853 , and Russia in 1857 . In 1840 , the first ir on arch truss bridge was built across the Erie Canal at Utica .The Impetus of AnalysisThe theory of structures ,developed mainly in the ninetheenth century,foc used on truss analysis, with the first book on bridges written in 1811. The Wa rren triangular truss was introduced in 1846 , supplemented by a method for c alculating the correcet forces .I-beams fabricated from plates became popular in England and were used in short-span bridges.In 1866, Culmann explained the principles of cantilever truss bridges, an d one year later the first cantilever bridge was built across the Main River in Hassfurt, Germany, with a center span of 425 feet (130m) . The first cantilever bridge in the United States was built in 1875 across the Kentucky River.A most impressive railway cantilever bridge in the nineteenth century was the Fir st of Forth bridge , built between 1883 and 1893 , with span magnitudes of 1 711 feet (521.5m).At about the same time , structural steel was introduced as a prime mater ial in bridge work , although its quality was often poor . Several early exampl es are the Eads bridge in St.Louis ; the Brooklyn bridge in New York ; and t he Glasgow bridge in Missouri , all completed between 1874 and 1883.Among the analytical and design progress to be mentioned are the contrib utions of Maxwell , particularly for certain statically indeterminate trusses ; the books by Cremona (1872) on graphical statics; the force method redefined by Mohr; and the works by Clapeyron who introduced the three-moment equation s.The Impetus of New MaterialsSince the beginning of the twentieth century , concrete has taken its place as one of the most useful and important structural materials . Because of the coMParative ease with which it can be molded into any desired shape , its st ructural uses are almost unlimited . Wherever Portland cement and suitable agg regates are available , it can replace other materials for certain types of structu res, such as bridge substructure and foundation elements .In addition , the introduction of reinforced concrete in multispan frames at the beginning of this century imposed new analytical requirements . Structures of a high order of redundancy could not be analyzed with the classical metho ds of the nineteenth century .The importance of joint rotation was already dem onstrated by Manderla (1880) and Bendixen (1914) , who developed relationshi ps between joint moments and angular rotations from which the unknown mom ents can be obtained ,the so called slope-deflection method .More simplification s in frame analysis were made possible by the work of Calisev (1923) , who used successive approximations to reduce the system of equations to one simpl e expression for each iteration step . This approach was further refined and integrated by Cross (1930) in what is known as the method of moment distributi on .One of the most import important recent developments in the area of anal ytical procedures is the extension of design to cover the elastic-plastic range , also known as load factor or ultimate design. Plastic analysis was introduced with some practical observations by Tresca (1846) ; and was formulated by Sa int-Venant (1870) , The concept of plasticity attracted researchers and engineers after World War Ⅰ, mainly in Germany , with the center of activity shifting to England and the United States after World War Ⅱ.The probabilistic approa ch is a new design concept that is expected to replace the classical determinist ic methodology.A main step forward was the 1969 addition of the Federal Highway Adim inistration (FHWA)”Criteria for Reinforced Concrete Bridge Members “ that co vers strength and serviceability at ultimate design . This was prepared for use in conjunction with the 1969 American Association of State Highway Offficials (AASHO) Standard Specification, and was presented in a format that is readil y adaptable to the development of ultimate design specifications .According to this document , the proportioning of reinforced concrete members ( including c olumns ) may be limited by various stages of behavior : elastic , cracked , an d ultimate . Design axial loads , or design shears . Structural capacity is the r eaction phase , and all calculated modified strength values derived from theoret ical strengths are the capacity values , such as moment capacity ,axial load ca pacity ,or shear capacity .At serviceability states , investigations may also be n ecessary for deflections , maximum crack width , and fatigue .Bridge TypesA notable bridge type is the suspension bridge , with the first example bu ilt in the United States in 1796. Problems of dynamic stability were investigate d after the Tacoma bridge collapse , and this work led to significant theoretica l contributions Steinman ( 1929 ) summarizes about 250 suspension bridges bu ilt throughout the world between 1741 and 1928 .With the introduction of the interstate system and the need to provide stru ctures at grade separations , certain bridge types have taken a strong place in bridge practice. These include concrete superstructures (slab ,T-beams,concrete b ox girders ), steel beam and plate girders , steel box girders , composite const ruction , orthotropic plates , segmental construction , curved girders ,and cable-stayed bridges . Prefabricated members are given serious consideration , while interest in box sections remains strong .Bridge Appearance and AestheticsGrimm ( 1975 ) documents the first recorded legislative effort to control t he appearance of the built environment . This occurred in 1647 when the Cou ncil of New Amsterdam appointed three officials . In 1954 , the Supreme Cou rt of the United States held that it is within the power of the legislature to de termine that communities should be attractive as well as healthy , spacious as well as clean , and balanced as well as patrolled . The Environmental Policy Act of 1969 directs all agencies of the federal government to identify and dev elop methods and procedures to ensure that presently unquantified environmenta l amentities and values are given appropriate consideration in decision making along with economic and technical aspects .Although in many civil engineering works aesthetics has been practiced al most intuitively , particularly in the past , bridge engineers have not ignored o r neglected the aesthetic disciplines .Recent research on the subject appears to lead to a rationalized aesthetic design methodology (Grimm and Preiser , 1976 ) .Work has been done on the aesthetics of color ,light ,texture , shape , and proportions , as well as other perceptual modalities , and this direction is bot h theoretically and empirically oriented .Aesthetic control mechanisms are commonly integrated into the land-use re gulations and design standards . In addition to concern for aesthetics at the sta te level , federal concern focuses also on the effects of man-constructed enviro nment on human life , with guidelines and criteria directed toward improving quality and appearance in the design process . Good potential for the upgrading of aesthetic quality in bridge superstructures and substructures can be seen in the evaluation structure types aimed at improving overall appearance .Lords and lording groupsThe loads to be considered in the design of substructures and bridge foun dations include loads and forces transmitted from the superstructure, and those acting directly on the substructure and foundation .AASHTO loads . Section 3 of AASHTO specifications summarizes the loa ds and forces to be considered in the design of bridges (superstructure and sub structure ) . Briefly , these are dead load ,live load , iMPact or dynamic effec t of live load , wind load , and other forces such as longitudinal forces , cent rifugal force ,thermal forces , earth pressure , buoyancy , shrinkage and long t erm creep , rib shortening , erection stresses , ice and current pressure , collisi on force , and earthquake stresses .Besides these conventional loads that are ge nerally quantified , AASHTO also recognizes indirect load effects such as fricti on at expansion bearings and stresses associated with differential settlement of bridge components .The LRFD specifications divide loads into two distinct cate gories : permanent and transient .Permanent loadsDead Load : this includes the weight DC of all bridge components , appu rtenances and utilities, wearing surface DW nd future overlays , and earth fill EV. Both AASHTO and LRFD specifications give tables summarizing the unit weights of materials commonly used in bridge work .Transient LoadsVehicular Live Load (LL) Vehicle loading for short-span bridges :considera ble effort has been made in the United States and Canada to develop a live lo ad model that can represent the highway loading more realistically than the H or the HS AASHTO models . The current AASHTO model is still the applica ble loading.桥梁工程和桥梁美学桥梁工程的发展概况早在公元前1世纪，Marcus Vitrucios Pollio 的著作中就有关于建筑材料和结构类型的记载和评述。

土木工程学院交通工程专业中英文翻译Road Design专业：交通工程英文原文The Basics of a Good RoadWe have known how to build good roads for a long time. Archaeologists have found ancient Egyptian roadsthat carried blocks to the pyramids in 4600 BCE. Later,the Romans built an extensive road system, using the same principles we use today. Some of these roads are still in service.If you follow the basic concepts of road building, you will create a road that will last. The ten commandments of a good road are:（1）Get water away from the road（2）Build on a firm foundation（3）Use the best materials（4）Compact all layers properly（5）Design for traffic loads and volumes（6）Design for maintenance（7）Pave only when ready（8）Build from the bottom up（9）Protect your investment（10）Keep good records1．Get water away from the roadWe can’t overemphasize the importance of good drainage.Engineers estimate that at least 90% of a road’s problems can be related to excess water or to poor waterdrainage. Too much water in any layer of a road’sstructure can weaken that la yer, leading to failure.In the surface layer, water can cause cracks and potholes. In lower layers it undermines support, causing cracks and potholes. A common sign of water in an asphalt road surface is alligator cracking — an interconnected pattern of cracks forming small irregular shaped pieces that look like alligator skin. Edge cracking, frost heaves, and spring breakup of pavements also point to moistureproblems.To prevent these problems remember that water:• flows downhill• needs to flow somepla ce• is a problem if it is not flowingEffective drainage systems divert, drain and dispose of water. To do this they use interceptor ditches and slopes,road crowns, and ditch and culvert systems.Divert —Interceptor ditches, located between the road and higher ground along the road, keep the water from reaching the roadway. These ditches must slope so they carry water away from the road.Drain —Creating a crown in the road so it is higher along the centerline than at the edges encourages water to flow off the road. Typically a paved crown should be 1⁄4" higher than the shoulder for each foot of width from the centerline to the edge. For gravel surfaces the crown should be 1⁄2" higher per foot of width. For this flow path to work, the road surface must be relatively water tight. Road shoulders also must be sloped away from the road to continue carrying the flow away. Superelevations (banking) at the outside of curves will also help drainthe road surface.Dispose —A ditch and culvert system carries water away from the road structure. Ditches should be at least one foot lower than the bottom of the gravel road layer that drains the roadway. They must be kept clean and must be sloped to move water into natural drainage. If water stays in the ditches it can seep back into the road structure and undermine its strength. Ditches should also be protected from erosion by planting grass, or installing rock and other erosion control measures. Erosion can damage shoulders and ditches, clog culverts, undermine roadbeds, and contaminate nearby streams and lakes. Evaluate your ditch and culvert system twice a year to ensure that it works. In the fall, clean out leaves and branches that can block flow. In spring, check for and remove silts from plowing and any dead plant material left from the fall.2．Build on a firm foundationA road is only as good as its foundation. A highway wears out from the top down but falls apart from the bottom. The road base must carry the entire structure and the traffic that uses it.To make a firm foundation you may need to stabilize the roadbed with chemical stabilizers, large stone called breaker run, or geotextile fabric. When you run into conditions where you suspect that the native soil is unstable, work with an engineer to investigate the situation and design an appropriate solution.3．Use the best materialsWith all road materials you “pay now or pay later.” Inferior materials may require extensive maintenance throughout the road’s life. They may also force you to replace the road prematurely.Crushed aggregate is the best material for the base course. The sharp angles of thecrushed material interlock when they are compacted. This supports the pavement and traffic by transmitting the load from particle to particle. By contrast, rounded particles act like ballbearings, moving under loads.Angular particles are more stable than rounded particles.Asphalt and concrete pavement materials must be of the highest quality, designed for the conditions, obtained from established firms, and tested to ensure it meets specifications.4．Compact all layersIn general, the more densely a material is compacted, the stronger it is. Compaction also shrinks or eliminates open spaces (voids) between particles. This means that less water can enter the structure. Water in soil can weaken the structure or lead to frost heaves. This is especially important for unsurfaced (gravel) roads. Use gravel which has a mix of sizes (well-graded aggregate) so smaller particles can fill the voids between larger ones. Goodcompaction of asphalt pavement lengthens its life.5．Design for traffic loads and volumesDesign for the highest anticipated load the road will carry. A road that has been designed only for cars will not stand up to trucks. One truck with 9 tons on a single rear axle does as much damage to a road as nearly 10,000 cars.Rural roads may carry log trucks, milk trucks, fire department pumper trucks, or construction equipment. If you don’t know what specific loads the road will carry, a good rule of thumb is to design for the largest piece of highway maintenance equipment that will be used on the road.A well-constructed and maintained asphalt road should last 20 years without major repairs or reconstruction. In designing a road, use traffic counts that project numbers and sizes of vehicles 20 years into the future. These are only projections, at best, but they will allow you to plan for traffic loadings through a road’s life.6．Design for maintenanceWithout maintenance a road will rapidly deteriorate and fail. Design your roads so they can be easily maintained. This means:• adequate ditches that can be cleaned regularly• culverts that are marked for easy locating in the spring• enough space for snow after it is plowed off the road• proper cross slopes for safet y, maintenance and to avoid snow drifts• roadsides that are planted or treated to prevent erosion• roadsides that can be mowed safelyA rule of thumb for adequate road width is to make it wide enough for a snowplow to pass another vehicle without leaving the travelled way.Mark culverts with a post so they can be located easily.7．Pave only when readyIt is not necessary to pave all your roads immediately. There is nothing wrong with a well-built and wellmaintained gravel road if traffic loads and volume do not require a paved surface. Three hundred vehicles per day is the recommended minimum to justify paving.Don’t assume that laying down asphalt will fix a gravel road that is failing. Before you pave, make sure you have an adequate crushed stone base that drains well and is properly compacted. The recommended minimum depth of crushed stone base is 10" depending on subgrade soils. A road paved only when it is ready will far outperform one that is constructed too quickly.8．Ê Build from the bottom upThis commandment may seem obvious, but it means that you shouldn’t top dress or resurface a road if the problem is in an underlying layer. Before you do any road improvement, locate the cause of any surface problems. Choose an improvement technique that will address the problem. This may mean recycling or removing all road materials down to the native soil and rebuilding everything. Doing any work that doesn’t solve the problem is a waste of money and effort.9．Ê Protect your investmentThe road system can be your municipality’s biggest investment. Just as a home needs painting or a new roof, a road must be maintained. Wisconsin’s severe climate requires more road maintenance than in milder places. Do these important maintenance activities: Surface —grade, shape, patch, seal cracks, control dust, remove snow and iceDrainage —clean and repair ditches and culverts; remove all excess materialRoadside —cut brush, trim trees and roadside plantings, control erosionTraffic service —clean and repair or replace signsDesign roads with adequate ditches so they can be maintained with a motor grader. Clean and grade ditches to maintain proper pitch and peak efficiency. After grading, remove all excess material from the shoulder.10．Keep good recordsYour maintenance will be more efficient with good records. Knowing the road’s construction, life, and repair history makes it much easier to plan and budget its future repairs. Records can also help you evaluate the effectiveness of the repair methods and materials you used.Good record keeping starts with an inventory of the system. It should include the history and surface condition of the roadway, identify and evaluate culverts and bridges, note ditch conditions, shoulders, signs, and such structures as retaining walls and guardrails.Update your inventory each year or when you repair or change a road section. A formal pavement management system can help use these records and plan and budget road improvements.ResourcesThe Basics of a Good Road#17649, UW-Madison, 15 min. videotape. Presents the Ten Commandments of a Good Road. Videotapes are loaned free through County Extension offices.Asphalt PASER Manual(39 pp), Concrete PASER Manual (48 pp), Gravel PASER Manual (32 pp). These booklets contain extensive photos and descriptions of road surfacesto help you understand types of distress conditions and their causes. A simple procedure for rating the condition helps you manage your pavements and plan repairs.Roadware, a computer program which stores and reports pavement condition information. Developed by the Transportation Information Center and enhanced by the Wisconsin Department of Transportation, it uses the PASER rating system to provide five-year cost budgets and roadway repair/reconstruction priority lists.Wisconsin Transportation Bulletin factsheets, available from the Transportation Information Center (T.I.C.).Road Drainage, No. 4. Describes drainage for roadways, shoulders, ditches, and culverts.Gravel Roads, No. 5. Discusses the characteristics of a gravel road and how to maintain one.Using Salt and Sand for Winter Road Maintenance,No. 6. Basic information and practical tips on how to use de-icing chemicals and sand.Culverts—Proper Use and Installation, No. 15. Selecting and sizing culverts, designing, installing and maintaining them.Geotextiles in Road Construction/Maintenance andErosion Control, No. 16. Definitions and common applications of geotextiles on roadways and for erosion control.T.I.C. workshops are offered at locations around the state.Crossroads,an 8-page quarterly newsletter published by the T.I.C. carries helpful articles, workshop information, and resource lists. For more information on any of these materials, contact the T.I.C. at 800/442-4615.中文译文一个良好的公路的基础长久以来我们已经掌握了如何铺设好一条道路的方法，考古学家发现在4600年古埃及使用建造金字塔的石块铺设道路，后来，罗马人使用同样的方法建立了一个庞大的道路系统，这种方法一直沿用到今天。

道路路桥工程中英文对照外文翻译文献Asphalt Mixtures: ns。

Theory。

and Principles1.nsXXX industry。

XXX。

The most common n of asphalt is in the n of XXX "flexible" XXX them from those made with Portland cement。

XXX2.XXXXXX the use of aggregates。

XXX。

sand。

or gravel。

and a binder。

XXX for the pavement。

XXX。

The quality of the asphalt XXX to the performance of the pavement。

as it must be able to XXX。

3.PrinciplesXXX。

with each layer XXX layers typically include a subgrade。

a sub-base。

a base course。

and a surface course。

The subgrade is the natural soil or rock upon which the pavement is built。

while the sub-base and base courses provide nal support for the pavement。

The surface course is the layer that comes into direct contact with traffic and is XXX。

In n。

the use of XXX.The n of flexible pavement can be subdivided into high and low types。

附录一英文翻译原文AUTOMATIC DEFLECTION AND TEMPERATURE MONITORING OFA BALANCED CANTILEVER CONCRETE BRIDGEby Olivier BURDET, Ph.D.Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne, SwitzerlandInstitute of Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete SUMMARYThere is a need for reliable monitoring systems to follow the evolution of the behavior of structures over time.Deflections and rotations are values that reflect the overall structure behavior. This paper presents an innovative approach to the measurement of long-term deformations of bridges by use of inclinometers. High precision electronic inclinometers can be used to follow effectively long-term rotations without disruption of the traffic. In addition to their accuracy, these instruments have proven to be sufficiently stable over time and reliable for field conditions. The Mentue bridges are twin 565 m long box-girder post-tensioned concrete highway bridges under construction in Switzerland. The bridges are built by the balanced cantilever method over a deep valley. The piers are 100 m high and the main span is 150 m. A centralized data acquisition system was installed in one bridge during its construction in 1997. Every minute, the system records the rotation and temperature at a number of measuring points. The simultaneous measurement of rotations and concrete temperature at several locations gives a clear idea of the movements induced by thermal conditions. The system will be used in combination with a hydrostatic leveling setup to follow the long-term behavior of the bridge. Preliminary results show that the system performs reliably and that the accuracy of the sensors is excellent.Comparison of the evolution of rotations and temperature indicate that the structure responds to changes in air temperature rather quickly.1.BACKGROUNDAll over the world, the number of structures in service keeps increasing. With the development of traffic and the increased dependence on reliable transportation, it is becoming more and more necessary to foresee and anticipate the deterioration of structures. In particular,for structures that are part of major transportation systems, rehabilitation works need to be carefully planned in order to minimize disruptions of traffic. Automatic monitoring of structures is thus rapidly developing.Long-term monitoring of bridges is an important part of this overall effort to attempt to minimize both the impact and the cost of maintenance and rehabilitation work of major structures. By knowing the rate of deterioration of a given structure, the engineer is able to anticipate and adequately define the timing of required interventions. Conversely, interventions can be delayed until the condition of the structure requires them, without reducing the overall safety of the structure.The paper presents an innovative approach to the measurement of long-term bridge deformations. The use of high precision inclinometers permits an effective, accurate and unobtrusive following of the long-term rotations. The measurements can be performed under traffic conditions. Simultaneous measurement of the temperature at several locations gives a clear idea of the movements induced by thermal conditions and those induced by creep and shrinkage. The system presented is operational since August 1997 in the Mentue bridge, currently under construction in Switzerland. The structure has a main span of 150 m and piers 100 m high.2. LONG-TERM MONITORING OF BRIDGESAs part of its research and service activities within the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL), IBAP - Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete has been involved in the monitoring of long-time deformations of bridges and other structures for over twenty-five years [1, 2, 3, 4]. In the past, IBAP has developed a system for the measurement of long-term deformations using hydrostatic leveling [5, 6]. This system has been in successful service in ten bridges in Switzerland for approximately ten years [5,7]. The system is robust, reliable and sufficiently accurate, but it requires human intervention for each measurement, and is not well suited for automatic data acquisition. One additional disadvantage of this system is that it is only easily applicable to box girder bridges with an accessible box.Occasional continuous measurements over periods of 24 hours have shown that the amplitude of daily movements is significant, usually amounting to several millimeters over a couple of hours. This is exemplified in figure 1, where measurements of the twin Lutrive bridges, taken over a period of several years before and after they were strengthened by post-tensioning, areshown along with measurements performed over a period of 24 hours. The scatter observed in the data is primarily caused by thermal effects on the bridges. In the case of these box-girder bridges built by the balanced cantilever method, with a main span of 143.5 m, the amplitude of deformations on a sunny day is of the same order of magnitude than the long term deformation over several years.Instantaneous measurements, as those made by hydrostatic leveling, are not necessarily representative of the mean position of the bridge. This occurs because the position of the bridge at the time of the measurement is influenced by the temperature history over the past several hours and days. Even if every care was taken to perform the measurements early in the morning and at the same period every year, it took a relatively long time before it was realized that the retrofit performed on the Lutrive bridges in 1988 by additional post-tensioning [3, 7,11] had not had the same effect on both of them.Figure 1: Long-term deflections of the Lutrive bridges, compared to deflections measured in a 24-hour period Automatic data acquisition, allowing frequent measurements to be performed at an acceptable cost, is thus highly desirable. A study of possible solutions including laser-based leveling, fiber optics sensors and GPS-positioning was performed, with the conclusion that, provided that their long-term stability can be demonstrated, current types of electronic inclinometers are suitable for automatic measurements of rotations in existing bridges [8].3. MENTUE BRIDGESThe Mentue bridges are twin box-girder bridges that will carry the future A1 motorway from Lausanne to Bern. Each bridge, similar in design, has an overall length of approximately 565 m, and a width of 13.46 m, designed to carry two lanes of traffic and an emergency lane. The bridges cross a deep valley with steep sides (fig. 2). The balanced cantilever design results from a bridge competition. The 100 m high concrete piers were built using climbing formwork, after which the construction of the balanced cantilever started (fig. 3).4. INCLINOMETERSStarting in 1995, IBAP initiated a research project with the goal of investigating the feasibility of a measurement system using inclinometers. Preliminary results indicated that inclinometers offer several advantages for the automatic monitoring of structures. Table 1 summarizes the main properties of the inclinometers selected for this study.One interesting property of measuring a structure’s rotations, is that, for a given ratio of maximum deflection to span length, the maximum rotation is essentially independent from its static system [8]. Since maximal allowable values of about 1/1,000 for long-term deflections under permanent loads are generally accepted values worldwide, developments made for box-girder bridges with long spans, as is the case for this research, are applicable to other bridges, for instance bridges with shorter spans and other types of cross-sections. This is significant because of the need to monitor smaller spans which constitute the majority of all bridges.The selected inclinometers are of type Wyler Zerotronic ±1°[9]. Their accuracy is 1 microradian (μrad), which corresponds to a rotation of one millimeter per kilometer, a very small value. For an intermediate span of a continuous beam with a constant depth, a mid-span deflection of 1/20,000 would induce a maximum rotation of about 150 μrad, or 0.15 milliradians (mrad).One potential problem with electronic instruments is that their measurements may drift overtime. To quantify and control this problem, a mechanical device was designed allowing the inclinometers to be precisely rotated of 180° in an horizontal plane (fig. 4). The drift of each inclinometer can be very simply obtained by comparing the values obtained in the initial and rotated position with previously obtained values. So far, it has been observed that the type of inclinometer used in this project is not very sensitive to drifting.5. INSTRUMENTATION OF THE MENTUE BRIDGESBecause a number of bridges built by the balanced cantilever method have shown an unsatisfactory behavior in service [2, 7,10], it was decided to carefully monitor the evolution of the deformations of the Mentue bridges. These bridges were designed taking into consideration recent recommendations for the choice of the amount of posttensioning [7,10,13]. Monitoring starting during the construction in 1997 and will be pursued after the bridges are opened to traffic in 2001. Deflection monitoring includes topographic leveling by the highway authorities, an hydrostatic leveling system over the entire length of both bridges and a network of inclinometers in the main span of the North bridge. Data collection iscoordinated by the engineer of record, to facilitate comparison of measured values. The information gained from these observations will be used to further enhance the design criteria for that type of bridge, especially with regard to the amount of post-tensioning [7, 10, 11, 12, 13].The automatic monitoring system is driven by a data acquisition program that gathers and stores the data. This system is able to control various types of sensors simultaneously, at the present time inclinometers and thermal sensors. The computer program driving all the instrumentation offers a flexible framework, allowing the later addition of new sensors or data acquisition systems. The use of the development environment LabView [14] allowed to leverage the large user base in the field of laboratory instrumentation and data analysis. The data acquisition system runs on a rather modest computer, with an Intel 486/66 Mhz processor, 16 MB of memory and a 500 MB hard disk, running Windows NT. All sensor data are gathered once per minute and stored in compressed form on the hard disk. The system is located in the box-girder on top of pier 3 (fig. 5). It can withstand severe weather conditions and will restart itself automatically after a power outage, which happened frequently during construction.6. SENSORSFigure 5(a) shows the location of the inclinometers in the main span of the North bridge. The sensors are placed at the axis of the supports (①an d⑤), at 1/4 and 3/4 (③an d④) of the span and at 1/8 of the span for②. In the cross section, the sensors are located on the North web, at a height corresponding to the center of gravity of the section (fig.5a). The sensors are all connected by a single RS-485 cable to the central data acquisition system located in the vicinity of inclinometer ①. Monitoring of the bridge started already during its construction. Inclinometers①,②and③were installed before the span was completed. The resulting measurement were difficult to interpret, however, because of the wide variations of angles induced by the various stages of this particular method of construction.The deflected shape will be determined by integrating the measured rotations along the length of the bridge (fig.5b). Although this integration is in principle straightforward, it has been shown [8, 16] that the type of loading and possible measurement errors need to be carefully taken into account.Thermal sensors were embedded in concrete so that temperature effects could be taken into account for the adjustment of the geometry of the formwork for subsequent casts. Figure 6 shows the layout of thermal sensors in the main span. The measurement sections are located at the same sections than the inclinometers (fig. 5). All sensors were placed in the formwork before concreting and were operational as soon as the formwork was removed, which was required for the needs of the construction. In each section, seven of the nine thermal sensor (indicated in solid black in fig. 6) are now automatically measured by the central data acquisition system.7. RESULTSFigure 7 shows the results of inclinometry measurements performed from the end ofSeptember to the third week of November 1997. All inclinometers performed well during that period. Occasional interruptions of measurement, as observed for example in early October are due to interruption of power to the system during construction operations. The overall symmetry of results from inclinometers seem to indicate that the instruments drift is not significant for that time period. The maximum amplitude of bridge deflection during the observed period, estimated on the basis of the inclinometers results, is around 40 mm. More accurate values will be computed when the method of determination ofdeflections will have been further calibrated with other measurements. Several periods of increase, respectively decrease, of deflections over several days can be observed in the graph. This further illustrates the need for continuous deformation monitoring to account for such effects. The measurement period was .busy. in terms of construction, and included the following operations: the final concrete pours in that span, horizontal jacking of the bridge to compensate some pier eccentricities, as well as the stressing of the continuity post-tensioning, and the de-tensioning of the guy cables (fig. 3). As a consequence, the interpretation of these measurements is quite difficult. It is expected that further measurements, made after the completion of the bridge, will be simpler to interpret.Figure 8 shows a detail of the measurements made in November, while figure.9 shows temperature measurements at the top and bottom of the section at mid-span made during that same period. It is clear that the measured deflections correspond to changes in the temperature. The temperature at the bottom of the section follows closely variations of the air temperature(measured in the shade near the north web of the girder). On the other hand, the temperature at the top of the cross section is less subject to rapid variations. This may be due to the high elevation of the bridge above ground, and also to the fact that, during the measuring period, there was little direct sunshine on the deck. The temperature gradient between top and bottom of the cross section has a direct relationship with short-term variations. It does not, however, appear to be related to the general tendency to decrease in rotations observed in fig. 8.8. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTSFuture developments will include algorithms to reconstruct deflections from measured rotations. To enhance the accuracy of the reconstruction of deflections, a 3D finite element model of the entire structure is in preparation [15]. This model will be used to identify the influence on rotations of various phenomena, such as creep of the piers and girder, differential settlements, horizontal and vertical temperature gradients or traffic loads.Much work will be devoted to the interpretation of the data gathered in the Mentue bridge. The final part of the research project work will focus on two aspects: understanding the very complex behavior of the structure, and determining the most important parameters, to allow a simple and effective monitoring of the bridges deflections.Finally, the research report will propose guidelines for determination of deflections from measured rotations and practical recommendations for the implementation of measurement systems using inclinometers. It is expected that within the coming year new sites will be equipped with inclinometers. Experiences made by using inclinometers to measure deflections during loading tests [16, 17] have shown that the method is very flexible and competitive with other high-tech methods.As an extension to the current research project, an innovative system for the measurement of bridge joint movement is being developed. This system integrates easily with the existing monitoring system, because it also uses inclinometers, although from a slightly different type.9. CONCLUSIONSAn innovative measurement system for deformations of structures using high precision inclinometers has been developed. This system combines a high accuracy with a relatively simple implementation. Preliminary results are very encouraging and indicate that the use of inclinometers to monitor bridge deformations is a feasible and offers advantages. The system is reliable, does not obstruct construction work or traffic and is very easily installed. Simultaneous temperature measurements have confirmed the importance of temperature variations on the behavior of structural concrete bridges.10. REFERENCES[1] ANDREY D., Maintenance des ouvrages d’art: méthodologie de surveillance, PhD Dissertation Nr 679, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1987.[2] BURDET O., Load Testing and Monitoring of Swiss Bridges, CEB Information Bulletin Nr 219, Safety and Performance Concepts, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1993.[3] BURDET O., Critères pour le choix de la quantitéde précontrainte découlant de l.observation de ponts existants, CUST-COS 96, Clermont-Ferrand, France, 1996.[4] HASSAN M., BURDET O., FAVRE R., Combination of Ultrasonic Measurements and Load Tests in Bridge Evaluation, 5th International Conference on Structural Faults and Repair, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK, 1993.[5] FAVRE R., CHARIF H., MARKEY I., Observation à long terme de la déformation des ponts, Mandat de Recherche de l’OFR 86/88, Final Report, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1990.[6] FAVRE R., MARKEY I., Long-term Monitoring of Bridge Deformation, NATO Research Workshop, Bridge Evaluation, Repair and Rehabilitation, NATO ASI series E: vol. 187, pp. 85-100, Baltimore, USA, 1990.[7] FAVRE R., BURDET O. et al., Enseignements tirés d’essais de charge et d’observations à long terme pour l’évaluation des ponts et le choix de la précontrainte, OFR Report, 83/90, Zürich, Switzerland, 1995.[8] DAVERIO R., Mesures des déformations des ponts par un système d’inclinométrie,Rapport de maîtrise EPFL-IBAP, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1995.[9] WYLER AG., Technical specifications for Zerotronic Inclinometers, Winterthur, Switzerland, 1996.[10] FAVRE R., MARKEY I., Generalization of the Load Balancing Method, 12th FIP Congress, Prestressed Concrete in Switzerland, pp. 32-37, Washington, USA, 1994.[11] FAVRE R., BURDET O., CHARIF H., Critères pour le choix d’une précontrainte: application au cas d’un renforcement, "Colloque International Gestion des Ouvrages d’Art: Quelle Stratégie pour Maintenir et Adapter le Patrimoine, pp. 197-208, Paris, France, 1994. [12] FAVRE R., BURDET O., Wahl einer geeigneten Vorspannung, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau, 92/3, 67, Germany, 1997.[13] FAVRE R., BURDET O., Choix d’une quantité appropriée de précontrain te, SIA D0 129, Zürich, Switzerland, 1996.[14] NATIONAL INSTRUMENTS, LabView User.s Manual, Austin, USA, 1996.[15] BOUBERGUIG A., ROSSIER S., FAVRE R. et al, Calcul non linéaire du béton arméet précontraint, Revue Français du Génie Civil, vol. 1 n° 3, Hermes, Paris, France, 1997. [16] FEST E., Système de mesure par inclinométrie: développement d’un algorithme de calcul des flèches, Mémoire de maîtrise de DEA, Lausanne / Paris, Switzerland / France, 1997.[17] PERREGAUX N. et al., Vertical Displacement of Bridges using the SOFO System: a Fiber Optic Monitoring Method for Structures, 12th ASCE Engineering Mechanics Conference, San Diego, USA, to be published,1998.译文平衡悬臂施工混凝土桥挠度和温度的自动监测作者Olivier BURDET博士瑞士联邦理工学院，洛桑，瑞士钢筋和预应力混凝土研究所概要：我们想要跟踪结构行为随时间的演化，需要一种可靠的监测系统。

Unit 1 Highway Introduction公路简介(1) Road classification道路分类Road路,道路,公路, highway公路;干道, freeway高速公路;高速干道, expressway高速公路, street街,街道,(2) Road concept道路概念Road layout道路布局,planning 城市规划,土地规划, spacing 间隔, network网状物;网状系统, location位置;场所,所在地, terrain 地形;地势, drainage排水系统,排水设备;下水道, survey 测量,勘测,测绘(3) Road structure道路结构Alignment线型surface面,表面, subgrade路基,地基curvature弯曲, (几何)曲率, gradient 坡度,倾斜度, ditch沟;壕沟,水道,渠道, turnout产量,产额,4) Materials材料Gravel 砂砾,碎石,石子dirt污物;烂泥;灰尘,泥土, soil土,泥土,土壤, asphalt沥青;柏油, cement水泥, concrete 混凝土的, 具体的Rubble毛石，块石, flag薄层，薄层砂岩, stone石,石头,石块, slab石板，厚板,平板;厚片, grout薄泥浆;水泥浆,石灰浆lime石灰, cement水泥,胶结材料Bottom layer底层/intermediate layer中间层/upper layer上层/top layer顶层The Empire帝国/ the Dark Ages黑暗时代/ the Middle Ages中世纪Topograph地形图/topography地形;地形学;地形测量学/topographic地形(学)上的Turnpike收费公路/toll system收费系统/ETC –Electronic Toll Collection电子收费3. Highway types公路类型Freeway高速公路;高速干道: freeway/expressway高速公路Controlled access highway控制进入高速公路Conventional highway传统的公路Highway公路;干道: arterial highway干线公路/bypass旁道,旁路/divided highway双向分隔行驶的公路;双向之间有分车带的公路/through street通过街/through highway通过公路Parkway停车道Scenic highway风景公路Street街,街道: Cul-de-Sac street小路尽头的街道/dead end street尽头街道/frontage street正街/local street地方街道Road路,道路,公路: frontage road街面道路/local road地方道路/toll road 收费道路(bridge桥,桥梁, tunnel隧道,地道)1. Technical termsCross section横断面/ Profile 纵断面(图),剖面(图)/Plan view平面视图Longitudinal section/ Transverse section 纵/横截面Lane/ Multilane/ Multiple lanes行车/多通道/多车道Roadway巷道Through traffic/ Local traffic/ Traffic island通过交通/交通/交通岛MedianRoadbed/ curb/ shoulder路基/ 路边,(人行道旁的)镶边石,边栏/肩Right-of-way 公路用地Surface course表面过程/ Wearing course磨损过程/ Basecourse基层/Flexible pavement柔性路面/ Rigid pavement刚性路面Cohesion凝聚力/ cohesive有粘着力的;凝聚性的;有结合力的Roadbase基层/ Subbase基层Crack/ Break/ Stress/ Distress裂纹/打破/压力/痛苦,窘迫的Modulus of elasticity弹性模量2. Main points1 Geometric Cross Section on Highway几何截面的公路上1.1 Lane巷1.2 Median位数1.3 Outer separation外部分离1.4 Roadbed路基1.5 Roadside路边1.6 Roadway巷1.7 Shoulder肩1.8 Travel way旅行方式Unit 4 Asphalt and Mix Asphalt沥青和沥青混合Technical termsMix/ mixture/ compound混合/混合物/复合Petroleum石油/ crude oil原油/ gasoline汽油/ diesel柴油/ gas可燃气;煤气;沼气/ petrol汽油Bitumen沥青/ bituminous 沥青的;含沥青的/ pitch搭(帐篷);扎(营)/asphalt沥青/ asphaltum沥青/ tar焦油;柏油,沥青Hydrocarbon碳氢化合物/ hydrau液Destructive distillation破坏性蒸馏Disulfate硫酸盐Emulsify乳化/ emulsion乳胶;乳状液/Dilute稀释/ diluents稀释剂/solvent有溶解力的/ cutter stock刀具的库存Oxygen氧,氧气/ oxidize使氧化/ oxidation 氧化(作用)/ oxidization 氧化/ dioxide二氧化物/ hydrogen氢/ sulphur硫磺Waterproof不透水的,防水的Acid/ alkalis/ salt/ alcohol酸/碱/盐/酒精Liquid/ fluid/ liquor/ liquefy液/液/液/液化Semi-solid半固态/ hard-brittle solid硬脆性固体/ water-thin liquidBinder粘结剂,捆缚(或包扎)用具;绳索,带子/ sticky粘的;涂有粘胶物质的;泥泞的/ viscous粘的/ adhesive粘的;粘着的;有粘性的/ viscosity粘质;粘性Hard-surface硬地/ hard-face硬面/ hard-surfaced road坚硬的路Tack coat粘结层Cut-back asphalt稀释沥青Penetration. 针入度Versatility多样化的/ flexibility易曲性;适应性,灵活性;弹性/ durability耐久性/ ability能力;能耐/ capacity 容量, 能力,才能,接受能力,理解力/ compactability紧/Rigidity 坚硬;严格;刚直;死板/ strength强度;(酒等的)浓度/ hardness硬性;硬度/ elastic 有弹性的,有弹力的/ rigid坚硬的;坚固的;不易弯曲的/ modules of elasticity弹性模数/Cold temperature cracking低温开裂/ warm temperature rutting高温车辙Performance 履行;实行;完成,演出/ grade等级;级别;阶段/ Performance Grading性能分级(PG)Aggregate使聚集Bin (贮藏谷物等的)箱子,容器,仓/ dryer干燥剂,催干剂/ pug mill练泥机/ drum鼓状物;圆桶/ tank (贮水,油,气等的)柜,罐,箱,槽latex乳汁;乳胶sulphur extended asphalt硫磺沥青混合料sulphur dioxide二氧化硫hydrogen sulphide硫化氢1. Technical termsStability 稳定,稳定性/ stabilize 使稳定,使稳固/availability有效;有益;可利用性/ available 可利用的,可得到的/Sense 感觉;意识;观念/ sensitivity敏感性;感受性Solubility 可溶性, 溶解度/ soluble 可溶解的/ solution溶解,解答;解决(办法); /Rutting车辙/ rust锈,铁锈;(脑子等的)迟钝;(能力等的)荒废/ tar焦油;柏油,沥青Roadstone石马路By-product副产品/ coke 焦,焦炭,焦煤/ coal gas 煤气/ kerosene煤油,火油Residue 残余,剩余,滤渣,残余物/ residual残留的;剩余的/ remain剩下,余留strengthen 加强;增强;巩固/ strength 力,力量, 强度/ deformation 毁坏;变形/ deform 使变形/ reform 改革,革新,改良elastic有弹性的,有弹力的/elasticity 弹性;弹力/plastic可塑的,塑性的/plasticity 可塑性;适应性;柔软性/chipping碎屑permanent永久的,永恒的;永远的, 固定性的;常在的/ temporary 临时的;暂时的,一时的poise使平衡;使平稳/ Dyne达因/ Newton 牛顿stiffness劲度/ stiff 硬的,僵直的,僵硬的/ stress压力;紧张;应力/ strain拉紧;拖紧;伸张/ fatigue疲劳,劳累Deduce演绎,推论/ deduction 扣除,减除,推论;演绎(法/ composition 构成;构图;成分penetration test渗透测试/ softening point test软化点试验/ ring and ball test环和球试验internal diameter 内部直径/ external diameter外部直径sample样品,样本;例子,实例/ water bath水浴arbitrary反复无常的,任性多变的;独断的,专制的/ pragmatic 实际的;实干的/ pragmatism 实用主义/fluidity 流动性;流状;易变(性)/ segregate分离/ susceptibility敏感性/ susceptible 敏感的, rheology流变学/ rheological 流变rolled asphalt碾压沥青synthetic polymer 合成聚合物/ additive附加的epoxy resin环氧树脂impart to传授/ deter威慑住,吓住;使断念/ deterrent 威慑的;遏制的container terminal集装箱码头/ airfield apron机场停机坪Unit 5 Cement and Concrete水泥和混凝土A. Technical termsCement水泥,胶结材料/ chalk粉笔/ matrix矩阵Cementitious 水泥Calcium钙/ calciferous钙/Lime石灰/ limestone石灰石Silica 硅土,二氧化硅/ silicate硅酸盐Aluminium铝/ alumina氧化铝/ aluminate铝sinter烧结coarse clinker粗水泥熟料calcium aluminate 铝酸钙/ calcium silicate硅酸钙hydrate水合物/ cure治疗/Work工作/ workable 可使用的,可运转的/ workability可使用性Shrinkage收缩/ swell膨胀/ swellable膨胀/ swellability溶胀strain拉紧;拖紧;伸张grout薄泥浆;水泥浆constituent组织/ ingredient成分/ component组成Thermal热的;热量的/ thermal coefficient of expansion热膨胀热系数Compressive strength抗压强度/ tensile strength拉伸强度Compressive压缩/ tensile 拉伸Reinforce加固/ reinforcing bar钢筋/ reinforced concrete钢筋混凝土Stiffness劲度Vulnerable脆弱的Efflorescence 风化/ weather天气/ weathering气候Column 柱/ volume体积/Pressure vessel压力容器1. Technical termsPrestress预应力Crew船员Contract 合同/ contractor承包商Resident engineer驻地工程师Inspector检查员Structural member结构构件Steel strand钢绞线Bridge girder桥主梁Pier cap墩帽Deck slab甲板Pretensioning先张法/ post-tensioning后张法Precast预制/ cast -in-place就地浇Box girder箱梁Predetermined stress预定压力Stretch拉伸/ relax 放松/ shorten 缩短/ induce诱导Duct 输送管;导管/ conduit导水管,导管/ pipe管,导管,输送管/ tube 管;筒/ canal管,道/ vessel 容器Anchor 锚/ Anchorage锚具corrosion腐蚀;侵入rebar钢筋/ reel卷轴tarpaulin 防水油布condense压缩/ condensation冷凝require要求/ requisite必要/ prerequisite不可缺的;事先需要的uniform 制服/ uniformity统一vary使多样化/ various不同的;各种各样的,形形色色的/ variable / variationcamber deflection 上弯翘起挠度creep蠕变Standard Specification 标准规范/ Sampling Guide取样指南Couple一双（对）/ coupler联结器Stir搅拌/ stirrup镫筋,箍筋/Web网络/ flange凸缘/ rib肋,肋骨/ side form形式Flimsy脆弱的Galvanize strip steel 镀锌带钢/ sheet steel钢片Weld焊接;熔接;锻接，使结合/ seam 缝;接缝,缝合处,接合口;裂缝Helical螺旋/helically螺旋形的/ helicopter直升飞机Contra-flexure反向弯曲/ parabolic curve抛物曲线Uplift隆起的Wobble摆动/ twist扭转;扭弯;旋转/ spall破碎Case事实，实例，案件/ Encase装箱Increment增加;增加量;增额Slack松弛的,不紧的;不严的Pressure gauge压力表/ load cell负载单元/ stretcher担架/ dynamometer动力计;力量计;握力计Dead end 尽头;困境/ stressing end强调结束Elongation measurement伸长测量法Spliced strand拼接链Tendon筋腱、预应力钢索、钢筋束Inject注射/ eject 逐出,轰出；喷射,吐出/ injection /ejectionVent通风孔,排气孔/ slut邋遢女子/ inlet valve入口阀Unit 6 Measuring Technology and Equipment测量技术及设备A. Technical termsSurvey测量/ surveyor测量员Horizontal/vertical/plumb/slope/ plan/plane垂直/水平/垂直/倾斜/计划/飞机Elevation高程Odometer 测距仪Circumference 圆周;周长/ circle圆/ circulate流通；传播/ circular 圆Tape带子,线带Tacheometry 视距测量Stadia 视距Theodolite /transit 经纬仪Rod 测杆、标尺Telescope望远镜Topographic survey地形测量Topographic mapping地形测绘Hydrographic mapping水文图Electronic distance measurement(EDM)电子距离测量Terrain地形;地势Electromagnetic电磁(体)的Velocity/speed速度/速度Band传送带；带,细绳Infrared/ ultraviolet 红外/紫外Module/ modulate模块/调节Passive/ active/ positive/ negative 被动/主动/积极/消极Perpendicular/ parallel 垂直/平行Clinometer / abney 测斜仪/水准仪Sextant六分仪/ sexagesimal 六十分数Compass界线;周围,圆规Protractor 量角器Unit 8 The Subgrade Design and Construction Technology路基设计与施工技术A. Technical termsUppermost / top soil 最上面/土壤Embankment / excavation路堤/挖掘Fill / cut填充/切割Foundation建立,创办；基础;基本原则Organic / inorganic / organ / organization有机/无机/机关/组织Imported soil / borrow sources进口/借用来源Dense / density / condense密/密度/凝结Moisture content含水量Classification分类;分级Differ / different / difference / differentiate不同的/不同/不同/分化Cobble / gravel / sand / silt / clay卵石/砾/砂/泥/粘土Fine grained soil细粒土Dry mass / dry matter干质量／干物质Semi-weathered半风化In-situ在原处;在原位置Infer推断Resilient modulus 回弹模量Manual 手的;手工的;用手操作的；体力的Backcalculate 反演计算Overlay覆盖;铺在...上面;镀；压倒Prototype原型;标准;模范Frost冰冻/ thaw融化,融解/ heave举起,拉起, /Guide / guidance / guideline指导/指南/指导方针Expansive soil 膨胀土Bentonitic shale 膨胀土页岩Soil modifier土壤改良剂Culvert阴沟;地下电缆管道；涵洞桥Form / formulate / formulation / formula形式/制定/公式化；规划;构想/公式Title——Highway Subgrade Construction公路路基施工1. Technical termsExcavation挖掘;开凿Borrow pit借土坑Sidestep回避Borrow ditch借沟Dispose / disposal处理/处置Surplus material剩余材料Approach接近,靠近Conforming / nonconforming material合格/不合格材料Top soil / superficial coatTurf 草皮土壤/表层stake mark危险标记subgrade edge路基边缘top of slope / foot of slope顶坡/坡脚berm 便道peg 桩facility 设施silt 泥沙,淤泥/ scour 冲刷permeable有渗透性的;可穿过的/ torrent 急流earthwork 土方量over-excavation挖blast 爆炸,爆破/ fetch soil 取土transverse 横向的;横断的;横切的/ longitudinal excavation纵向开挖hauling牵引backfill 回填self-dumper 自卸车segment / segmental部分；线段side wall侧壁rock filling填石/ borrow filling 借方填筑compaction machine压实机/ rolling passes碾压cut off切断;中断provided 以...为条件;假如(that)bench长凳;长椅；法官席;法官;法庭tamp / tamper 夯具Unit 9 Pavement Design and Construction Technology 路面设计与施工技术A. Technical termsSkid / skidding 打滑/集材/拖曳Free-draining自由排水Standing water站在水Imported/treated material进口/处理材料Platform平台,台Bound/unbound material绑定/绑定材料Bitumen-based material沥青基材料Unbound granular material松散颗粒材料Ingress入口Regular / Regularity /regulate定期/规律/调节Permeable / impermeable / permeability 渗透/渗透/渗透impermeability不渗透性Texture组织,结构,质地Tolerance忍耐,忍耐力；宽容,宽大Deep-seated 根深蒂固/由来已久/顽固的Remedy / remedial / diagnose药物/治疗/诊断Propagate / Propagation / propaganda路床面宣传/传播/宣传Formation 形态,结构Deem 认为Clear-cut 轮廓鲜明的/ 清晰的/ 皆伐Onset 开始Design life设计寿命Roadwork道路工程Discount折扣;打折扣1. Technical termsMacadam碎石Impetus 动力/推动Rubble瓦砾Avenue / street / road 路/街/路Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA) 沥青玛蹄脂碎石混合料Sprayer喷雾器Gritting machine 铺砂机Mixing plant搅拌设备Spreader散布者；(涂奶油用的)奶油刀Paver摊铺机Roller 滚动物;滚柱;滚筒;滚轴Road binder道路粘合剂Guss asphalt/concrete 摊铺地沥青/混凝土Stone quarry 采石场Wear and tear磨损Unit 10 Highway Alignment Design 公路线形设计A. Technical termsHorizontal/vertical alignment水平/垂直对齐Configuration. 结构;表面配置Safe operating speed安全操作速度Sight distance视距Highway capacity / traffic volume公路容量/交通量tangent正切;切线Superelevation 超高Rate of grade change速度等级变化Horizontal/vertical curve 水平/垂直曲线criteria(判断、批评的)标准,准则,尺度simple circular curve简单的圆曲线spiral transition curve 螺旋缓和曲线compound curve 复合曲线sharp curve锐曲线sharp/slight curvature 急剧的；锋利的;尖的/轻微弯曲swept path扫路centerline. 中线runoff决赛;终投票outline外形;轮廓minimum curve radii最小曲线半径long / length / lengthen长/长度/延长reverse curve 反向曲线superelevation transition超高过渡providing / provided (that) 假如…urban / suburban / rural城市/郊区/农村stopping/passing sight distance停止/超车视距multiple decision point多个决策点sight line瞄准线middle ordinate 中距/正矢no-passing zone禁区1. Technical termsGrade line分数线Crest/sag vertical curve嵴/凹形竖曲线Auxiliary lane辅助车道Maximum/minimum grade最高/最低等级Detrimental有害的warp使变形;使弯曲;Standpoint观点Climbing lane爬坡车道Offset补偿;抵消Ramp exit gore匝道出口高尔Headlight beam前照灯光束Encroach侵犯Ponding water积水Water table地下水位Pavement box路面盒Prism棱柱(体),角柱(体)Balance point平衡点Unit 14 Bridge Introduction 桥梁简介A. Technical termsPipeline / cycle track / pedestrian管道/周期轨道/行人Superstructure / substructure上层建筑/结构Single storey building单层建筑物Handrail扶手/ guardstone守护石Bearing 关系,关联；举止,风度;体态Plan view平面视图Pier墩,墩/abutment桥墩;桥基;桥台；毗邻;接界处/wingwall翼墙/approach接近,靠近/apron 裙板Rivetment 固结Masonry石造工程;石造建筑Retaining wall挡土墙Subsoil / Earthfill地基/填土Well foundation 井筒基础Footpath小径,(乡间)小路Parapet wall 栏杆、女儿墙Topple 倾覆Buckle 受弯屈服Arch bridge 拱桥/Three Gorge三峡/ span墩距;跨度slab bridge / 板桥T-beam T梁bow string girder bridge 弓弦梁桥suspension bridge吊桥Cable-stayed bridge斜拉桥steel bridge桥梁钢rainbow bridge彩虹桥Niagara river 尼亚加拉河Shutter百叶窗;活动遮板Head room头部空间Tie beam系梁Thrust用力推；刺；插;塞;挤出(路)Arch rib 拱肋Suspender / stay吊带/保持Tower塔;塔楼;高楼Orthotropic deck正交异性桥面Continuous girder连续梁Three-dimensional三维Stiffening girder加劲梁Transverse/longitudinal/radial bracing横向/纵向/径向支撑Moment of inertia转动惯量Truss bridge桁架桥Rigid frame bridge刚构桥Axial force轴向力Portal frame门架Clearance清除,清扫;出空；空地;空隙Spandrel braced arch 腹拱、肩拱Trussed arch桁架拱桥1. Technical termsInclement恶劣的Investigation / FBI调查/调查局Reconnaissance侦察;勘察;事先考查Feasibility可行性;可能性Right angle直角Erosion侵蚀;腐蚀Whirl / cross current / scour旋转/交叉电流/冲刷render给予,提供；使得,使成为inerodable strata地层High Flood Level(HFL)高水位Discharge排出(液体,气体等)；允许...离开;释放;解雇Waterway航道Pier thickness桥墩厚度High flood大洪水Current meter电流表Velocity rod流速杆Free board自由板Catchment area汇水盆地,汇水区域Watershed转折点;关键时刻；流域Boring 钻孔、钻探Rainfall降雨,下雨;降雨量Span墩距;跨度Culvert涵洞桥Ordinary Flood Level(OFL)普通洪水水位Low Water Level(LWL)低水位Afflux 雍水Head room头部空间Viaduct 高架桥Trestled bent栈桥弯曲Causeway 漫水桥Submersible潜水Cross-drainage横向排水Temporary/ permanent bridge临时/永久性桥Deck/through/semi-through bridge上/下/中承式桥Formation 建造、路床面Pony小马；小型的东西Headway进展Vertical lift bridge 垂直升降桥Bascule bridge开合式桥Swing bridge 旋开式桥Box/pipe/arch culvert盒/管/拱涵Cast iron铸铁;生铁Bearing capacity承载能力Earth cushion地垫Unit 15 Bridge Superstructure桥梁上部结构A. Technical termsWeight limit重量限制supplier供应者Span Arrangement跨径布置Bridge Project Manager大桥项目经理Redundant多余的,过剩的specification 规格;明细单;详细计划书Fracture critical骨折的关键Collapse倒塌；崩溃,瓦解Ability / Inability能力/能力Bolt螺栓stringer纵梁;纵桁span / single-span / multi-span跨度/单跨/连栋continuous spans连续跨越steel/concrete superstructure bridge钢筋混凝土桥梁rolled beam 辊压梁cover plate盖板welded plate girder焊接板梁box girder 箱梁truss扎,捆,缚,绑；用构架支撑cable stayed斜拉tied arch 系杆拱桥vertical/inclined web垂直/斜腹板top/bottom flange plate顶部/底部法兰盘hollow rectangular/trapezoidal section空心的矩形/梯形截面aesthetics美学torsional resistance扭阻力curved bridge曲线桥stringer / floor beam斯特林格/地板梁top/bottom chord顶部/底部和弦vertical/diagonal member垂直/斜成员lateral/sway bracing侧/斜撑axial load/force轴向载荷/力量concrete deck / steel girder混凝土桥面/钢大梁Box beam箱梁Strongback定位板Fabricate / fabrication / fabricator制造/生产/制造Balanced cantilever平衡悬臂Strain gage应变计Homogeneity / non-homogeneity 均匀/非均匀性Erratic 不定、无规律的Deflection偏斜;偏向;挠曲;偏度;挠度Mid-span / middle span / side span跨中/ 中跨/ 边跨Yield出产;结出(果实);产生(效果,收益等)Non-linearity非线性的Prescribe规定,指定Limiting strain极限应变flexure弯曲;弯曲部分,曲率neutral axis中性轴centroid距心lever arm杠杆臂resultant compression/tension/force/load由此产生的压缩/拉伸/ /载荷equivalent stress block等效应力块investigation / FBI调查/调查局under-reinforced / over-reinforced少筋/ 超筋stress intensity应力强度product产品,产物;产量;出产nomenclature学术用语;术语表Unit 16 Bridge Substructure桥梁下部结构A. Technical termsCap-and column type pier柱式墩帽Strut 支撑、加固T-type pierT型Hammerhead pier锤头码头Taper逐渐减少;逐渐变弱Rectangular/oval column矩形或椭圆柱Wall type pier墙式墩Strut and tie model拉压杆模型footing(稳固的)地位;基础single column/multi-column单/多列concentrated load集中荷载wall abutment墙台caisson 沉箱gutter 槽stepped/terraced wall configuration加强/梯田壁配置stub abutment直式桥台integral abutment整体式桥台wingwall 翼墙bridge seat 桥座backwall 背墙stem柄,把,杆approach slab 搭板contour轮廓;轮廓线；外形;结构1. Technical termsSpread footing扩展基础Cofferdam 围堰Negative skin friction / downdrag force负摩/下拉荷载力Friction pile摩擦桩End bearing pile端承桩Drilled caisson钻孔灌注Constructibility可构成性Embedment嵌入Casing箱;盒Confinement curbing约束控制Wire mesh basket 网笼Gabion 枝条筐streambed河床Unit 20 ——Construction Management and Cost Estimate 施工组织与概预算A. Technical termsSchedule 进度表Event / task / action /activity活动/任务/行动/活动Ultimate disposition 最后安排Expense / expenditure / cost费用/费用/成本Recast重铸Uncertainty不确定;不确信;易变;不可靠Production rate / productivity生产效率/生产力Gantt chart / bar chart甘特图表/图表Superimpose叠加Critical Path Method (CPM)关键路径法Critical task关键任务Logic diagram逻辑图Superintendent监督人,监管者Activity-on-the-arrow (AOA)活动箭Activity-on-the-node (AON)节点活动Dummy activity 虚拟工序Early start time / late start time开始时间早/晚开始时间Early finish time / late finish time最早完成时间/最晚完成时间Double line / bold line / color highlighted line / dash line双行线/颜色/大胆突出线/虚线Float / total float / free float 浮动/总时差/自由浮动interfering float 时差Preceding activity / succeeding activity前面的活动/后继活动Title——Construction Cost Estimate 建筑成本预算1. Technical termsBreakdown故障,损坏,崩溃;破裂Parameter / parametric参数/参数Direct/indirect cost直接/间接成本Finance / budget财务/预算Craftman钱包Scheme / schematic计划/方案Unit cost/price单位成本/价格Lump sum总金额Site visit网站访问Checklist核对用的清单Take-off脱下;移去；起飞；休假Overhead / profit / bond费用/利润/债券Escalation / contingence升级/偶然Shift 转移;替换,推卸Craft行业,职业Ownership and operating cost所有权和经营成本Dozer / bulldozer推土机/推土机Vendor 卖主Tax税;税金Markup 售价Similarity / dissimilarity相似/相异Unit 21 Tendering and Contract 投标与合同A. Technical termsTender敏感的,嫩的;柔软的；温柔的,体贴的Bid / bidder招标投标Agreement同意,一致；协定,协议Bond结合力;联结,联系Insurance保险;保险契约Makeup补足；编造；组成Owner / architect / designer / supplier / party业主/建筑师/设计师/供应商/派对Public agency / private company公共部门/私营公司Responsibility职责,任务;义务,负担General/special/technical provision一般/特殊/技术discretion判断力;辨别力；谨慎,考虑周到addenda补遗;追加；附加物Title——Types of construction contracts and bonds建筑合同和担保的类型1. Technical termsNegotiation / renegotiation协商/谈判Arctic / Antarctic北极/南极Cost plus a fixed fee成本加固定费用Cost plus a percentage成本加百分比Incentive刺激;鼓励;动机Thrifty 节约Innovation革新,改革,创新Compensate补偿,赔偿;酬报Procure 获得、实施Popular / popularity / population流行/流行/人口Recoup 收回surety / obligee担保/债权人forfeiture 没收、罚金penal / penalty刑法/处罚underwrite / constraint认购/约束default 违约option选择;选择权;选择自由lien 扣留权、留置权。

中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Bridge research in EuropeA brief outline is given of the development of the European Union, together with the research platform in Europe. The special case of post-tensioned bridges in the UK is discussed. In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio: relating to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges using digital impulse radar.IntroductionThe challenge in any research arena is to harness the findings of different research groups to identify a coherent mass of data, which enables research and practice to be better focused. A particular challenge exists with respect to Europe where language barriers are inevitably very significant. The European Community was formed in the 1960s based upon a political will within continental Europe to avoid the European civil wars, which developed into World War 2 from 1939 to 1945. The strong political motivation formed the original community of which Britain was not a member. Many of the continental countries saw Britain’s interest as being purelyeconomic. The 1970s saw Britain joining what was then the European Economic Community (EEC) and the 1990s has seen the widening of the community to a European Union, EU, with certain political goals together with the objective of a common European currency.Notwithstanding these financial and political developments, civil engineering and bridge engineering in particular have found great difficulty in forming any kind of common thread. Indeed the educational systems for University training are quite different between Britain and the European continental countries. The formation of the EU funding schemes —e.g. Socrates, Brite Euram and other programs have helped significantly. The Socrates scheme is based upon the exchange of students between Universities in different member states. The Brite Euram scheme has involved technical research grants given to consortia of academics and industrial partners within a number of the states— a Brite Euram bid would normally be led by an industrialist.In terms of dissemination of knowledge, two quite different strands appear to have emerged. The UK and the USA have concentrated primarily upon disseminating basic research in refereed journal publications: ASCE, ICE and other journals. Whereas the continental Europeans have frequently disseminated basic research at conferences where the circulation of the proceedings is restricted.Additionally, language barriers have proved to be very difficult to break down. In countries where English is a strong second language there has been enthusiastic participation in international conferences based within continental Europe —e.g. Germany, Italy, Belgium, The Netherlands and Switzerland. However, countries where English is not a strong second language have been hesitant participants }—e.g. France.European researchExamples of research relating to bridges in Europe can be divided into three types of structure:Masonry arch bridgesBritain has the largest stock of masonry arch bridges. In certain regions of the UK up to 60% of the road bridges are historic stone masonry arch bridges originally constructed for horse drawn traffic. This is less common in other parts of Europe as many of these bridges were destroyed during World War 2.Concrete bridgesA large stock of concrete bridges was constructed during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. At the time, these structures were seen as maintenance free. Europe also has a large number of post-tensioned concrete bridges with steel tendon ducts preventing radar inspection. This is a particular problem in France and the UK.Steel bridgesSteel bridges went out of fashion in the UK due to their need for maintenance as perceived in the 1960s and 1970s. However, they have been used for long span and rail bridges, and they are now returning to fashion for motorway widening schemes in the UK.Research activity in EuropeIt gives an indication certain areas of expertise and work being undertaken in Europe, but is by no means exhaustive.In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio. The example relates to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges, using digital impulse radar.Post-tensioned concrete rail bridge analysisOve Arup and Partners carried out an inspection and assessment of the superstructure of a 160 m long post-tensioned, segmental railway bridge in Manchester to determine its load-carrying capacity prior to a transfer of ownership, for use in the Metrolink light rail system..Particular attention was paid to the integrity of its post-tensioned steel elements. Physical inspection, non-destructive radar testing and other exploratory methods were used to investigate for possible weaknesses in the bridge.Since the sudden collapse of Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge in Wales, UK in 1985, there has been concern about the long-term integrity of segmental, post-tensioned concrete bridges which may b e prone to ‘brittle’ failure without warning. The corrosion protection of the post-tensioned steel cables, where they pass through joints between the segments, has been identified as a major factor affecting the long-term durability and consequent strength of this type of bridge. The identification of voids in grouted tendon ducts at vulnerable positions is recognized as an important step in the detection of such corrosion.Description of bridgeGeneral arrangementBesses o’ th’ Barn Bridge is a 160 m long, three span, segmental, post-tensionedconcrete railway bridge built in 1969. The main span of 90 m crosses over both the M62 motorway and A665 Bury to Prestwick Road. Minimum headroom is 5.18 m from the A665 and the M62 is cleared by approx 12.5 m.The superstructure consists of a central hollow trapezoidal concrete box section 6.7 m high and 4 m wide. The majority of the south and central spans are constructed using 1.27 m long pre-cast concrete trapezoidal box units, post-tensioned together. This box section supports the in site concrete transverse cantilever slabs at bottom flange level, which carry the rail tracks and ballast.The center and south span sections are of post-tensioned construction. These post-tensioned sections have five types of pre-stressing:1. Longitudinal tendons in grouted ducts within the top and bottom flanges.2. Longitudinal internal draped tendons located alongside the webs. These are deflected at internal diaphragm positions and are encased in in site concrete.3. Longitudinal macalloy bars in the transverse cantilever slabs in the central span .4. Vertical macalloy bars in the 229 mm wide webs to enhance shear capacity.5. Transverse macalloy bars through the bottom flange to support the transverse cantilever slabs.Segmental constructionThe pre-cast segmental system of construction used for the south and center span sections was an alternative method proposed by the contractor. Current thinking suggests that such a form of construction can lead to ‘brittle’ failure of the ent ire structure without warning due to corrosion of tendons across a construction joint，The original design concept had been for in site concrete construction.Inspection and assessmentInspectionInspection work was undertaken in a number of phases and was linked with the testing required for the structure. The initial inspections recorded a number of visible problems including:Defective waterproofing on the exposed surface of the top flange.Water trapped in the internal space of the hollow box with depths up to 300 mm.Various drainage problems at joints and abutments.Longitudinal cracking of the exposed soffit of the central span.Longitudinal cracking on sides of the top flange of the pre-stressed sections.Widespread sapling on some in site concrete surfaces with exposed rusting reinforcement.AssessmentThe subject of an earlier paper, the objectives of the assessment were:Estimate the present load-carrying capacity.Identify any structural deficiencies in the original design.Determine reasons for existing problems identified by the inspection.Conclusion to the inspection and assessmentFollowing the inspection and the analytical assessment one major element of doubt still existed. This concerned the condition of the embedded pre-stressing wires, strands, cables or bars. For the purpose of structural analysis these elements、had been assumed to be sound. However, due to the very high forces involved,、a risk to the structure, caused by corrosion to these primary elements, was identified.The initial recommendations which completed the first phase of the assessment were:1. Carry out detailed material testing to determine the condition of hidden structural elements, in particularthe grouted post-tensioned steel cables.2. Conduct concrete durability tests.3. Undertake repairs to defective waterproofing and surface defects in concrete.Testing proceduresNon-destructi v e radar testingDuring the first phase investigation at a joint between pre-cast deck segments the observation of a void in a post-tensioned cable duct gave rise to serious concern about corrosion and the integrity of the pre-stress. However, the extent of this problem was extremely difficult to determine. The bridge contains 93 joints with an average of 24 cables passing through each joint, i.e. there were approx. 2200 positions where investigations could be carried out. A typical section through such a joint is that the 24 draped tendons within the spine did not give rise to concern because these were protected by in site concrete poured without joints after the cables had been stressed.As it was clearly impractical to consider physically exposing all tendon/joint intersections, radar was used to investigate a large numbers of tendons and hence locate duct voids within a modest timescale. It was fortunate that the corrugated steel ducts around the tendons were discontinuous through the joints which allowed theradar to detect the tendons and voids. The problem, however, was still highly complex due to the high density of other steel elements which could interfere with the radar signals and the fact that the area of interest was at most 102 mm wide and embedded between 150 mm and 800 mm deep in thick concrete slabs.Trial radar investigations.Three companies were invited to visit the bridge and conduct a trial investigation. One company decided not to proceed. The remaining two were given 2 weeks to mobilize, test and report. Their results were then compared with physical explorations.To make the comparisons, observation holes were drilled vertically downwards into the ducts at a selection of 10 locations which included several where voids were predicted and several where the ducts were predicted to be fully grouted. A 25-mm diameter hole was required in order to facilitate use of the chosen horoscope. The results from the University of Edinburgh yielded an accuracy of around 60%.Main radar sur v ey, horoscope verification of v oids.Having completed a radar survey of the total structure, a baroscopic was then used to investigate all predicted voids and in more than 60% of cases this gave a clear confirmation of the radar findings. In several other cases some evidence of honeycombing in the in site stitch concrete above the duct was found.When viewing voids through the baroscopic, however, it proved impossible to determine their actual size or how far they extended along the tendon ducts although they only appeared to occupy less than the top 25% of the duct diameter. Most of these voids, in fact, were smaller than the diameter of the flexible baroscopic being used (approximately 9 mm) and were seen between the horizontal top surface of the grout and the curved upper limit of the duct. In a very few cases the tops of the pre-stressing strands were visible above the grout but no sign of any trapped water was seen. It was not possible, using the baroscopic, to see whether those cables were corroded.Digital radar testingThe test method involved exciting the joints using radio frequency radar antenna: 1 GHz, 900 MHz and 500 MHz. The highest frequency gives the highest resolution but has shallow depth penetration in the concrete. The lowest frequency gives the greatest depth penetration but yields lower resolution.The data collected on the radar sweeps were recorded on a GSSI SIR System 10.This system involves radar pulsing and recording. The data from the antenna is transformed from an analogue signal to a digital signal using a 16-bit analogue digital converter giving a very high resolution for subsequent data processing. The data is displayed on site on a high-resolution color monitor. Following visual inspection it is then stored digitally on a 2.3-gigabyte tape for subsequent analysis and signal processing. The tape first of all records a ‘header’ noting the digital radar settings together with the trace number prior to recording the actual data. When the data is played back, one is able to clearly identify all the relevant settings —making for accurate and reliable data reproduction.At particular locations along the traces, the trace was marked using a marker switch on the recording unit or the antenna.All the digital records were subsequently downloaded at the University’s NDT laboratory on to a micro-computer.（The raw data prior to processing consumed 35 megabytes of digital data.）Post-processing was undertaken using sophisticated signal processing software. Techniques available for the analysis include changing the color transform and changing the scales from linear to a skewed distribution in order to highlight、突出certain features. Also, the color transforms could be changed to highlight phase changes. In addition to these color transform facilities, sophisticated horizontal and vertical filtering procedures are available. Using a large screen monitor it is possible to display in split screens the raw data and the transformed processed data. Thus one is able to get an accurate indication of the processing which has taken place. The computer screen displays the time domain calibrations of the reflected signals on the vertical axis.A further facility of the software was the ability to display the individual radar pulses as time domain wiggle plots. This was a particularly valuable feature when looking at individual records in the vicinity of the tendons.Interpretation of findingsA full analysis of findings is given elsewhere, Essentially the digitized radar plots were transformed to color line scans and where double phase shifts were identified in the joints, then voiding was diagnosed.Conclusions1. An outline of the bridge research platform in Europe is given.2. The use of impulse radar has contributed considerably to the level of confidence in the assessment of the Besses o’ th’ Barn Rail Bridge.3. The radar investigations revealed extensive voiding within the post-tensioned cable ducts. However, no sign of corrosion on the stressing wires had been found except for the very first investigation.欧洲桥梁研究欧洲联盟共同的研究平台诞生于欧洲联盟。

外文文献structural Design of Asphalt Pavement for Low Cost Rural RoadsYuan Goulin(袁国林)1'2' Chen Rongshen(陈荣生)1. College of Transportation, Southeast University, Nanjing 210b9b, China2. College of Civil Engineering, Nanjing University of Technology, Nanjing 210009, ChinaIn developing countries，rural road construction is mostly cumbered by shortage of funds. Engineers concerns most in rural areas is how to build roads which not only cost less but also meet the traffic demands. Especially in vast rural areas of China, there are a great variety of transportation patterns, and the traffic composition is very complex. Compared with other countries，the traffic composition in China rural areas have its own features. Therefore，there is no experience about the rural roads construction for reference. In recent years，the central government of China has increased the strength for rural road construction. At the same time，a lot of researches about rural road construction have been done by researchers in China, and some conclusions about china rural roads have been made. In the authors' opinion，the selection of the pavement structure material is the key measure to reduce the construction cost of rural roads after the route has been determined. Compared with concrete pavement，asphalt pavement relatively costs less and is the first choice for rural roads in China. And then，according to the research achievements about rural roads construction，the authors have done some preliminary researches on the structure design for low-cost asphalt pavements for rural roads.1 Traffic Composition of Rural RoadRural roads include county roads，town roads and village roads.The traffic on rural roads is usually mixed. On a county road, traffic volume is between 300 to 1500 veh/d in average，and in a county with a developed economy，it reaches 1000 to 2 000 veh/d. The traffic volume between county and town is 100 to 300 veh/d，and the traffic volume between towns is usually less than 100 to 300 veh/d. In a mixed traffic flow，trucksaccount for 40% to 70% of the traffic volume, which are mainly light trucks carrying less than 2. 5 tons(including agricultural vehicles such as electro-tricycles，walking tractors etc.)and medium-size trucks of 2. 5 to 5 tons. Most of these light or medium trucks are overloaded. The proportion of heavy truck is less than 9%.On some roads to counties，the proportion of overloaded trucks is 5% to 32 %，while on some county roads connecting to national or provincial trunk highways，the proportion of overloaded vehicles usually amounts to 20% to 32% .The traffic volume on rural roads is not heavy. However，considering the practical situation in China, as well as the exitence of overloaded vehicles，100kN，or BZZ-100 was adopted as standard axle load in the research.The pavement deflection or the flexural-tensile stress at the bottom of asphalt surface is taken as the design parameter. The axle load was calculated in和-the axle weight of an i-level axle in kN and the action frequency;-the axle weight of standard axle in 100 kN and the action frequency;If the distance between axles is less than 3 m，axle loads are calculated asa double-axle or multi-axle loads，andIf the flexural-tensile stress at the bottom of semi-rigid base is taken as the design parameter, the axle load is calculated in accordance with the following formula:If the distance between axles is less than 3m，2 Traffic Volume on Rural RoadsMinibuses are adopted as the standard vehicle for the design of rural roads.Table 1 shows its external dimensions.Table 1 External dimensions of the passenger car mLength Width Height Front overhang Distance between axles Rear overhang6.0 1.8 2.0 0.8 3.8 1.4The typical vehicle types on rural roads are listed in Table 2. And others such as non-power-driven vehicles ，animal-drawn vehicles ，and bicycles can be taken into account in the calculation of traffic volume on rural roads ，in view of their roadside interference.In accordance with the traffic composition and volumes ，rural roads are divided into five grades. The traffic volume of each grade is shown in Table 3. Traffic volume specified in Table 3 was obtained by taking the minibus as the standard vehicle type,and converting different types vehicles according to the vehicle conversion coefficients given in Table 2.In Table 3，()[]ηγγ11365-+=t s e N NNe refers to the cumulative equivalent axle load action frequency;Ns refers to the equivalent axle load action frequency in the designed traffic lane in the beginning operation period of rural roads;y refers to the average annual growth rate of traffic volume;η refers to lane coefficient, and 1.0 for a single lane and 0. 6一0. 7 for a dual lane.3 Strength of RoadbedThe modulus of resilience of roadbed varies greatly. For convenience ，the strength of roadbed can be divided into four classes according to its moisture content and modulus of resilience ，as shown in Table 4.The parameters in Table 5 are determined by combining design principles with practical experience. By applying elastic multilayer theory to the pavement structure specified in Table 5，the influence of Ne on the pavement thickness of rural roads was analyzed ，and the result show that for given h ，h2，E0，the roadbase thickness for neighboring traffic classes changes in a range of 4-5 cm. This result indicates that the classification of traffic volume on rural roads shown in Table 3 is reasonable and feasible in terms of the design and construction of asphalt pavement structures.By using the elastic multilayer theory，the asphalt pavement structure of ordinary rural road in Table 5 is analyzed. When Ne，the cumulative equivalent axle load action frequency，the thickness of road surface(h =3 cm)，and the thickness of subbase(h2 = 20 cm ) remain the same , the influence of neighboring roadbed strength classifications on the thickness of roadbase is 3 cm一5 cm. This conclusion indicates that the strength classification of roadbed is reasonable and applicable to the design and construction of asphalt pavement structure.4 Determination of Thicknesses of Asphalt Pavement Structure Sensitivity analysis of the design parameters of roadbed and pavement structures is to find out the relationship between structural strength of asphalt pavement structure and the design parameters of each layer, and determine the most sensitive layer in the pavement structure. The asphalt pavement structure of rural roads is generally composed of a road surface, a roadbase，and a subbase，as shown in Table 6. The pavement structure was analyzed according to elastic multiplayer theory under the double circular uniform load，with an assumption that there is continuous contact between the adjacent layers of the asphalt pavement structure. The basic parameters used in the calculation and analysis of asphalt pavement structure are listed in Table 7. By analyzing the effects of the change of all the parameters of pavement structure on the distortion of the road surface，roadbase，and roadbed , the following conclusions have been drawn.(1)Increasing the thickness of the road surface effectively decreases the road surface deflection，but raises the cost. The comparatively economical and effective method is to increase the thickness of the subbase, which is superior to increasing the thickness of roadbase，while increasing the thickness of the road surface is the last choice.(2)As the thickness of pavement structure increases，the change of road surface deflection will trend to be gentle. When the thickness of road surface reaches a certain value，the variance in the road surface deflection will not be obvious，and then it is ineffective to enhance the bearing capacity of asphalt pavement structure by increasing the thickness of road surface. It is recommended that the thicknesses of the roadbase and the subbase should be equal to or largerthan 18 and 20 cm, respectively，in design of asphalt pavement structures of rural roads. Fig. 1 shows the effects of the changes in the thickness of each layer on road surface deflection.(3)Road surface deflection is very sensitive to the change of modulus of the roadbed. The increase in the modulus of roadbase or subbase is also effective to decrease the deflection of the road surface. On the other hand，the deflection of the road surface decreases gradually when the modulus of the surface increases，being the least effective factor. When the modulus of the road surface increases to a certain value，decrease in road surface deflection is not apparent. Fig. 2 shows the effect of the modulus of each layer on road surface deflection. From the above discussion，we conclude that the most sensitive layer for road surface deflection is subbase，and the next is roadbase. To decrease the road surface deflection of low-cost rural roads，the strength and stability of the roadbed should be enhanced, and the materials with a certain thickness and relatively high density should be used to pave the subbase.The traffic volume or the accumulative equivalent axle load action times(frequency)within the designed life of road is used to determine the type and thickness of the asphalt pavement road surface, and the results are listed in Table 8，where veh/d means the number of the equivalent the passenger cars per day.For a low traffic volume rural road with Ne 500 000，graded broken stones(or gravel)can be used as a flexible base. The flexible base has good strength and effectively prevents reflection cracks of the asphalt pavement road surface, provided the graded broken stones(or gravel ) meets the requirements for high density(degree of compaction ,100%. To ensure the sufficient strength and stability of the flexible base，its thickness is not less than 15 cm，the thickness of the aggregate subbase is not less than 20 cm，A semi-rigid base usually has a good bearing capacity For the rural roads with Ne)500 000，or those with low traffic volumes but relatively,the minimum thickness of semirigid base or subbase is 16-18 cm5 Calculation of the Thickness of Road Surface5.1 Deflection(1)Road surface deflectionRoad surface deflection is a vertical distortion caused by vertical load on the road surface. It not only reflects the whole strength and stiffness of asphalt pavement structure and roadbed，but also has a close internal relation with the service condition of the pavement.(2)Design deflectionThe design deflection is the index representing the stiffness of the pavement structure. It is also the deflection of the pavement which is established according to the accumulative equivalent axle load estimated to pass over a lane in the expected design life, road types, road classification，and the types of road surface and roadbase. The design deflection is not only the main basis for the design thickness of the pavement structure，but also the necessary index for the examination and acceptance of the project. Through theoretical analysis and experimental study，formulas for the design deflection value which are applicable to the pavement structure design of lowcost rural roads are as follows:semi-rigid base:flexible base:where A, is the type coefficient of the road surface. The type coefficient of asphalt concrete road surface is 1.0;that of hot-mix asphalt macadam and that of emulsified asphalt macadam road surface are all 1. 1; and that of asphalt surface treatment road surface is1 .2.(3)Allowable deflectionAllowable deflection is the maximum deflectionallowed at the end of the road's service life under lim-iting conditions in poor season. Through thoreticalanalysis and experimental study，the calculation for-mulas for the allowable deflection of road surfacewhich are applicable to the pavement structure designof low-cost rural roads are as follows}2}:When designing the asphalt pavement structure of low-cost rural roads, we should use formula (6) or (7 ) according to the types of roadbase to determine the thickness of asphalt pavement structure.5.2 Tensile stressBecause the asphalt pavement structure of lowcost rural roads is not substantial enough and the heavy vehicles are allowed to pass over them, the maximum tensile stress should be checked by computing the stresses of the semi-rigid base and subbase. The tensile stress at the bottom of semi-rigid base or subbase，would be less than or equivalent to the allowable tensile stress of the materials of the semirigid base or subbase , namely，For the stabilized aggregate base with an inorganic binder-For the stabilized fine-grained soil base with an inorganic binder:5.3 Pavement thicknessTo make it simple and convenient for engineers to determine the desired thickness of rural road pavement, the curves of the thickness of the roadbase of low-cost rural roads according to typical pavement structures and accumulative frequency of equivalent axle load are shown in Figs. 3，4 and 5.(1)When the accumulative frequency of equivalent axle load is within 500000 times per lane，asphalttreated or asphalt penetrated surfaces with thickness of 1. 5 cm一cm is recommended for road surface. For various accumulative equivalent axle loads and the moduli(Eo)of roadbed，the equivalent thickness of roadbase is shown in Fig. 3.(2)When the accumulative frequency of equivalent axle load is within 500 001)一1 000 000 times per lane，asphalt macadam or asphalt concrete with thickness of 3 cm -5 cm is recommended. For various accumulative equivalent axle loads and moduli(Eo)of roadbed，the equivalent thickness of roadbase is shown in Fig. 4.(3)When the accumulative frequency of equivalent axle load is within 1000 000-2 000 000 times per lane，asphalt concrete road surface of 5 cm-7 cm thick is recommended. For various accumulative equivalent axle loads and moduli(Eo)of roadbed , the equivalent thickness of roadbase is shown in Fig.S.In Figs.3-5，Ld is the designed deflection, Lo is the representative deflection of roadbed，E, is the modulus of resilience of the roadbase，in MPa , Eo is the modulus of resilience of the roadbed，in MPa ,and H, in cm，is the equivalent thickness of the base (roadbase and subbase)，which can be obtained through calculation and in-site investigation for a trilevel-pavement roads(including road surface，base and roadbed).If a designed road has four layers，i.e. a subbase is added，according to the regression analysis of the extrapolated results of a number of multi-layer flexible systems and the available research findings，the thickness of the roadbase , h,，in cm, can be calculated from the following equation:6 Concluding RemarksCompared with concrete pavement, asphalt pavements have a lower construction cost, which is suitable for the roads in relatively underdeveloped rural areas in China. The research in this paper proposed a method for structural design of low cost asphalt pavements. The method is to provide an guideline for the design of asphalt pavement structure in rural areas.References[1]Yuan G L , Zhang F , Chen S W , et al. Research on technical indexes of rural highway construction in Jiangsu province [ J ].Highway, 2005(6):135一139(in Chinese).[ 2 ] Research Institute of Highway , the Ministry of Communications. Final Report on Low Cost Inter-township and Rural Road Construction Techniques〔R].Beijing; Resdarch Institute of Highway, 2003(in Chinese). [ 3 ] Liu Q Q. How to reduce the construction cost of the rural highway [ J ] .Journal of Highway and Transportation Research and Development, 2005(2):41一44(in Chinese).[ 4 ] JTG B014-97. Specification for design of highway asphaltpavement[ S ](in Chinese ).[ 5 ] JTG BO1-2003. Technical Standard of Highway Engineering [ S ](in Chinese).[6] Deng X J. Engineering for sub-grade and pavement[ M].2nd ed. Beijing; People's Communications Press, Beijing, 2004(in Chinese ).中文译文沥青路面结构设计的低成本农村道路袁国林1，陈荣生21。

Design of reinforced concrete bridgesP. Jackson Giord and PartnersThe shortest span reinforced concrete decks are built as solid slabs. These may be supported on bearings although, due to durability issues with expansion joints and bearings, it is usually preferable to cast them integral with in-situ abutments or place them as part of pre cast box culverts. As the span increases, the optimum form of construction changes to voided slab or beam and slab then box girder bridges. Open spandrel arches enable relatively long spans, more commonly built in steel or prestressed concrete, to be built efficiently in reinforced concrete. Reinforced concrete is also used for deck slabs and substructures for bridges with main elements of steel or prestressed concrete. The key design criteria and checks required by codes are the same regardless of the form of construction. These are for ultimate strength in flexure, shear and torsion and for serviceability issues including crack widths and service stresses. For elements with significant live load ratios, reinforcement fatigue may sometimes also have to be checked. IntroductionMost modern small bridges are of reinforced concrete construction and nearly all modern bridges contain some elements of reinforced concrete (RC). In this chapter, the design of reinforced concrete bridge superstructures is considered and some aspects of the design criteria for reinforced concrete, which are also relevant to other reinforced concrete substructures and reinforced concrete parts of bridges with steel or prestressed main elements, are reviewed.Some specific aspects which are most often relevant to deck slabs in bridges with prestressed or steel beams will be considered in the section on beam and slab bridges.In situ reinforced concrete construction has the great advantage of simplicity; formwork is placed, reinforcement fixed and concrete poured and the structure is then com-plete. In modern practice, precast bridge elements are usually prestressed. For smaller elements, this is because pretensioning on long line beds is a convenient method of providing the steel. For larger structures, post-tensioning provides the most convenient way of fixing manageable sized elements together. The result is that, with some exceptions which will be discussed, purely reinforced concrete bridges are usually cast in situ.In the following, the various types of RC bridge are considered and the design criteria for reinforced concrete are then reviewed.Solid slab bridgesSingle spansThe solid slab is the simplest form of reinforced concrete bridge deck. Ease of construction resulting from the sim-plicity makes this the most economic type for short span structures. Solid slabs also have good distribution properties which makes them efficient at carrying concentrated movable loads such as wheel loads for highway bridges. However, above a span of around 10m the deadweight starts to become excessive, making other forms of construction more economic.Solid slab bridges can be simply supported on bearings or built into the abutments. Until recently, bridge engineers tended to be quite pedantic about providing for expansion and even bridges as short as 9m span were often provided with bearings and expansion joints. However, bearings and expansion joints have proved to be among the most troublesome components of bridges. In particular, deterior-ation of substructures due to water leaking through expan-sion joints has been common especially in bridges carrying roads where de-icing salt is used.Recently, the fashion has changed back to designing bridges that are cast integral with theabutments or bank seats (Department of Transport, 1995). Apart from the durability advantages, this can lead to saving in the deck due to the advantage of continuity. On short span bridges with relatively high abutment walls, being able to use the deck to prop the abutments can also lead to significant savings in the abutments. However, this normally depends on being able to build the deck before backfilling behind the abutments. When assumptions about construction approach such as this are made in design, it is important that they should be properly conveyed to the contractor, normally by stating them on the drawings.A feature of the design of integral bridges which has not always been appreciated is that, because the deck is not structurally isolated from the substructure, the stress state in the deck is dependent on the soil properties. This inevitably means that the analysis is less ‘accurate’than in conventional structures. Neither the normal at-rest pressure behind abutments nor the resistance to movement is ever very accurately known. It might be argued that, because of this, designs should be done for both upper and lower bounds to soil properties. In practice, this is not generally done and the design criteria used have sufficient reserve so that this does not lead to problems.Depending on the ground conditions, span and obstacle crossed, the abutments of asingle-span bridge may be separate or may be joined to form a complete box. Such box type structures have the advantage that they can be built without piles even in very poor ground, as the bearing pressure is low. Since the box structure is likely to be lighter than the displaced fill, the net bearing pressure is often negative. This can lead to problems in made ground as the embankment either side of the box may settle much more than the box, leading to problems with vertical align-ment and damage to the surfacing or rails over the bridge.RC slab bridges are normally cast in situ. An exception is very short span shallower structures (typically up to some 6m span and 3.6m clear height) which can be most eco-nomically precast effectively complete as box culverts, leav-ing only parapets and, where required, wing walls to cast in situ. This form of construction is most commonly used for conveying watercourses under embankments but can be used for footway and cycletracks.In situ construction is very convenient for greenfield sites and for crossing routes that can be diverted. It is less con-venient for crossing under or over live routes. For the latter, spanning formwork can be used if there is sufficient headroom. However, in many cases beam bridges are more convenient and the precast beams will normally be pre-stressed. RC box type structures can, however, be installed under live traffic. They can be pushed under embankments. The issues are considered by Allenby and Ropkins (2004). A reasonable amount of fill over the box is needed to do this under live traffic. The box structure is cast adjacent to its final position and then jacked into position with anti-drag ropes preventing the foundations below and the fill above moving with it. If there is not much fill depth, it becomes impractical to push the box whilst keeping a road or rail route over the top still. A similar approach can, how-ever, be used with the box cast in advance and then jacked into place in open cut over a relatively short possession.Multiple spansIn the past, some in situ multi-span slab bridges were built which were simply supported. However, unlike in bridges built from precast beams, it is no more complicated to build a continuous bridge. Indeed, because of the absence of the troublesome and leak-prone expansion joints, it may actually be simpler. It is therefore only in exceptional circumstances (for example construction in areas subject to extreme differential settlement due to mining subsidence) thatmultiple simply supported spans are now used.Making the deck continuous or building it into the abut-ments also leads to a significant reduction in the mid-span sagging moments in the slab.The advantage of this continuity in material terms is much greater than in bridges of pre-stressed beam construction where creep redistribution effects usually more than cancel out the saving in live load moments.Various approaches are possible for the piers. Either leaf piers can be used or discrete columns. Unlike in beam bridges, the latter approach needs no separate transverse beam. The necessary increase in local transverse moment capacity can be achieved by simply providing additional transverse reinforcement in critical areas. This facility makes slab bridges particularly suitable for geometrically complicated viaducts such as arise in some interchanges in urban situations. Curved decks with varying skew angles and discrete piers in apparently random locations can readily be accommodated.Whether discrete columns or leaf piers are used, they can either be provided with bearings or built into the deck. The major limitation on the latter approach is that, if the bridge is fixed in more than one position, the pier is subject to significant moments due to the thermal expansion and contraction of the deck. Unless the piers are very tall and slender, this usually precludes using the approach for more than one or two piers in a viaduct.Voided slab bridgesAbove a span of about 10–12m, the dead weight of a solid slab bridge starts to become excessive. For narrower bridges, significant weight saving can be achieved by using relatively long transverse cantilevers giving a bridge of ‘spine beam’form as shown in Figure 1. This canextend the economic span range of this type of structure to around 16m or more. Above this span, and earlier for wider bridges, a lighter form of construction is desirable.One of the commonest ways of lightening a solid slab is to use void formers of some sort. The commonest form is circular polystyrene void formers. Although polystyrene appears to be impermeable, it is only the much more expensive closed cell form which is so. The voids should therefore be provided with drainage holes at their lower ends. It is also important to ensure that the voids and reinforcement are held firmly in position in the formwork during construction. This avoids problems that have occurred with the voids floating or with the links moving to touch the void formers, giving no cover.Provided the void diameters are not more than around 60% of the slab thickness and nominal transverse steel is provided in the flanges, the bridge can be analysed much as a solidslab. That is, without considering either the reduced transverse shear stiffness or the local bending in the flanges. Unlike the previous British code, EN 1992-2 (BSI, 2005) does not give specific guidance on voided slabs. However, some is provided in the accompanying ‘PD’pub- lished by the British Standards Institution (BSI, 2008a).The section is designed longitudinally in both flexure and shear allowing for the voids. Links should be provided and these are designed as for a flanged beam with the minimum web thickness.The shear stresses are likely to become excessive near supports, particularly if discrete piers are used. However, this problem can be avoided by simply stopping the voids off, leaving a solid section in these critical areas.If more lightening is required, larger diameter voids or square voids forming a cellular deck can be used. These do then have to be considered in analysis. The longitudinal stiff-ness to be used for a cellular deck is calculated in the normal way, treating the section as a monolithic beam.Transversely, such a structure behaves quite differently under uniform and non-uniform bending. In the former, the top and bottom flanges act compositely whereas in the latter they flex about their separate neutral axes as shown in Figure 2. This means the correct flexural inertia can be an order of magnitude greater for uniform than non-uniform bending. The behaviour can, however, be modelled in a conventional grillage model by using a shear deformable grillage. The composite flexural properties are used and the extra defor-mation under non-uniform bending is represented by calcu-lating an equivalent shear stiffness.Having obtained the moments and forces in the cellular structure, the reinforcement has to be designed. In addition to designing for the longitudinal and transverse moments on the complete section, local moments in the flanges have to be considered. These arise from the wheel loads applied to the deck slab and also from the transverse shear. This shear has to be transmitted across the voidsby flexure in the flanges, that is by the section acting like a vierendeel frame as shown in Figure 2.Voided slab bridges typically have the rather utilitarian appearance typical of bridges with the type of voided section shown in Figure 1 and with either single spans or with intermediate piers of either leaf or discrete vertical pier form. However, one of the potential great advantages of concrete is that any shape can be formed. Figure 3 shows a voided slab bridge of more imaginative appearance which carries main line rail loading. To make most efficient use of the curved soffit varying depth section, different sizes of void were used across the width.Beam and slab bridgesIn recent years, in situ beam and slab structures have been less popular than voided slab forms, while precast beams have generally been prestressed. Reinforced beam andslab structures have therefore been less common. However, there is no fundamental reason why they should not be used and there are thousands of such structures in service.One of the disadvantages of a beam and slab structure compared with a voided slab or cellular slab structure is that the distribution properties are relatively poor. In the UK at least, this is less of a disadvantage than it used to be. This is because the normal traffic load has increased with each change of the loading specification, leaving the abnormal load the same until the most recent change which could actually make it less severe for shorter spans. However, reinforced concrete beam and slab bridges do not appear to have increased in popularity as a result. They are more popular in some other countries.The relatively poor distribution properties of beam and slab bridges can be improved by providing one or more transverse beams or diaphragms within the span, rather than only at the piers. In bridges built with precast beams, forming these ‘intermediate diaphragms’is extremely inconvenient and therefore expensive so they have become unusual. However, in an in situ structure which has to be built on falsework, it makes relatively little difference and is therefore more viable.The beams for a beam and slab structure are designed for the moments and forces from the analysis. The analysis is now usually computerised in European practice, although the AASHTO (2002) code encourages the use of a basically empirical approach.Having obtained the forces, the design approach is the same as for slabs apart from the requirement for nominal links in all beams. Another factor is that if torsion is consid-ered in the analysis the links have to be designed for torsion as well as for shear. Itis, however,acceptable practiceto use torsionless analysis at least for right decks.Because the deck slab forms a large top flange, the beams of beam and slab bridges are more efficiently shaped for resisting sagging than hogging moments. It may therefore be advantageous to haunch them locally over the piers even in relatively short-span continuous bridges.The biggest variation in practice in the design of beam and slab structures is in the reinforcement of the deck slab. A similar situation arises in the deck slabs of bridgeswhere the main beams are steel or prestressed concrete and this aspect will now be considered.Conventional practice in North America was to design only for the moments induced in the deck slab by its action in spanning between the beams supporting wheel loads (the ‘local moments’). These moments were obtained from Westergaard (1930) albeit usually by way of tables given in AASHTO. British practice also uses elastic methods to obtain local moments, usuallyeither Westergaard or influ-ence charts such as Pucher (1964). However, the so-called‘global transverse moments’, the moments induced in the deck slab by its action in distributing load between the beams, are considered. These moments, obtained from the global analysis of the bridge, are added to the local moments obtained from Westergaard (1930) or similar methods. Only‘co-existent’moments (the moments induced in the same part of the deck under the same load case) are considered, and the worst global and local moments often do notcoin-cide. However, this still has a significant effect. In bridges with very close spaced beams (admittedly rarely used in North America) the UK approach can give twice the design moments of the US approach.Although the US approach may appear theoretically unsound (the global moments obviously do exist in American bridges), it has produced satisfactory designs.One reason for this is that the local strength of the deck slabs is actually much greater than conventional elastic analysis suggests. This has been extensively researched (Hewit and Batchelor, 1975; Holowka and Csagoly, 1980;Kirkpatrick et al., 1984).In Ontario (Ontario Ministry of Transportation and Communications, 1983) empirical rules have been devel-oped which enable such slabs to be designed very simply and economically. Although these were developed without major consideration of global effects, they have been shown to work well within the range of cases they apply to (Jack-son and Cope, 1990). Similar rules have been developed in Northern Ireland (Kirkpatrick et al., 1984) and elsewhere but they have not been widely accepted in Europe.Longer span structuresIn modern practice, purely reinforced structures longer than about 20m span are quite unusual; concrete bridges of this size are usually prestressed. However, there is no funda-mental reason why such structures should not be built.The longest span reinforced concrete girder bridges tend to be of box girder form. Although single cell box girders are a well-defined form of construction, there is no clear-cut distinction between a ‘multi-cellular box girder’and a voided slab. However, the voids in voided slab bridges are normally formed with polystyrene or other permanent void formers, whereas box girders are usually formed with removable formwork. The formwork can only be removed if the section is deep enough for access, which effectively means around 1.2m minimum depth. Permanent access to the voids is often provided. In older structures, this was often through manholes in the top slab. This means traffic management is required to gain access and also means there is the problem of water, and de-icing salt where this is used, leaking into the voids. It is therefore preferable to provide access from below.In a continuous girder bridge (particularly one with only two spans) the hogging moments, particularly the perma-nent load moments, over the piers are substantially greater than the sagging moments at mid-span. This, combinedwith the greater advantage of saving weight near mid-span, encourages longer span bridges to be haunched. Haunching frequently also helps with the clearance required for road, rail or river traffic under the bridge by allowing a shallower section elsewhere.The longest span and most dramatic purely reinforced concrete bridges are open spandrel arches as in the Catha-leen’s Falls Bridge shown in Figure 4. The true arch form suits reinforced concrete well as the compressive force in the arch rib increases its flexural strength. As a result, the form is quite efficient in terms of materials.Because of the physical shape of the arch and the require- ment for good ground conditions to resist the lateral thrust force from the arch, this form of construction is limited in its application. It is most suitable for crossing valleys in hilly country. The simplest way to build such a structure is on falsework. However, the falsework required is very extensive and hence relatively expensive. Because of this, such bridges are often more expensive than structurally less efficient forms, such as prestressed cantilever bridges, that can be built with less temporary works. However, they may still be economic in some circumstances, particularly in countries where the labour required to erect the falsework is relatively cheap. A further factor may be local availability of the materials in countries where the prestressing equip-ment or structural steelwork required for other bridges of this span range would have to be imported.It is also possible to devise other ways of building arches.They have been built out in segments from either end supported by tying them back with temporary stays. Another approach, which is only likely to be viable with at least three spans, is to insert temporary diagonal mem- bers so that the bridge, including the columns supporting the deck and at least main longitudinal members at deck level, can be built bay by bay behaving as a truss until it is joined up.The efficiency of arch structures, like other forms used for longer span bridges, arises because the shape is optimised for resisting the near-uniform forces arising from dead load which is the dominant load. The profile of the arch is arranged to minimise the bending moments in it. Theoretically, the optimum shape approximates to a catenary if the weight of the rib dominates or a parabola if the weight of the deck dominates but the exact shape is unlikely to be critical.Arch structures can be so efficient at carrying dead weight that applying the usual load factor for dead load actually increases live load capacity by increasing the axial force in, andhence flexural capacity of, the rib. The design code’s lesser load factor (normally 1.0) for‘relieving effects’should be applied to dead weight when this arises. However, the letter of many codes only requires this to be applied in certain cases which are defined in such a way that it does not appear to apply here. This cannot be justified philosophi-cally and the reduced factor should be used.Because the geometry is optimised for a uniform load,loading the entire span is unlikely to be the critical live load case, unlike in a simple single-span beam bridge. It will normally be necessary to plot influence lines to determine the critical case. For uniform loads, this is often loading a half-span.Arch bridges have been built in which the live load bending moments are taken primarily by the girders at deck level, enabling the arch ribs to be very slim in appear-ance. However, the more usual approach is to build the arch rib first and then build the deck structure afterwards, possibly even after the falsework has been struck so that this does not have to be designed to take the full load.The deck structure is then much like a normal viaduct supported on piers from the arch rib and the rib has to take significant moments.In the past, reinforced concrete truss structures have also been built but they are not often used in modern practice because the building costs are high due to the complexity of formwork and reinforcement.Design calculationGeometryThe shape of reinforced concrete bridges is usually decided by experience aided by typical span-to-depth ratios. The design calculations are only really used to design the reinforcement. A typical simply supported slab has a span-to-depth ratio of around 10–15 but continuous or integral bridges can be shallower. Because the concentrated live load (i.e. the wheel load) the deck has to carry does not reduce with span, the span-to-depth ratio of short span slabs tends to be towards the lower end of the range.However, deck slabs of bigger bridges often have greater span-to-depth ratios than slab bridges. This is economic because the dead weight of the slab, although an insignifi-cant part of the load on the slab, is significant to the global design of the bridge.There was a fashion for very shallow bridges in the 1960s and 1970s as they were considered to look more elegant. However, unless increasing the construction depth has major cost implications elsewhere (such as the need to raise embankments) it is likely to be more economic to use more than the minimum depth. The appearance dis-advantage on short span bridges can be resolved by good detailing of the edges. Bridge decks with short transverse cantilevers at the edges tend to look shallower than vertical sided bridges even if they are actually deeper.Having decided the dimensions of the bridge, the design calculations then serve primarily to design the reinforce-ment and the key checks will now be considered. They will be illustrated mainly by considering slab structures but most of the principles apply to all reinforced concrete. Ultimate strength in flexure and torsionReinforced concrete is normally designed for ultimate strength in flexure first. This is partly because this is usually, although not invariably, the critical design criterion.Another reason is that reinforcement can be more readily designed directly for this criterion. For other criteria, suchas crack width or service stresses, a design has to be assumed and then checked. This makes thedesign process iterative. A first estimate is required to start the iterative procedure and the ultimate strength design provides such an estimate.Although other analytical methods give better estimates of strength, elastic analysis is usually used in design. This has to be used when checking serviceability criteria. Because of this, the use of more economic analyses at the ultimate limit state (such as yield-line analysis) invariably results in other criteria (such as cracking or stress limits) becoming critical leaving little or no advantage.Concrete slabs have to resist torsion as well as flexure. However, unlike in a beam, torsion and flexure in slabs are not separate phenomena. They interact in the same way that direct and shear stresses interact in plane stress situations. They can be considered in the same way: thatis using Mohr’s circle. Theoretically, it is most efficient to use orthogonal reinforcement placed in the directions of maximum and minimum principal moments. Since there is no torsion in these directions, torsion does not then have to be considered. However, it is not often practical to do this as the principal moment directions change with both position in the slab and load case.In right slabs the torsional moments in the regions (the elements of the computer model where this is used),where the moments are maximum, are relatively small and can often be ignored. In skew slabs, in contrast, the torsions can be significant. The usual approach is to design for an increased equivalent bending moment in the reinforcement directions. Wood (1968) has published the relevant equations for orthogonal steel and Armer (1968) for skew steel. Many of the computer programs commonly used for the analysis of bridge decks have post-processors that enable them to give these corrected moments, com-monly known as ‘Wood–Armer’moments, directly. To enable them to do this, it is necessary to specify the direc-tion of the reinforcement.When the reinforcement is very highly skewed, the Wood–Armer approach leads to excessive requirements for transverse steel. When assessing existing structures, this problem can be avoided by using alternative analytical approaches. However, in design it is usually preferable to avoid the problem by avoiding the use of very highly skewed reinforcement. The disadvantage of this is that it makes the reinforcement detailing of skew slab bridges more complicated. This arises because the main steel in the edges of the slab has to run parallel with the edges. Orthogonal steel can therefore only be achieved in the centre of the bridge either by fanning out the steel or bypro-viding three layers in the edge regions. That is, one parallel to the edge in addition to the two orthogonal layers.When torsion is considered, it will be found that there is a significant requirement for top steel in the obtuse corners even of simply supported slabs. It can be shown using other analytical methods (such as yield-line or torsionless grillage analysis) that equilibrium can be satisfied without resisting these moments. The top steel is therefore not strictly necessary for ultimate strength. However, the moments are real and have caused significant cracking in older slab structures which were built without this steel. It is therefore preferable to reinforce for them. Ultimate strength in shearShear does not normally dictate the dimensions of the element. However, codes allow slabs (unlike beams) which do not have shear reinforcement and it is economically desirable to avoid shear reinforcement in these if e of links is particularly inconvenient in very shallow slabs, such as in box culverts or the deck slabs of beam and slab bridges, and many codes do not allow them to be considered effective. The shear strength rules can therefore be critical in design.。

本科毕业设计论文专业外文翻译专业名称：土木工程专业道路与桥梁年级班级：道桥08-5班学生姓名：指导教师：二○一二年五月十八日Geometric Design of HighwaysThe road is one kind of linear construction used for travel. It is made of the roadbed, the road surface, the bridge, the culvert and the tunnel. In addition, it also has the crossing of lines, the protective project and the traffic engineering and the route facility.The roadbed is the base of road surface, road shoulder, side slope, side ditch foundations. It is stone material structure, which is designed according to route's plane position .The roadbed, as the base of travel, must guarantee that it has the enough intensity and the stability that can prevent the water and other natural disaster from corroding.The road surface is the surface of road. It is single or complex structure built with mixture. The road surface require being smooth, having enough intensity, good stability and anti-slippery function. The quality of road surface directly affects the safe, comfort and the traffic.Highway geometry designs to consider Highway Horizontal Alignment, Vertical Alignment two kinds of linear and cross-sectional composition of coordination, but also pay attention to the smooth flow of the line of sight, etc. Determine the road geometry, consider the topography, surface features, rational use of land and environmental protection factors, to make full use of the highway geometric components of reasonable size and the linear combination.DesignThe alignment of a road is shown on the plane view and is a series of straight lines called tangents connected by circular. In modern practice it is common to interpose transition or spiral curves between tangents and circular curves.Alignment must be consistent. Sudden changes from flat to sharp curves and long tangents followed by sharp curves must be avoided; otherwise, accident hazards will be created. Likewise, placing circular curves of different radii end to end compound curves or having a short tangent between two curves is poor practice unless suitable transitions between them are provided. Long, flat curves are preferable at all times, as they are pleasing in appearance and decrease possibility of future obsolescence. However, alignment without tangents is undesirable on two-lane roads because some drivers hesitate to pass on curves. Long, flat curves should be used for small changes in direction, as short curves appear as “kink”. Also horizontal and vertical alignment must be considered together, not separately. For example, a sharp horizontal curve beginning near a crest can create a serious accident hazard.A vehicle traveling in a curved path is subject to centrifugal force. This is balanced by an equal and opposite force developed through cannot exceed certain maximums, and these controls place limits on the sharpness of curves that can be used with a design speed. Usually the sharpness of a given circular curve is indicated by its radius. However, for alignment design, sharpness is commonly expressed in terms of degree of curve, which is the central angle subtended by a 100-ft length of curve. Degree of curve is inversely proportional to the radius.Tangent sections of highways carry normal cross slope; curved sections are super elevated. Provision must be made for gradual change from one to the other. This usually involves maintaining the center line of each individual roadway at profile grade while raising the outer edge and lowering the inner edge to produce the desired super elevation is attained some distance beyond the point of curve.If a vehicle travels at high speed on a carefully restricted path made up of tangents connected by sharp circular curve, riding is extremely uncomfortable. As the car approaches a curve, super elevation begins and the vehicle is tilted inward, but the passenger must remain vertical since there is on centrifugal force requiring compensation. When the vehicle reaches the curve, full centrifugal force develops at once, and pulls the rider outward from his vertical position. To achieve a position of equilibrium he must force his body far inward. As the remaining super elevation takes effect, further adjustment in position is required. This process is repeated in reverse order as the vehicle leaves the curve. When easement curves are introduced, the change in radius from infinity on the tangent to that of the circular curve is effected gradually so that centrifugal force also develops gradually. By careful application of super elevation along the spiral, a smooth and gradual application of centrifugal force can be had and the roughness avoided.Easement curves have been used by the railroads for many years, but their adoption by highway agencies has come only recently. This is understandable. Railroad trains must follow the precise alignment of the tracks, and the discomfort described here can be avoided only by adopting easement curves. On the other hand, the motor-vehicle operator is free to alter his lateral position on the road and can provide his own easement curves by steering into circular curves gradually. However, this weaving within a traffic lane but sometimes into other lanes is dangerous. Properly designed easement curves make weaving unnecessary. It is largely for safety reasons, then, that easement curves have been widely adopted by highway agencies.For the same radius circular curve, the addition of easement curves at the ends changes the location of the curve with relationto its tangents; hence the decision regarding their use should be made before the final location survey. They point of beginning of an ordinary circular curve is usually labeled the PC point of curve or BC beginning of curve. Its end is marked the PT point of tangent or EC end of curve. For curves that include easements, the common notation is, as stationing increases: TS tangent to spiral, SC spiral to circular curve, CS circular curve to spiral, and ST spiral go tangent.On two-lane pavements provision of a wilder roadway is advisable on sharp curves. This will allow for such factors as 1 the tendency for drivers to shy away from the pavement edge, 2 increased effective transverse vehicle width because the front and rear wheels do not track, and 3 added width because of the slanted position of the front of the vehicle to the roadway centerline. For 24-ft roadways, the added width is so small that it can be neglected. Only for 30mph design speeds and curves sharper than 22°does the added width reach 2 ft. For narrower pavements, however, widening assumes importance even on fairly flat curves. Recommended amounts of and procedures for curve widening are given in Geometric Design for Highways.2. GradesThe vertical alignment of the roadway and its effect on the safe and economical operation of the motor vehicle constitute one of the most important features of road design. The vertical alignment, which consists of a series of straight lines connected by vertical parabolic or circular curves, is known as the “grade line.” When the grade line is increasing from the horizontal it is known as a “plus grade,” and when it is decreasing from the horizontal it is known as a “minus grade.” In analyzing grade and grade controls, the designer usually studies the effect of change in grade on the centerline profile.In the establishment of a grade, an ideal situation is one inwhich the cut is balanced against the fill without a great deal of borrow or an excess of cut to be wasted. All hauls should be downhill if possible and not too long. The grade should follow the general terrain and rise and fall in the direction of the existing drainage. In mountainous country the grade may be set to balance excavation against embankment as a clue toward least overall cost. In flat or prairie country it will be approximately parallel to the ground surface but sufficiently above it to allow surface drainage and, where necessary, to permit the wind to clear drifting snow. Where the road approaches or follows along streams, the height of the grade line may be dictated by the expected level of flood water. Under all conditions, smooth, flowing grade lines are preferable to choppy ones of many short straight sections connected with short vertical curves.Changes of grade from plus to minus should be placed in cuts, and changes from a minus grade to a plus grade should be placed in fills. This will generally give a good design, and many times it will avoid the appearance of building hills and producing depressions contrary to the general existing contours of the land. Other considerations for determining the grade line may be of more importance than the balancing of cuts and fills.Urban projects usually require a more detailed study of the controls and finer adjustment of elevations than do rural projects. It is often best to adjust the grade to meet existing conditions because of the additional expense of doing otherwise.In the analysis of grade and grade control, one of the most important considerations is the effect of grades on the operating costs of the motor vehicle. An increase in gasoline consumption and a reduction in speed are apparent when grades are increase in gasoline consumption and a reduction in speed is apparent when grades are increased. An economical approach would be to balancethe added annual cost of grade reduction against the added annual cost of vehicle operation without grade reduction. An accurate solution to the problem depends on the knowledge of traffic volume and type, which can be obtained only by means of a traffic survey.While maximum grades vary a great deal in various states, AASHTO recommendations make maximum grades dependent on design speed and topography. Present practice limits grades to 5 percent of a design speed of 70 mph. For a design speed of 30 mph, maximum grades typically range from 7 to 12 percent, depending on topography. Wherever long sustained grades are used, the designer should not substantially exceed the critical length of grade without the provision of climbing lanes for slow-moving vehicles. Critical grade lengths vary from 1700 ft for a 3 percent grade to 500 ft for an 8 percent grade.Long sustained grades should be less than the maximum grade on any particular section of a highway. It is often preferred to break the long sustained uniform grade by placing steeper grades at the bottom and lightening the grade near the top of the ascent. Dips in the profile grade in which vehicles may be hidden from view should also be avoided. Maximum grade for highway is 9 percent. Standards setting minimum grades are of importance only when surface drainage is a problem as when water must be carried away in a gutter or roadside ditch. In such instances the AASHTO suggests a minimum of %.3. Sight DistanceFor safe vehicle operation, highway must be designed to give drivers a sufficient distance or clear version ahead so that they can avoid unexpected obstacles and can pass slower vehicles without danger. Sight distance is the length of highway visible ahead to the driver of a vehicle. The concept of safe sight distance has two facets: “stopping” or “no passing” and “passing”.At times large objects may drop into a roadway and will do seriousdamage to a motor vehicle that strikes them. Again a car or truck may be forced to stop in the traffic lane in the path of following vehicles. In dither instance, proper design requires that such hazards become visible at distances great enough that drivers can stop before hitting them. Further more, it is unsafe to assume that one oncoming vehicle may avoid trouble by leaving the lane in which it is traveling, for this might result in loss of control or collision with another vehicle.Stopping sight distance is made up of two elements. The first is the distance traveled after the obstruction comes into view but before the driver applies his brakes. During this period of perception and reaction, the vehicle travels at its initial velocity. The second distance is consumed while the driver brakes the vehicle to a stop. The first of these two distances is dependent on the speed of the vehicle and the perception time and brake-reaction time of the operator. The second distance depends on the speed of the vehicle; the condition of brakes, times, and roadway surface; and the alignment and grade of the highway.On two-lane highways, opportunity to pass slow-moving vehicles must be provided at intervals. Otherwise capacity decreases and accidents increase as impatient drivers risk head-on collisions by passing when it is unsafe to do so. The minimum distance ahead that must be clear to permit safe passing is called the passing sight distance. In deciding whether or not to pass another vehicle, the driver must weigh the clear distance available to him against the distance required to carry out the sequence of events that make up the passing maneuver. Among the factors that will influence his decision are the degree of caution that he exercises and the accelerating ability of his vehicle. Because humans differ markedly, passing practices, which depend largely on human judgment and behavior rather than on the laws of mechanics, vary considerablyamong drivers.The geometric design is to ensure highway traffic safety foundation, the highway construction projects around the other highway on geometric design, therefore, in the geometry of the highway design process, if appear any unsafe potential factors, or low levels of combination of design, will affect the whole highway geometric design quality, and the safety of the traffic to bring adverse impact. So, on the geometry of the highway design must be focus on.公路几何设计公路是供汽车或其他车辆行驶的一种线形带状结构体.它是由路基、路面、桥梁、涵洞和隧道组成.此外,它还有路线交叉、工程和交通工程及沿线设施.路基是路面、路肩、边坡、等部分的基础.它是按照路线的平面位置在地面上开挖和成的土物.路基作为行车部分的基础,必须保证它有足够的强度和稳定性,可以防止水及其他自然灾害的侵蚀.路面是公路表面的部分.它是用混合料铺筑的单层或多层结构物.路面要求光滑,具有足够的强度,稳定性好和抗湿滑功能.路面质量的好环,直接影响到行车的安全性、舒适性和通行.公路几何线形设计要考虑公路平面线形、纵断面线形两种线形以及横断面的组成相协调,还要注意视距的畅通等等.确定公路几何线形时,在考虑地形、地物、土地的合理利用及环境保护因素时,要充分利用公路几何组成部分的合理尺寸和线形组合.1、线形设计道路的线形反映在平面图上是由一系列的直线和与直线相连的圆曲线构成的.现代设计时常在直线与圆曲线之间插入缓和曲线.线形应是连续的,应避免平缓线形到小半径曲线的突变或者长直线末端与小半径曲线相连接的突然变化,否则会发生交通事故.同样,不同半径的圆弧首尾相接曲线或在两半径不同的圆弧之间插入短直线都是不良的线形,除非在圆弧之间插入缓和曲线.长而平缓的曲线在任何时候都是可取的,因为这种曲线线形优美,将来也不会废弃.然而,双向道路线形全由曲线构成也是不理想的,因为一些驾驶员通过曲线路段时总是犹豫.长而缓的曲线应用在拐角较小的地方.如果采用短曲线,则会出现“扭结”.另外,线路的平、纵断面设计应综合考虑,而不应只顾其一,不顾其二,例如,当平曲线的起点位于竖曲线的顶点附近时将会产生严重的交通事故.行驶在曲线路段上的车辆受到离心力的作用,就需要一个大小相同方向相反的由超高和侧向磨擦提供的力抵消它,这些控制值对于某一规定设计车速可能采用曲线的曲率作了限制.通常情况下,某一圆曲线的曲率是由其半径来体现的.而对于线形设计而言,曲率常常通过曲线的程度来描述,即100英尺长的曲线所对应的中心角,曲线的程度与曲线的半径成反比.公路的直线地段设置正常的路拱,而曲线地段则设置超高,在正常断面与超高断面之间必须设置过渡渐变路段.通常的做法是维持道路每一条中线设计标高不变,通过抬高外侧边缘,降低内侧边缘以形成所需的超高,对于直线与圆曲线直接相连的线形,超高应从未到达曲线之前的直线上开始,在曲线顶点另一端一定距离以外达到全部超高.如果车辆以高速度行驶在直线与小半径的圆曲线相连的路段,行车是极不舒服.汽车驶近曲线路段时,超高开始,车辆向内侧倾斜,但乘客须维持身体的垂直状态,因为此时未受到离心力的作用.当汽车到达曲线路段时,离心力突然产生,迫使乘客向外倾斜,为了维持平衡,乘客必须迫使自己的身体向内侧倾斜.由于剩余超高发挥作用,乘客须作进一步的姿势的调整.当汽车离开曲线时,上述过程刚好相反.插入缓和曲线后,半径从无穷大逐渐过渡到圆曲线上的某一固定值,离心力逐渐增大,沿缓和曲线心设置超高,离心力平稳逐渐增加,避免了行车颠簸.缓和曲线在铁路上已经使用多年,但在公路上最近才得以应用,这是可以理解的.火车必须遵循精确的运行轨道,采用缓和曲线后,上述那种不舒服的感觉才能消除.然而,汽车司机在公路上可以随意改变侧向位置,通过迂回进入圆曲线来为自己提供缓和曲线.但是在一个车道上有时在其他车道上做这种迂回行驶是非常危险的.设计合理的缓和曲线使得上述迂回没有必要.主要是出于安全原因,公路部门广泛采用了缓和曲线.对于半径相同的圆曲线来说,在未端加上缓和曲线就会改变曲线与直线的相关位置,因此应在最终定线勘测之前应决定是否采用缓和曲线.一般曲线的起点标为PC或BC,终点标为PT或EC.对含有缓和曲线的曲线,通常的标记配置增为：TC、SC、CS和ST.对于双向道路,急弯处应增加路面宽度,这主要基于以下因素：1驾驶员害怕驶出路面边缘；2由于车辆前轮和后轮的行驶轨迹不同,车辆有效横向宽度加大；3车辆前方相对于公路中线倾斜而增加的宽度.对于宽度为24英尺的道路,增加的宽度很小,可以忽略.只有当设计车速为30mile/h,且曲度大于22℃时,加宽可达2英尺.然而,对于较窄的路面,即使是在较平缓的曲线路段上,加宽也是很重要推荐加宽值及加宽设计见公路线形设计2、纵坡线公路的竖向线形及其对车辆运行的安全性和经济性的影响构成了公路设计中最重要的要素之一.竖向线形由直线和竖向抛物线或圆曲线组成,称为纵坡线.纵坡线从水平线逐渐上升时称为坡度变化的影响.在确定坡度时最理想的情况是挖方与填方平衡,没有大量的借方或弃方.所有运土都尽可能下坡运并且距离不长,坡度应随地形而变,并且与既有排水系统的升、降方向一致.在山区,坡度要使得挖填平衡以使总成本最低.在平原或草原地区,坡度与地表近似平行,介是高于地表足够的高度,以利于路面排水,苦有必要,可利用风力来清除表面积雪.如公路接近或沿河流走行,纵坡线的高度由预期洪水位来决定.无论在何种情况下,平缓连续的坡度线要比由短直线段连接短竖曲线构成的不断变向的坡度线好得多.由上坡向下坡变化的路段应设在挖方路段,而由下坡向上坡变化的路段应设在填方路段,这样的线形设计较好,往往可以避免形成与现状地貌相反的圭堆或是凹地.与挖填方平衡相比,在确定纵坡线时,其他考虑则重要得多.城市项目通常比农村项目要求对控制要素进行更详尽的研究,对高程进行更细致地调整.一般来说,设计与现有条件相符的坡度较好,这样可避免一些不必要的花费.在坡度的分析和控制中,坡度对机动车运行费用的影响是最重要的考虑因素之一.坡度增大油耗显然增大,车速就要减慢.一个较为经济的方案则可使坡度减小而增加的年度成本与坡度不减而增加的车辆运行年度成本之间相平衡.这个问题的准确方法取决于对交通流量和交通类型的了解,这只有通过交通调查才能获知.在不同的州,最大纵坡也相差悬殊,AASHTO标准建议由设计车速和地形来选择最大纵坡.现行设计以设计车速为70mile/h时最大纵坡为5%,设计车速30mile/h时,根据地形不同,最大纵坡一般为7％－12％.当采用较长的待续爬坡时,在没有为慢行车辆提供爬坡道时,坡长不能够超过临界坡长.临界坡长可从3％纵坡的1700英尺变化至8%纵坡的500英尺.持续长坡的坡度必须小于公路任何一个断面的最大坡度,通常将长的持续单一纵坡断开,设计成底部为一陡坡,而接近坡顶则让坡度减小.同时还要避免由于断面倾斜而造成的视野受阻.调整公路的最大纵坡为9%只有当路面排水成问题时,如水必须排至边沟或排水沟,最小坡度标准才显示其重要性.这种情况下,AASHTO标准建议最小坡度为%.3、视距为保证行车安全,公路设计必须使得驾驶员视线前方有足够的一段距离,使他们能够避让意外的障碍物,或者安全地超车.视距就是车辆驾驶员前方可见的公路长度.安全视距具有两方面含义：“停车视距”或“不超车视距”或“超车视距”.有时,大件物体也许会掉到路上,会对撞上去的车辆造成严重的危害.同样,轿车或卡车也可能会被一溜车辆阻在车道上.无论是哪种情况发生,合理设计要求驾驶员在一段距离以外就能看见这种险情,并在撞上去之前把车刹住.此外,认为车辆通过离开所行驶的车道就可以躲避危险的想法是不安全的,因为这会导致车辆失控或与另一辆车相撞.停车视距由两部分组成：第一部分是当驾驶员发现障碍物面作出制动之前驶过的一段距离,在这一察觉与反应阶段,车辆以其初始速度行驶；第二部分是驾驶员刹车后车辆所驶过的一段距离.第一部分停车视距取决于车速及驾驶员的察觉时间和制动时间.第二部分停车视距取决于车速、刹车、轮胎、路面的条件以及公路的线形的坡度.在双车道公路上,每间隔一定距离,就应该提供超越慢行车辆的机会.否则,公路容量将降低,事故将增多,因为急燥的驾驶员在不能安全超车时冒着撞车危险强行超车,能被看清的允许安全超车的前方最小距离叫做超车视距.驾驶员在做出是否超车的决定时,必须将前方的能见距离与完成超车动作所需的距离对比考虑.影响他做出决定的因素是开车的小心程度和车辆加速性能.由于人与人的显着差别,主要是人的判断和动作而不是力学定理决定的超车行为随着驾驶员的不同而大不相同.公路是确保交通安全的基础,建设的其他项目都围绕的而展开,因此,在的过程中,如果出现任意的不安全潜在因素,或者低水平的组合,都会影响到整个的质量,并对交通的安全带来不利影响.因此对于的必须予以重点关注.。

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)英文：1.1Approach for analyzing the ultimate strength of concrete filled steel tubular arch bridges with stiffening girderAbstract:A convenient approach is proposed for analyzing the ultimate load carrying capacity of concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) arch bridge with stiffening girders. A fiber model beam element is specially used to simulate the stiffening girder and CFST arch rib. The geometric nonlinearity, material nonlinearity。

influenceoftheconstruction process and the contribution of prestressing reinforcement are all taken into consideration. The accuracy of this method is validated by comparing its results with experimental results. Finally, the ultimate strength of an abnormal CFST arch bridge withstiffening girders is investigated and the effect of construction method is discussed. It is concluded that the construction process has little effect on the ultimate strength of the bridge.Key words: Ultimate strength, Concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) arch bridge, Stiffening girder, Fiber model beam element, Construction processdoi:10.1631/jzus.2007.A0682NTRODUCTIONWith the increasing applications of concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) structures in civil engi-neering in China, arch bridges have become one of the competitive styles in moderate span or long span bridges. Taking the Fuxing Bridge in Hangzhou (Zhao et al., 2004), and Wushan Bridge in Chongqing (Zhang et al., 2003), China, as representatives, the structural configuration, the span and construction scale of such bridges have surpassed those of existing CFST arch bridges in the world. Therefore, it is of great importance to enhance the theoretical level in the design of CFST arch bridges for safety and economy.he calculation of ultimate bearing capacity is a significant issue in design of CFST arch bridges. As an arch structure is primarily subjected to compres-sive forces, the ultimate strength of CFST arch bridge is determined by the stability requirement. A numberof theoretical studies were conducted in the past to investigate the stability and load-carrying capacity of CFST arch bridges. Zeng et al.(2003) studied the load capacity of CFST arch bridge using a composite beam element, involving geometric and material nonlin-earity. Zhang et al.(2006) derived a tangent stiffness matrix for spatial CFSTpole element to consider the geometric and material nonlinearities under largedisplacement by co-rotational coordinate method. Xie et al.(2005) proposed a numerical method to determine the ultimate strength of CFST arch bridges and revealed that the effect of the constitutive relation of confined concrete is not significant. Hu et al.(2006) investigated the effect of Poisson’s ratio of core concrete on the ultimate bearing capacity of a long span CFST arch bridge and found that the bearing capacity is enhanced by 10% if the Poisson’s ratio is variable. On the other hand, many experimental studies on the ultimate strength of naked CFST arch rib or CFST arch bridge model hadbeenconducted. Experimental studies on CFST arch rib under in-plane andout-of-plane loads were carried out by Chen and Chen 2000) and Chen et almetrical nonlinearity was significant for the out-of-plane strength and less significant for the in-plane strength. Cui et al.(2004) introduced a global model test of a CFST arch bridge with span of 308 m, and suggested that the influence of initial stress should be considered.The above papers mainly focused on the ultimate strength of CFST naked arch ribs or CFST arch bridges with floating deck. No attempt was made to study the ultimate strength of CFST arch bridges with stiffening girders whose nonlinear behavior and CFST arch should be simulated due to the redistribution of inner forces between arch ribs and stiffening girders. In general, stiffening girders can be classified into steel girder, PC (prestressing concrete) girder and teel-concrete combination girder. It is most difficult to simulate the nonlinear behavior of PC girder, due to the influence of prestressing reinforcement. In contrast to steel or steel-concrete combination beam, the prestressing reinforcements in PC girders not only offer strength and stiffnessdirectly, but their tension greatly affects the stiffness and distribution of the initial forces in the structure. The aims of this paper are (1) to present an elas-tic-plastic analysis of the ultimate strength of CFST arch bridge with arbitrary stiffening girders;(2) to study the ultimate load-carrying capacity of a complicated CFST arch bridge with abnormal arch ribs and PC stiffening girders; and (3) to investigate the effect of construction methods on the ultimate strength of the structure. ANALYTICAL THEORYElasto-plastic large deformation of PC girder element The elasto-plasic large deformation analysis of PC beam elements is based on the following fundamental assumptions:(1) A plane section originally normal to the neutral axis always remains a plane and normal to the neutral axis during deformation;(2) The shear deformation due to shear stress isneglected;(3)The Saint-Venant torsional principle holds in(4) The effect of shear stress on the stress-strain relationship is ignored. The cross-section of a PC box girder with onesymmetric axis is depicted in Fig.1, where, G and s denote the geometry center and the shear center re-spectively. According to the first and the third as-sumptions listed above, the displacement increments of point A(x,y) in the section can be expressed in terms of the displacement increments at the geometry center and the shear center aswhere Ktoris the coefficient factor which is related to the geometry shape of the girder cross-section.Similar to 3D elastic beam theory, the displacement increment of the girder can be expressed in terms of the nodal displacement increments asin which L denotes the element length, and z is the axial coordinate of the local coordinate system of an element. Then, the displacement vector of any section of the element can be written aswhere ∆u is the displacement vector of any section of the beam element, N is the shape function matrix and ∆ue is the displacement vector of the element node. They are respectively expressed asAccording to Eq.(2), the linear strain can be ex-pressed asin which BL is the linear strain matrix of the element Correspondingly, the nonlinear strain may be expressed aswhere BNL is the nonlinear strain matrix of the ele-mentThe stress increment ∆σ can be approximatedusing the linear strain increment aswhere D is the material property matrix. Neglecting the influence of the shear strain, D can be expressedwhere E(ε) is the tangent modulus of the material which is dependent on the strain state, and G is the elastic shearing modulus regarded as a constant. According to the principle of virtual work, we have in which σ and ∆σ are the stress vector and stress increment of the current state, q and P are the dis-tributed load and concentrated load vector, ∆q and ∆P are the increments of distributed load and concen-trated load, δ∆u and δ∆ε are the virtual displacement and virtual strain, and V isthe volume of the element. Substitute Eqs.(9), (11) and (14) into Eq.(16) and ignore the infinitesimal variable ∆σ∆εN, we have where ∆Fe is the increment of element load vectorcorresponding to ∆ue, the element displacement vec-tor. Kepand Kσare the elasto-plastic and geometric stiffness matrixes of the beam element respectively as followsThe distribution of elastic and plastic zones is non-uniform in the element, and varies during de-formation. It is very difficult to present an explicit expression of the property matrix D for the whole section. Hence, the section is divided into many subareas, as shown in Fig.2, and the fiber model is adopted to calculate the element’s stiffness matrix, i.e.Obviously, if the number of subareas is suffi-ciently large, the result of Eq.(19) will approach the exact solution. The value of Kep is calculated using numerical integration, with Di being regarded as i. To compute the geometric stiffness matrix Kσ, the normal stress should be expressed in terms of axial force and bending moment, which actually has very little contribution to the geometric stiffness, so where N is the axial force, and A is the sectional area. Prestressing reinforcement element The reinforced bars parallel to the beam axis may be regarded as fibers, whose contributions to the stiffness could be readily accounted for in Eq.(19). The contributions to the stiffness from those not par-allel to the beam and the prestressing reinforcement (PR), will however be calculated in the following section. The displacement increment of two ends of the prestressing reinforcement in Fig.3 can be expressed by Eq.(21):n which kep and kσare respectively the elasto-plastic and the geometric stiffness matrixes, ∆δis the nodal displacement vector, and ∆f is the nodal force vector of the prestressingreinforcementelement in the local coordinate system. According to Fig.4, ∆δand ∆f can be written in the form Then the stiffness matrix ep( k + k)σof the rein-accordingly. CFST arch rib, steel girder or steel-concrete girder element The fiber model mentioned above can also be used to simulate the CFST arch rib, steel stiffening girder or steel-concrete composite stiffening girder, with similar elasto-plastic stiffness matrix and stiff-ness equation. The detailed description of the deduction can be found in (Xie et al., 2005). However, for the CFST arch rib, the stress-strain relation of structure is very complex due to the com-bined influence of the confined concrete and outer steel tube. In this paper, the following stress-strain relation considering the confinement effect of the steel tube ring (Han, 2000) is adopted: where σytand σycare the yield strengths of the tension and compression sides of the steel tube respectively, βt and βc are the corresponding coefficients. Fig.5b depicted the bilinear stress-strain relationship con-The secondary modulus of the steel tube tendency of local buckling of the steel tube, is assumed to be 1% of the initial elastic modulus. Hanger element The mechanical behavior of cables such as that of hangers and tie bars, is similar to that of truss ele-ments, except that cables cannot bear compressive elasto-plastic computation theory of flexible cable considering the effect of sag was presented by (Xie eal., 1998). In most bridges, however, sag has little fect on the mechanical behavior of hangers. Hence, hangers of arch bridges are treated as elasto-plastic trusses with no compression strength, and the stiff-ness equation is expressed by Eq.(22). PROGRAM SCHEME FOR ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY CALCULATIOerection without brackets, and consists of many construction stages. Thus, the func-tion of simulating the construction process mustbe taken into account in the developed program for cal-culating ultimate bearing capacity, including the gradual action of load, the step-by-step formation of the structure, the influence of initial displacement and initial stress. The scheme for the program is indicated in Fig.6. The modified arc-length increment tecnique is adopted to solve the resulting nonlinear equation (Crisfield, 1981). VALIDATION OF THE METHOD FOR A PC GIRDER The accuracy of computation of the ultimate strength for CFST element has been confirmed in (Xie et al., 2005). In this paper, the precision of the present theory is checked for a PC girder by comparison with the experimental result. Fig.7 shows the cross-section and reinforcements of the girder, which spans 13 m, with 9 bundles of prestressing reinforcements and 11 branches of nonprestressing reinforced bars. The design strength of the concrete is 22.4 MPa, and those of nonprestressing reinforced bars A and B depicted in Fig.7a are 195 MPa and 280 MPa respectively of which the diameters are 12 mm and 8 mm. The prestressing reinforcement is high-strength low-rela- xation steel strand with design strength of 1860 MPa and the control force of each bundle is Nk=195 kN. More detailed information about the experiment on this PC girder is available in (Chen, 2005). Comparison of the deflection at the midspan is depicted in Fig.8, showing good consistency between he numerical simulation and experimental result. Fig.5 Stress-strain curves of steel tube (a) Yield condition; (b) Stress-strain relationship APPLICATION IN BRIDGE DESIGNThe ultimate strength of Fenghuajiang Bridge in Ningbo, Zhejiang, China is studied involving the effect of construction process to demonstrate the applicability of the present approach in bridge design. Fig.9 shows the design scheme of Fenghuajiang Bridgewhich is a girder and arch combination bridgewith central span of 138 m. The central span of the stiffening girder is made up of steel and PC composite box. The side span of the stiffening girder is made up of PC box. The abnormal CFST arch in the central span is composed of three arches, with one main archrib in the center and two secondary arch ribs. The diameter of the main arch rib is 1.8 m, and those of the other two are 1.5 m. The design strength of the concrete used in the bridge is 22.4 MPa. The arch ribs are linked with steel pipes and I-steel bearing members, forming a truss arch bridge. The main arch and the deck are connected with vertical hangers. The secondary arches and the deck are connected with inclined hangers. To take into account the effect of the construction method on the ultimate bearing capacity, it is assumed that the bridge is constructed by two kinds of methods. In Case I, there is only a construction process, the supporting frames for construction falling once after the completion of the whole bridge. In Case II, there are two construction processes, as shown in Fig.10. The first process is construction ofthe PC girder on the supporting frames. The second process is to fix the steel girder, assemble the arch rib, and tension the tie-bar and hangers to separate the steel girder from the frame. Prestressing reinforcements in the girder are properly simulated in construction stages, but the reinforced bars are not modelled due to their large number. The elasto-plastic mechanical behaviors of CFST arch ribs, hanger, bearing member, steel pipe, tie-bar, etc. are analyzed.The ultimate strength analysis process is shown in Fig.11. First,the initial stress of the established bridge is calculated under dead load and prestressing force including initial tension of the hangers, the tie and prestressing reinforcements. Then the stress and isplacement under live load are computed. At last,The out-of-plane deformation curves at the quarter points of the main arch rib are shown in Fig.14. The vertical axis denotes the load coefficient µ which does not contain the original dead load and live load exerted in Figs.11a and 11b. When 3.1≤µ≤3.2, the nonlinear behavior of the arch rib becomes obvious in the lateral direction. As shown in the figure, the buckling modes in both cases are antisymmetric out-of-plane, and the buckling load factor of the arch rib is about 4.1 considering the initial dead and live load.A comparison of the lateral and vertical deforMations at the quarter point of the main arch between two cases is shown in Fig.15, showing that the deviation of the load-displacement curves of the two cases is very small, indicating that the influence of the construction method on the stability strength is very slight. Besides, when out-of-plane buckling occurs, the bridge still has certain vertical stiffness.CONCLUSIONIn analyzing the ultimate strength of the CFST arch bridges with stiffening girders, simulating the nonlinear behavior of stiffening girders is as impor-tant as that of the CFST arch rib due to the redistribution of inner force between arch ribs and stiffening girders. In this paper, an analytical approach for estimating the ultimate bearing capacity of CFST arch bridge with stiffening girder is proposed, which takes account of the effects of material and geometric nonlinearity and the contribution of prestressing reinforcement. Based on the fiber beam element theory,the degrees of freedom of the whole structure can be reduced, making it very feasible to predict the ultimate strength of the complex structure. The accuracy of the present method was examined by comparison with the experimental results for a PC girder.To demonstrate the applicability of the present approach in bridge design, the ultimate strength of an abnormal CFST arch bridge with stiffening girder is studied considering the effect of construction process. The result shows that the construction process influences the initial internal force of the bridge significantly. But it has little effect on the ultimate strength of the bridge. Therefore, the relatively accurate stability strength can be obtained by ignoring the influence of the construction process.ReferencesChen, H.Z., 2005. Research of Calculation and Analysis of PCBox Girder Structure with Long Span. Ph.D Thesis,Zhejiang University (in Chinese).Chen, B.C., Chen, Y.J., 2000. Experimental study on me-chanic behaviors of concrete-filled steel tubular rib archunder in-plane loads. Engineering Mechanics,17(2):44-50 (in Chinese).Chen, B.C., Wei, J.G., Lin, J.Y., 2006. Experimental study on concrete filled steel tubular (single tube) arch with onerib under spatial loads. Engineering Mechanics,23(5):99-106 (in Chinese).Crisfield, M.A., 1981. A fast incremental iterative solution procedure that handles “snap through”. Computer and Structures, 13(1-3):55-62. [doi:10.1016/0045-7949(81) 90108-5]Cui, J., Sun, B.N., Lou, W.J., Yang, L.X., 2004. Model test study on concrete-filled steel tube truss arch bridge.Engineering Mechanics, 21(5):83-86 (in Chinese).e, X., Chen, H.Z., Li, H., Song, S.R., 2005. Numerical analysis of ultimate strength of concrete filled steel tu- bular arch bridges. Journal of Zhejiang University SCI-ENCE, 6A(8):859-868. [doi:10.1631/jzus.2005.A0859]Zeng, G.F., Fan, L.C., Zhang, G.Y., 2003. Load capacity analysis of concrete filled steel tube arch bridge with the composite beam element. Journal of the China RailwaySociety, 25(5):97-102 (in Chinese).Zhang, Z.A., Sun, Y., Wang, M.Q., 2003. Key technique in theerection process of the rib steel pipe truss segments forWushan Yangze River bridge. Highway, 12:26-32 (in Chinese).Zhang, Y., Shao, X.D., Cai, S.B., Hu, J.H., 2006. Spatial nonlinear finite element analysis for long-span trussedCFST arch bridge. China Journal of Highway andTransport, 19(4):65-70 (in Chinese).Zhao, L.Q., Xu, R.H., Zheng, X.Z., 2004. Overall design of thefourth Qiantangjiang River Bridge in Hangzhou. BridgeConstruction, 1:27-30 (in Chinese).翻译：分析钢管混凝土拱桥与加劲梁的极限强度的方法摘要：提出的方法是分析和研究负载承载能力的终极钢管混凝土钢管混凝土（加劲梁与钢管混凝土拱桥）。

英文文献Highway asphalt pavement Preventive MaintenanceAbstract: The high-grade highway asphalt pavement and damaged the various early stage disease, the type of damage and its causes, and made a crack repair, slurry seal asphalt pavement, such as preventive conservation technology.Key words: asphalt pavement; conservationasphalt pavement and the type of damage causestype of damageThe asphalt pavement damage can be divided into: crack category, loose category, class and other types of deformation of the four major categoriesCauses(1) horizontal cracks in this relatively common disease, mainly due to contraction of asphalt surface temperature and semi-rigid or temperature shrinkage of the shrinkage caused. Roadbed degree of compaction less than this will lead to disease(2) vertical cracks in most cases took place in a half filled or half-dug embankment road widening, mainly from the roadbed caused by uneven settlement.(3) cracking along its initial shape is round with a single trace or more of parallel vertical joints, gradually appeared in the horizontal or vertical Feng Jian oblique connection joints cracking form. Mainly due to lack of structural strength from the road(4) along the road to track performance with a horizontal height difference, mainly because of foot-graded asphalt mixture design unreasonable. Poor or because of the stability of the grass-roots level and degree of compaction of the lack of construction so that the wheel tracks with the material and layer and grass-roots role in the traffic load has repeatedly appeared in the consolidation of lateral shear deformation and displacement caused. In addition, the overloading of heavy vehicles and also produce too many of the important reasons for rutting(5) is the main reason for the wave of road construction material design unreasonable or of poor quality, the road leading to insufficient material level of resistance Mou round of the role: Zongpo paragraph, because the high temperature will cause such diseases(6) loose water damage occurred mainly in the section on the serious.(7) pits is cracked and loose, and other damage to the further development of the results.(8) embankment subsidence is mainly caused by insufficient degree of compaction, especially in some high-filling and compaction difficult to fill a half-dug sections and structures at both ends of a(9) If the spalling asphalt Mixture using neutral or acid stone, will cause aggregate and asphalt adhesion b s(10) Fan You asphalt Mixture too much asphalt content, porosity smaller, high temperature stability poor, is the main reason for a Fanyouasphalt pavement Preventive Maintenance TechnologyAsphalt Pavement Preventive Maintenance Technology: repair cracks, slurry seal, the closure of the Stone Chip, the closure of the table and micro-thin heat Overlay (including open-graded, Miji and with intermittent grading). Here focus of slurry seal and repair cracks in technology.repair cracks in technology and methods⑴ slotted repair methodSlotted repair method for small and medium-sized cracks. Crack is a better approach. The equipment used slot machines and irrigation sewing machine to make up for joint use of materials designed specifically for repairing cracks in the sealed plastic (polymer modified asphalt), slotting size of at least l cm wide, l ~ 3 cm deep. Slotted than the depth should not exceed 2: l, greater depth than the smaller the better. Slotted repair of the construction process are as follows:① preparations for the inspection slot machines and irrigation sewing machine to ensure that its technical condition: Pavement cracks under the specific circumstances to determine fill slit design: sewing machine and start filling the tank sealant heating add sealant, sealant heating , Stirring to l90 ℃, can not exceed 200 ℃; heating during the sewing machine Tuogua irrigation in the truck behind, and the sealant, Geli Dun, the umbrella label instructions, and Shoulder-style slot machines, such as hair dryer mounted on trucks, Shi T locations scheduled to drag on a "safe highway maintenance of order" (JTG H30-2004) as the provisions of the construction area operations.② slotted in accordance with the design of the slot size, good pre-conditioning F-slot machine slot depth, and then slotted operations, operations, according to crack width type of situation, timely adjustment slotted sizes to meet the minimum design requirements.③ Shoulder-to-trough hair dryer to bed and cracks on both sides of the ejecta l0 till at least within the scope of cleaning dust thoroughly clean.④ irrigation in the seam if the temperature below the 4:00-slit. Irrigation with a sewing machine to be slotted parts of the preheating equipment for preheating, if not at this temperature preheat to fill the joints, sealants would reduce the cohesive force: if the temperature higher than the 4 ℃ at the joint meeting, From time to preheat, the general meeting of the joint after preheating better results, in sealed plastic heating temperature reached about 190 ℃, with irrigation with a sewing machine for pressure nozzle Guaping sealant will be evenly Guanru bed and Crack drag on both sides of a certain width and thickness of the closure.⑤ conservation irrigation joint sealant, sealed in plastic and the full cooling ejecta on the roads after sweeping clean, open to traffic. As cooling time for about 15 min, the specific time and opening up under the traffic situation in temperature flexibility⑵ non-slotted repair (the traditional repair method)Non-slotted for the repair of micro-cracks to repair, according to the use of different materials, such repair method can be divided into hot-and cold-two kinds.①AU-l lO ^ # heavy oil traffic hot asphalt-hot-melt asphalt construction machinery and equipment spraying equipment (installed in the car project).The rotation of the preparatory work → preparation → heating melt-down AH-l l0 ^ # heavy oil traffic around the asphalt cracks → remove dust → straddle spraying hot melt asphalt oil → hand-Moping natural cooling → open traffic.② modified emulsified asphalt cold-constructionModification of emulsified asphalt is a mixture of liquid-cold materials, machinery equipment without special request, after the stirring scene of artificial joints Guatu letters (at least three times) → preparations for the construction technology-artificial joints → Banliao → people on the Guatu → → curing → secondary Guatu → curing → three Guatu → Kang → opening of traffic (curing time l5 ~ 20 min).⑶ traditional repair method for repairing and slotted the comparison①to the traditional repair method, whether it is re-used to transport oil or pieces of asphalt emulsion asphalt irrigation joints, although Oxfam j equipment almost no input costs, lower cost of the initial application T, but with the surface temperature of contraction and the grassroots up to 1 year, after the repair of cracks and joints location of the original irrigation re-cracking, fire accounted for more than 80 percent efficiency, so the second year of re-repairThis regular maintenance, not only increased the cost of conservation and conservation of the frequent traffic of the operation will cause inconvenience and anxiety umbrella factors. Every five years Yanmi r-total cost of about l5 yuan.② the slotted-repair, although the initial investment cost of higher construction equipment. Higher initial construction cost, but greatly extend its service life, sealing cracks in the effective and efficient artificial increase, the use of 5 years later, slotting-repair cracks in the efficient handling of 85% in five years for each of the Yanmi Cost is about ll yuan③ traditional repair method for dealing with micro-cracks and small and medium-sized cracks in the temporary emergency treatment: barrel-repair cracks in the small and medium-sized carry out a repair can be maintained for more than five years, benefited from a repair for many years.slurry sealSlurry seal technology for the new and old road of aging, cracking, smooth, loose, pits and other diseases can play a role in the prevention and maintenance, so that the road waterproof, anti-slide, formation, the rapid increase wear resistance. In recent years. Because slurry seal of the standardization, standardization, improve construction quality and reduced costs, slurry seal has been widely used in the Highway Maintenance early on.modified emulsified asphalt slurry sealModification of emulsified asphalt is a high-temperature flow, low temperature brittle fracture resistance, weatherability, abrasion resistance, ageing resistance excellent road paving material, the lower coefficient of the road flooding, road management of the disease early, increasing the road And the formation of friction coefficient, a very good role. Modification of emulsified asphalt slurry seal from the water quality is a polymer modified asphalt emulsion and rolling broken-intensive materials, mineral fillers, additives and water treatment consisting of surface layer, can be characterized by a thin layer Paver, solidified quickly, the main Construction for the road was repaired, cracking, rutting, and other diseases of treatment, can also be used for sealing and enhance the anti-sliding surface treatment. However, modified emulsified asphalt slurries and other TLC treatment, apply only to sections of the existing structure and stability, not enough deflection value to be reinforced after construction.and other road compared to the conservation methods⑴ with hot asphalt mixture of paved compared to hot asphalt mixture paving thickness of 2.5 cm, cost per square metre l8 ~ 20 yuan modified emulsified asphalt paving slurry seal thickness of 1 cm, cost per square metre l3 Around yuan, the average service life of six to eight years, uh, saving 15 percent of asphalt to 20 percent, according to the road 1 1 m wide of shells savings of 8.8 per km to 110,000 yuan. Because the modified emulsified asphalt slurry seal in more than 5 ℃ to the construction, extension of time can be 1 to 2 months, and reduce environmental pollution, the construction is simple, reduce labor intensity, energy saving equipment. Construction of improved conditions.⑵general emulsified asphalt slurry seal open when asked transport needs of 4 h, emulsified asphalt modified slurry seal when asked open as long as 0.5 ~ 1 h, traffic disruption orsignificantly reduce the time Banfu Shi T, Banfu open traffic Shi, So that direct costs fell.⑶modified emulsified asphalt itself a better low-temperature flexibility and high performance. Modified slurry seal mixture has good physical properties, therefore, can be modified slurry seal emulsified asphalt road repair or reduce disease and prolong the life of the closure, the use of cost than regular emulsified asphalt slurry seal Lower⑷ as modified emulsified asphalt slurry seal has good waterproofing and anti-slide performance, but also shorten the travel time of the opening. Increased use of the roads to and utilization of machinery and equipment and labor efficiency. Greatly to avoid a sudden summer rainstorm caused flood losses, annual savings of 2 to 30,000 yuan. From stagnation to consider shortening the vehicle. Transport savings when asked. Reducing vehicle, goods in transit fees. Its economic and social benefits incalculable.ConclusionThis article cracks on the asphalt pavement repair methods were outlined. Preventive Maintenance Highway as a regular, periodic maintenance measures, attention should be paid enough attention to.中文翻译高等级公路沥青路面预防性养护摘要：针对高等级公路沥青路面出现的各种破损和早期病害，分析了破损类型及其产生原因，并且提出了裂缝修补、稀浆封层等沥青路面的预防性养护技术。

道路路桥工程中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文资料中英文资料外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Asphalt Mixtures-Applications。

Theory and Principles1.ApplicationsXXX is the most common of its applications。

however。

and the onethat will be XXX.XXX “flexible” is used to distinguish these pavements from those made with Portland cement,which are classified as rigid pavements。

that is。

XXX it provides they key to the design approach which must be used XXX.XXX XXX down into high and low types,the type usually XXX product is used。

The low typesof pavement are made with the cutback。

or emulsion。

XXX type may have several names。

However。

XXX is similar for most low-type pavements and XXX mix。

forming the pavement.The high type of asphalt XXX中英文资料XXX grade.中英文资料Fig.·1 A modern XXX.Fig.·2 Asphalt con crete at the San Francisco XXX.They are used when high wheel loads and high volumes of traffic occur and are。

Accident Analysis and PreventionThis paper describes a project undertaken to establish a self-explaining roads (SER) design programmeon existing streets in an urban area. The methodology focussed on developing a process to identifyfunctional road categories and designs based on endemic road characteristics taken from functionalexemplars in the study area. The study area was divided into two sections, one to receive SER treatments designed to maximise visual differences between road categories, and a matched control area to remainuntreated for purposes of comparison. The SER design for local roads included increased landscaping andcommunity islands to limit forward visibility, and removal of road markings to create a visually distinctroad environment. In comparison, roads categorised as collectors received increased delineation, additionof cycle lanes, and improved amenity for pedestrians. Speed data collected 3 months after implementationshowed a significant reduction in vehicle speeds on local roads and increased homogeneity of speeds onboth local and collector roads. The objective speed data, combined with r esidents’ speed choice ratings,indicated that the project was successful in creating two discriminably different road categories.2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.1. Introduction1.1. BackgroundChanging the visual characteristics of roads to influencedriver behaviour has come to be called the self-explaining roads(SER) approach (Theeuwes, 1998; Theeuwes and Godthelp, 1995;Rothengatter, 1999). Sometimes referred to as sustainable safety,as applied in the Netherlands, the logic behind the approach isthe use of road designs that evoke correct expectations and drivingbehaviours from road users (Wegman et al., 2005; Weller etal., 2008). The SER approach focuses on the three key principlesof functionality, homogeneity, and predictability (van Vliet andSchermers, 2000). In practice, functionality requires the creation ofa few well-defined road categories (e.g., through roads, distributorroads, and access roads) and ensuring that the use of a particularroad matches its intended function. Multifunctional roadslead to contradictory design requirements, confusion in the mindsof drivers, and incorrect expectations and inappropriate drivingbehaviour. Clearly defined road categories promote homogeneity intheir use and prevent large differences in vehicle speed, direction,and mass. Finally, predictability, or recognisability, means keepingthe road design and layout within each category as uniform as possibleand clearly differentiated from other categories so that thefunction of a road is easily recognised and will elicit the correctbehaviour from road users. The SER approach has been pursued tothe largest extent in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom but ithas also been of some interest inNewZealand. In 2004, the NationalRoad Safety Committee and the Ministry of Transport articulateda new National Speed Management Initiative which stated “Theemphas is is not just on speed limit enforcement, it includes perceptualmeasures that influence the speed that a driver feels is appropriatefor the section of road upon which they are driving–in effect the ‘selfexplainingroad”’ (New Zealand Ministry of Transport, 2004).In cognitive psychological terms, the SER approach attempts toimprove road safety via two complementary avenues. The first is toidentify and use road designs that afford desirable driver behaviour.Perceptual properties such as road markings, delineated lane width,and roadside objects can function as affordances that serve as builtininstructions and guide driver behaviour, either implicitly orexplicitly (Charlton, 2007a; Elliott et al., 2003; Weller et al., 2008).This work is more or less a direct development of work on perceptualcountermeasures, perceptual cues in the roading environmentthat imply or suggest a particular speed or lane position, eitherattentionally or perceptually (Charlton, 2004, 2007b; Godley et al.,1999).A second aspect of the SER approach is to establish mentalschemata and scripts, memory representations that will allowroad users to easily categorise the type of road on which they are.1.2. Localised speed managementThe traditional approaches to improving speed management,traffic calming and local area traffic management (LATM) havefocussed on treating specific problem locations or “black spots”in response to crash occurrences or complaints from the public(Ewing, 1999). A potential disadvantage of these approaches is thataddressing the problem with localised treatments can lead to are-emergence of the problem at another location nearby. Further,when applied inappropriately, localised approaches may addressthe problem from only one perspective, without considering theimpact on other types of road users or residents. When traffic calmingtreatments rely on physical obstacles such as speed humpsthey can be very unpopular with bothresidents and road users andcan create new problems associated with noise, maintenance, andvandalism (Martens et al., 1997).From an SER perspective, treatments that are highly localizedor idiosyncratic may do more harm than good by adding to themultiplicity of road categories and driver uncertainty, rather thanbuilding driver expectations around a few uniform road types.Instead of considering a single location in isolation, SER roaddesigns are considered within a hierarchy of road functions; e.g.,access roads, collector roads, and arterial roads. Although SERschemes may employ physical design elements used in trafficcalming schemes (e.g., road narrowing with chicanes and accesscontrols) they also employ a range of more visually oriented featuressuch as median and edge line treatments, road markings,pavement surfaces, and roadside furniture. For an effective SERscheme it is important to select the combination of features that will afford the desired driver speeds and to ensure their consistentuse to form distinct categories of road types (van der Horst andKaptein, 1998; Wegman et al., 2005).road category that would meet the three SER principles of functional use, homogeneous use, and predictable use. Herrstedt (2006)reported on the use of a standardised catalogue of treatments compiledfrom researcher and practitioner advice. Goldenbeld and vanSchagen (2007) used a survey technique to determine road characteristicsthat minimise the difference between drivers’ ratingsof preferred speed and perceived safe speed and select road featuresthat make posted speeds “credible”. Aarts and Davidse (2007)used a driving simulator to verify whether the “essential recognisabilitycharacteristics” of different road classes conformed to theexpectations of road users. Weller et al. (2008) employed a range of statistical techniques, including factor analysis and categoricalclustering to establish the road characteristics that drivers use tocategorise different road types.The practical difficulties of implementing an SER system thusbecome a matter of finding answers to a series of questions. Howdoes one create a discriminable road hierarchy for an existingroad network? What road characteristics should be manipulatedto establish category-defining road features? How can SER roadfeatures and selection methods be made relevant and appropriatefor a local context? (Roaddesigns appropriate for The Netherlandswould not be suitable in New Zealand, in spite of its name.) A surveyof national and international expert opinion in order establishcategory-defining road features for New Zealand roads revealedthat the regional character and local topography of roads oftenundercut the usefulness of any standardised catalogue of designcharacteristics (Charlton and Baas, 2006).1.4. Goals of the present projectThe project described in this paper sought to develop anddemonstrate an SER process based on retrofitting existing roadsto establish a clear multi-level road hierarchy with appropriatedesign speeds, ensuring that each level in the hierarchy possesseda different “look and feel”. Rather than transferring SER designs already in use internationally, the project attempted to develop amethod that would build on the features of roads in the local area;extending road characteristics with desirable affordances to otherroads lacking them and creating discriminable road categories inthe process. Of interest was whether such a process could producecost-effective designs and whether those designs would be effectivein creating different road user expectations and distinct speedprofiles for roads of different categories.2. MethodsThe research methodology/SER design process developed forthis project progressed through a series of five stages: (1) selectionof study area; (2) identification of the road hierarchy; (3) analysisof the road features; (4) development of a design template; and (5)implementation and evaluation of the SER treatments. Each of thestages is described in the sections that follow.2.1. Selection of study areaThe study area for this project (Pt England/Glen Innes in Auckland)was selected in consultation with a project steering groupcomprised of representatives from the Ministry of Transport, NewZealand Transport Agency, New Zealand Police, and other localtransport and urban agencies. The study area was an establishedneighbourhood contained amix of private residences, small shops,schools, and churches, and was selected, in part, because of its historyof cyclist, pedestrian and loss of controlcrashes, almost twicethe number。

毕业设计（论文）外文资料翻译系别：土木系专业：土木工程（道桥方向）班级：工077姓名：学号：外文出处：Prof essional Englishon Ci vilE ngineering M echanics附件：1、外文原文；2、外文资料翻译译文。

1、外文原文（复印件）Theroad(highway)The road i s one k indof l inearconstruction used for travel. It i s made of the roadbed, the roadsurface,thebridge,theculvertandthetunnel.Inaddition,italsohasthecrossingof lines, theprotective project and the traffic engineeringand the route facility.Theroadbedisthebaseofroadsurface,roadshoulder,sideslope,sideditchfoundations.Itisstonematerialstructure,whichisdesignedacc ording toroute'splaneposition.Theroadbed,asthebaseoftravel,mustguaranteethatit hasthe enough intensity andthe stability thatcanpreventthew a terand other natural disaster from corroding.The road surface is the surface of road. It is sing le or complex structure built w ithmix ture. Theroadsurfacerequirebeingsmooth,havingenoughintensity,goodstabilityandanti-slipperyfunction.The quality of road surface directly affects the safe, comfort and the traffic.The route marking i s one k indof traffic safety facility painted by oil paint or m adeby theconcreteandtilesonhigh-level,lesshigh-typesurface.Itsfunctioniscoordinatingthesigntomaketheeffectivecontroltothetransportation,directingthevehicle sskiproadtravel,servingunimpededandthesafepurpose.Ourcountry’s r oadroutemarkinghasthelanemedian l ine,thetrafficlaneboundary,thecurbline,theparkingline,theconductioncurrentbelt,thepedestriancrossingline,thef ourcornerscentercircle,theparkingazimuthline.Theroutemarkinghasthecontinualsolidline,thebroken l ineand the arrow indicator and itscolor uses the w hiteor the yellow.Thearchofbridgeisthe structurewhichstridesoverrivers,mountainvalleyandchannel.Itismade g enerallyby steel rod, concrete andstone.Thetunnelisthecavewhichconnectsbothsidesoftheroad.Thetechniqueofthisconstructionisverycomplex,thecostofthe projectsishigherthancommonroad.However,itreducesthe drivingdistancebetweentwoplaces,enhancesthegradeofthetechnicalinbuildingtheroadandguaranteesthe cars can drive fast and safely, thus reduces the cost of transportation.The protective project i s to protect and consolidate the roadbed in order that i t can g uaranteetheintensity and the stability of the road, thus maintains the automobile to pass throughsafely.In order to g uaranteethat safe operation of the highway transportation, besides the highwayengineeringandthevehiclesperformance,itmusthavesometrafficsignal,routemarking,eachkindofdirector anddemonstratefacility.Thehighwaymarkingusescertainmarkanddrawsymbol,simplewordsandnumber,theninsta llsinthesuitableplacetoindicatethe front road's condition or theaccidentconditionincludingtheinformationalsign,thewarningsignal,theprohibitorysign,theroadsig n and soon.The road w hichJoin city, village and industry, mainly are used for the automobile and hascertaintechnicalstandardandthefacilitypathcanbecalledthehighway.“T hehighway”in C hinesei sthemodernview,butitwasnotexistedinoldday.Itgetsthenamefromthemeaningofbeingusedforthepublictraffic.Whe rearethe human,therearetheroad.Itis a truth.However,the roadis notthehighway.Ifwetalkthehistoryabouttheroad,theearliesthighwayisthatbuiltbytheoldEgyptiansformakingthepyra mid.NextisthestreetwhichbuiltbytheBabylonpeopleabout4000yearsago.Allthese are much earlier than our country.A bout 500B .C ., the Persian Empire road has l inked up East and West, and connected the road toC hina. It i s the earliest and longest S ilkR oad. 2500 y ears ag o, i t mightbe the g reatestroad .Theancient R omeEmpire’s r oadw asoncecelebrated;i t took R omeasthecenter, a llaroundbuilt29roads.Thereforeitcameoutonecommonsaying:everyroadleadstoRome.The road's construction i s the process to enhance technique and renew the building materials.Theearliestistheoldroad,itiseasytobuildbutitisalsotodestroy.Ifthereistoomuchwaterorcars,itwillbeuneven andevenbedestroyed.ThemacadamroadappearedintheEuropewhichoutbalancedtheearliestmudroad.Thenthebri ckroadappearedwhichwasearlierthanChina.Itwasonegreatbreachthatwemoldedbitumenonthemacadamroad.Fro mancienttimestothepresent,Chinahascourierstationandcourierroad,whilethefirstmoreadvanceroadwastheonetha tfromLongZhouinGangXitoZhenNanGuanin1906.The difference betweenR oad and pathThe path i s the project for each k indof vehicles and people to pass through. A ccordingto itsfunction,wecandivideitintotheurbanroad,theroad,thefactoriesandminespath,theforestroadand county road.The classification of roadFirst, according to administrative rank, i t includes national highway, province road, countyroadand the special road. Generally the national highway and province road are named main l ine; thecounty road i s named branch line.The national road i s the m a in l ineand has political and economy s ignificance, includingtheimportantnationaldefenseroadandtheroadcollectingourcapitalwithotherprovinces,autonomousregi onsandmunicipalities.Itisalsotheroadlinkstheeconomycenter,seaporthinge,factoryandimportant strategicplace. The highway striding over different provinces are built, protected andmanagedby the special org anizationsw hichare approved by the ministry of communications.The provincial road i s the main l inebuilt, protected, managedby the road manage department.Iti s full of political and economic sense to the w hole province.The sing le w ay four levels of roads can adapt below each day and nightmedium-duty truckvolumeoftraffic200.The county route is refers to has county -w ide ( county -level city ) politics,theeconom-icsignificance,connectsinthecountyandthecountythemaintownship(town),theprin-cipalcommoditiesproductionandthecollectionanddistributioncenterroad,aswellasdoesnotbelongtothefederalhig hway,provincialroad'scountybordertheroad.Thecoun-tyroutebythecounty,thecityroad Departmentresponsible for the w orkis responsibleto construct, the maintenance and the management.The tow nshiproad refers to mainly the road w hichfor the tow nship( tow n) thev i l la -g eeconomy,theculture, the administration serves, as w ell as does not belong to above t-hecountyroutebetweenroad's townshipandthetownshipandthe townshipandthe exte-riorcontactroad.Townshipisresponsible by the people's governmentto construct, the m-aintenanceand themanagement.The special-purpose road i s refers to feeds specially or mainly supplies the factoriesandmines,theforestregion,thefarm,the oilfield,the touristarea,themilitaryimportantplaceandsoonandtheexternalrelationsroad.Thespecial-purposeroadisresponsiblebythespecial-purpose unit toconstruct,themaintenanceandthemanagement.Mayalsoentrustthelocalroad departmenttoconstruct, the maintenance and the management.S econd, according to the use duty, the function and adapts the volume of traffic division.A ccordingto our country present "Highway engineering Technical standard" theroadaccordingto the use duty, the function and the adaptation volume of tra-fficdividesinto highway,arterialroad,second-class road, tertiary highway, four level of road five ranks:1 st, the highway to feed specially the automobile and should control the differencec-ompletelyrespectively tow ardthe dividing strip on roads travel the multiple highway.The four traffic lane highway s oughtto be able to adapt each k indof automobile reduce passengervehicle'syearmeandiurnalvolumeoftraffic25000~55000.Thesixtrafficlanehighwaysoughttobeabletoadapteachkindofautomobilereducepassengervehicle'syearmean diurnalvolumeoftraffic45000~80000.The eighttraffic lane highway s oughtto be able to adapt each k indof automobiler-educepassengervehicle'syearmeandiurnalvolumeoftraffic60000~100000.2 nd, the arterial road to supplythe automobile and mayaccording to need to control thedifferencerespectivelytowardthe dividingstriponroadstravelthemultiplehighway.The four traffic lane arterial roads oughtto be able to adapt each k indof automobilreducepassengervehicle'syearmeandiurnalvolumeoftraffic15000~30000.The six traffic lane arterial roads oughtto be able to adapt each k indof automobilereducepassengervehicle'syearmeandiurnalvolumeoftraffic25000~55000.3rd,thesecond-classroadtosupplytheautomobiletravelthetwo-lanehighway.Canadapteachdayandnights3000~7500medium-dutytruckvolumeoftrafficgenerally.4 rd, tertiaryhighway s to mainly supply the automobile travel the two-lane highway.Canadapteachdayandnights1000~4000medium-dutytruckvolumeoftrafficgenerally.The5,fourlevelsofroadstomainlysupplytheautomobiletravelthetwo-laneorthesingle-lanehighway.The two-lane four levels of roads canadapt below each day and nightmedium-dutytruckvolumeoftraffic1500.Highway engineeringincludes Highway planning location design and maintenance. B eforethedesignandconstructionofa newhighwayorhighwayimprovementcanbeundertakentheremintbegeneralplaningandconsiderationoffinancingA spartofgeneralplanningitisdecidedwhatthetrafficneedofthereawillbeforaconsiderableperiod,generally20years,andwhatconstructionwillmeetthoseneeds.Toassesstrafficneedsthehighwaye ngineercollectsandanalyzesinformationaboutthephysicalfeaturesofexistingfacilities,thevolume,distribution,an dcharacterofpresenttraffic,andthechangestobeexpectedinthesefactor.Thehighwayengineermust determine the most suitablelocation lay out, and capacity of the new route and structures. Frequently, a preliminary l ineor locationand several a l ternate routes are studied. The detailed design i s normally beg un only w henthe preferredlocation has been chosen.In selecting the best route, careful consideration i s g ivento the traffic requirements terrain tobetraversedvalueoflandneededfortheright-of-way.andestimatedcostofconstructionforthevariousplans.Thephotogrammetricmethod,whichmakesuse ofaerialphotographsisusedextensivelytoindicate the character of the terrain on la rg e projects w here i t is most economical. On small project,Financing considerations determine w hetherthe project can be carried out t\t one time or whetherconstructionmustbeinstageswitheachstageinitiatedasfundsbecomeavailable.Indecidingthebestmethodof financingthe work, the engineermakesan analysis of whomit willbenefit.Importanthighway s and streets benefit* in vary ingdegrees, three g roups* users ow nersof adjacent property andthe g eneralpublic.U sersof improved highway s benefit from decreased cost of transportation, g reater travelcomfort,increasedsafetyandsavingoftime.Theyalsoobtainrecreationalandeducationalbenefits.Ownersofab uttingoradjacentpropertymaybenefitfrombetteraccess,increasedpropertyvalue,moreeffectivepoliceandfireprot ection,improvedstreetparkinggreaterpedestriantrafficsafety,andtheuseofthestreet rig ht-of-w ay for the location of public utilities such as w a terl inesand sewers.Evaluation of various benefits from highway construction i s often difficult but i s a m ostimportantphaseofhighwayengineering.Somebenefitscanbemeasuredwithaccuracy,buttheevaluationofothersismorespeculative.Asaresultnumerousmethodsarcusedtofinanc econstruction,andmuchengineeringw orkmay heinvolved in selecting the bestprocedure.Environmental evaluation. The environmental impact of constructing highway s hasreceivedincreasedattentionandimportance.Manyprojectshavebeendelayedandnumerousotherscanceledbec auseotenvironmentalproblems.Theenvironmentalstudyorreportcoversmanyfactors,includingnoisegeneration, airpollutiondisturbanceofareastraverseddestructionofexisting housing andpossible a l ternateroutes.Highway engineersmust a l so assist in the acquisition of rig ht-of-w ay needed for new highwayfacilitiesAcquisitionofthelandrequiredforconstructionofexpresswaylendinginto the centralbusiness areas of cities has proved extremely difficult ithe public i s demanding that traffic engineersworkcloselywithcityplanners,architects,sociologistsandallgroupsinterestedinbeautificationandimprove mentofcitiestoassurethatexpresswaysextendinxthroughmetropolitanareasbebuiltonlyafter coordinated evaluation of a l lmajor questions, including the follow ing;( 1 ) Is sufficient a ttentionbeing paid -to beautification of the ex pressway itself? ( 2 ) Wouldachangeinlocationpreserve major natural beauties of the city? (3) Coulda depressed design helogicallysubstitutedforthosesectionswhereanelevatedexpresswayisproposed?(4)Canthegeneraldesignheimpro vedtoreducethenoisecreatedbylargevolumesoftraffic?(5)Aresomesectionsofthe city being isolatedby the proposed location?Detailed design. Detailed design of a highway project includes preparation of draw ingsorblueprintstobeusedforconstruction.Theseplansshow,forexample,thelocation,thedimensionsofsucheleme ntsasroudwaywidth*thefinajprofilefor(heroad,thelocationandtypeofdrainagefacilities, and the quantities of w orkinvolved, including earthworkand surfacing.In planning the g radingoperations the design engineer considers the ty pe of material tobeencounteredinexcavatingorincuttingawaythehighpointsalongtheprojectandhowthe rnaterialremovedcanbestbeutilisedforfillorforconstructingembankmentsacrosslow areaselsewhereontheproject.Forthistheengineermustanalyzethegradationandphysicalpropertiesofthesoil,determ inehowtheembankmentscanbestbecompacted,andcalculatethevolumeofearthworktobedone.Electroniccalculati ngproceduresarenowsometimesusedforthelaststep.Electronicequipmenthas alsospeededupmanyotherhighwayengineeringcalculations.Powerfulandhighlymobile earth moving machines have been developed TO permit rapid and economical operations., S e lection of the ty peand thickness of roudw ay surfacing to be constructed i s an importantpartofdesign.Thetypechosendependsuponthemaximumloadstobeaccommodated,thefrequencyofthese loadsandotherfactors.Forsome mures,trafficvolumemaybeso lowthatnosurfacingiseconomicallyjustifiedandnaturalsoilservesastheroadway.Astrafficincreases,asurfacingofsan dycluy,crushedslag,crushedstonecalichecrushedoystershells,oracombinationofthesemaybeapplied.Ifgravelisuse d,itusuallycontainssufficientclay andfinematerialtohelpstabilizethesurfacing.Gravel surfaces may be further stubilizedby application of calcium chloride, w hicha l so a ids incontrollingdust.AnothersurfacingiscomposedofPortlandcementandwatermixediutotheupperfewinchesofthesuhg radeandcompactedwithrollers.Thisprocedureforms A soil-cementbasethatcanbesurfacedwithbituminousmaterials.Roadwaysrocarrylargevolumes ofheavyvehiclesmustbecarefully designedand made of considerable thickness.M uchof highway engineeringi s devoted to the planingand construction of facilities to drainthehighwayorstreetandlocarrystreamsacrossthehighwayright-of-way.R emovalof surface w a terfrom the road or street i s know n a surface druiuage . It isaccomplishedbyconstructingtheroadsothatithasacrownandbyslopingtheshouldersandadjacentareassoastocontr oltheflowofwatereithertowardexistingnaturaldrainage,suchasopenditches,orintoastormdrainagesystemofcalehba sinsandundergroundpipes.Ifastormdrainagesystemisused,asitwouldbewithcitystreets,thedesignengineermustgivec onsiderationtotherntalareadrainingontothestreet,themaximumrateofrunoffexpected,thedurationofthedesignstor m,theamountofpondingallowableateachcarchbasin,andtheproposedspacingofthecatchbasinsalongthestreet.Fro mthisinformationthedesiredcapacityoftheindividualeatehbaxinandthesizeoftheundergroundpipingnetworkurcc alculated.Indesigningfacilitiestocarrystreamsunderthehighway theengineermustdeterminetheareato be drained the maximumprobableprecipitationoverthe drainage basin,thehighestex pectedrunoffrare.and then, using ( hit information, must calculate the required capacity of l li t: drainagestructure.Generally designs a remade adequate to accommodatenot only the la rgestflow ever recorded for thatlocation but the g reatestdischarge that might be expected under the most adverse conditions for ag iven number of years.Factor considered in calculating the expected flow through a culvert opening include size, length,andshapeoftheopening,roughnessofthewalls,shapeoftheentranceanddownstreamendoftheconduit, maxim um a l low able heightof w atera t the entrance, and w a terlevel a t theoutletM uchengineeringund construction w orkhas been done to provide rest stops a longmajorexpresswayroutes t especiallythenationalsystemofinterstatehighways.Thesefacilitiesmustbecarefullylo catedtopermiteasyandsafeexitandreturnaccesstothehighway.Manyunitshavebeenbuilt^sceniclocationsinforested areastopermitpicnicgroundsandwalkwaysthroughtheforest.These rest areas are especially beneficial to tho« e drivers traveling long distances w ithfewstops.. The control and reduction of noise a long busy routes, especially expressway s, has become animportantpartofhighwayengineering.Inmanycommunitieshighwallshavebeenhuiltalongeithersideoftheexpress way.Suchwallscanhecostlytoconstruct,hutcanproveverybeneficial,barrierscan reduce overall noise levels by over 50 %.Constructionoperations.Althoughmuchengineeringandplaningmustbedonepreliminarytoit,the actual construction i s normally the costliest part of making highway uudstreet improvements.W i l li t h e aw ardof a construction contract follow ingthe preparation of the detailed plansandspecifications t engineersgoontotheftiteandlayouttheproject.Aspartofthisstakingout.limitsofearthworkar e show n, location of drainage structures indicated, and profiles established.Heavy rollers are used to compact the soil or subgradebelow the roadway in order to eliminatelatersettlement.Pneumatictiredrollersandsheepsfootrollers(steelcylindersequippedwithnumerousshort steelteethorfeetJareoftenemployedforthisoperation.Vibratoryrollershavebeendevelopedandusedonsomeproject sinrecentyears.Onetypevibratesupto3400times/min,compactingtheunderlyingmaterial to an appreciabledepth.M a intenanceand operation. Highway maintenance consists of the repair and upkeep of surfacingandshoulders,bridgesanddrainagefacilities?signs,trafficcontroldevices,guardrails,trafficstripingonthep avement,retainingwalls,andside slopes. Additionaloperationsincludeicecontrol undsnowremoval,becauseitisvaluabletoknowwhysomehighwaydesignsgivebetterperformanceandprove less costly to maintain than others, engineerssupervising maintenance can offer valuableguidanceto design engineers. Consequently, maintenance and operation arc important parts ofhighwayengineering.2、外文资料翻译译文路（公路）公路是供汽车或其他车辆行驶的一种线形带状结构体。

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)英文原文：The Basics of a Good RoadWe have known how to build good roads for a long time. Archaeologists have found ancient Egyptian roadsthat carried blocks to the pyramids in 4600 BCE. Later,the Romans built an extensive road system, using the same principles we use today. Some of these roads are still in service.If you follow the basic concepts of road building, you will create a road that will last. The ten commandments of a good road are:（1）Get water away from the road（2）Build on a firm foundation（3）Use the best materials（4）Compact all layers properly（5）Design for traffic loads and volumes（6）Design for maintenance（7）Pave only when ready（8）Build from the bottom up（9）Protect your investment（10）Keep good records1．Get water away from the roadWe can’t overemphasize the importance of good drainage.Engineers estimate that at least 90% of a road’s problems can be related to excess water or to poor waterdrainage. Too much water in any layer of a road’sstructure can weaken that layer, leading to failure.In the surface layer, water can cause cracks and potholes. In lower layers it undermines support, causing cracks and potholes. A common sign of water in an asphalt road surface is alligator cracking — an interconnected pattern of cracks forming small irregular shaped pieces that look like alligator skin. Edge cracking, frost heaves, and spring breakup of pavements also point to moisture problems.To prevent these problems remember that water:• flows downhill• needs to flow someplace• is a problem if it is not flowingEffective drainage systems divert, drain and dispose of water. To do this they use interceptor ditches and slopes,road crowns, and ditch and culvert systems.Divert —Interceptor ditches, located between the road and higher ground along the road, keep the water from reaching the roadway. These ditches must slope so they carry water away from the road.Drain —Creating a crown in the road so it is higher along the centerline than at the edges encourages water to flow off the road. Typically a paved crown should be 1⁄4" higher than the shoulder for each foot of width from the centerline to the edge. For gravel surfaces the crown should be 1⁄2" higher per foot of width. For this flow path to work, the road surface must be relatively water tight. Road shoulders also must be sloped away from the road to continue carrying the flow away. Superelevations (banking) at the outside of curves will also help drainthe road surface.Dispose —A ditch and culvert system carries water away from the road structure. Ditches should be at least one foot lower than the bottom of the gravel road layer that drains the roadway. They must be kept clean and must be sloped to move water into natural drainage. If water stays in the ditches it can seep back into the road structure and undermine its strength. Ditches should also be protected from erosion by planting grass, or installing rock and other erosion control measures. Erosion can damage shoulders and ditches, clog culverts, undermine roadbeds, and contaminate nearby streams and lakes. Evaluate your ditch and culvert system twice a year to ensure that it works. In the fall, clean out leaves and branches that can block flow. In spring, check for and remove silts from plowing and any dead plant material left from the fall.2．Build on a firm foundationA road is only as good as its foundation. A highway wears out from the top down but falls apart from the bottom. The road base must carry the entire structure and the traffic that uses it.To make a firm foundation you may need to stabilize the roadbed with chemical stabilizers, large stone called breaker run, or geotextile fabric. When you run into conditions where you suspect that the native soil is unstable, work with an engineer to investigate the situation and design an appropriate solution.3．Use the best materialsWith all road materials you “pay now or pay later.” Inferior materials may require extensive maintenance throughout the road’s life. They may also force you to replace the road prematurely.Crushed aggregate is the best material for the base course. The sharp angles of thecrushed material interlock when they are compacted. This supports the pavement and traffic by transmitting the load from particle to particle. By contrast, rounded particles act like ballbearings, moving under loads.Angular particles are more stable than rounded particles.Asphalt and concrete pavement materials must be of the highest quality, designed for the conditions, obtained from established firms, and tested to ensure it meets specifications. 4．Compact all layersIn general, the more densely a material is compacted, the stronger it is. Compaction alsoshrinks or eliminates open spaces (voids) between particles. This means that less water can enter the structure. Water in soil can weaken the structure or lead to frost heaves. This is especially important for unsurfaced (gravel) roads. Use gravel which has a mix of sizes (well-graded aggregate) so smaller particles can fill the voids between larger ones. Goodcompaction of asphalt pavement lengthens its life.5．Design for traffic loads and volumesDesign for the highest anticipated load the road will carry. A road that has been designed only for cars will not stand up to trucks. One truck with 9 tons on a single rear axle does as much damage to a road as nearly 10,000 cars.Rural roads may carry log trucks, milk trucks, fire department pumper trucks, or construction equipment. If you don’t know what specific loads the road will carry, a good rule of thumb is to design for the largest piece of highway maintenance equipment that will be used on the road.A well-constructed and maintained asphalt road should last 20 years without major repairs or reconstruction. In designing a road, use traffic counts that project numbers and sizes of vehicles 20 years into the future. These are only projections, at best, but they will allow you to plan for traffic loadings through a road’s life.6．Design for maintenanceWithout maintenance a road will rapidly deteriorate and fail. Design your roads so they can be easily maintained. This means:• adequate ditches that can be cleaned regularly• culverts that are marked for easy locating in the spring• enough space for snow after it is plowed off the road• proper cross slopes f or safety, maintenance and to avoid snow drifts• roadsides that are planted or treated to prevent erosion• roadsides that can be mowed safelyA rule of thumb for adequate road width is to make it wide enough for a snowplow to pass another vehicle without leaving the travelled way.Mark culverts with a post so they can be located easily.7．Pave only when readyIt is not necessary to pave all your roads immediately. There is nothing wrong with a well-built and wellmaintained gravel road if traffic loads and volume do not require a paved surface. Three hundred vehicles per day is the recommended minimum to justify paving.Don’t assume that laying down asphalt will fix a gravel road that is failing. Before you pave, make sure you have an adequate crushed stone base that drains well and is properly compacted. The recommended minimum depth of crushed stone base is 10" depending on subgrade soils. A road paved only when it is ready will far outperform one that is constructed too quickly.8．Ê Build from the bottom upThis commandment may seem obvious, but it means that you shouldn’t top dress or resurface a road if the problem is in an underlying layer. Before you do any road improvement, locate the cause of any surface problems. Choose an improvement technique that will address the problem. This may mean recycling or removing all road materials down to the native soil and rebuilding everything. Doing any work that doesn’t solve the problem is a waste of money and effort.9．Ê Protect your investmentThe road system can be your municipality’s biggest investment. Just as a home needs painting or a new roof, a road must be maintained. Wisconsin’s severe climate requires more road maintenance than in milder places. Do these important maintenance activities: Surface —grade, shape, patch, seal cracks, control dust, remove snow and iceDrainage —clean and repair ditches and culverts; remove all excess materialRoadside —cut brush, trim trees and roadside plantings, control erosionTraffic service —clean and repair or replace signsDesign roads with adequate ditches so they can be maintained with a motor grader. Clean and grade ditches to maintain proper pitch and peak efficiency. After grading, remove all excess material from the shoulder.10．Keep good recordsYour maintenance will be more efficient with good records. Knowing the road’s construction, life, and repair history makes it much easier to plan and budget its future repairs. Records can also help you evaluate the effectiveness of the repair methods and materials you used.Good record keeping starts with an inventory of the system. It should include the history andsurface condition of the roadway, identify and evaluate culverts and bridges, note ditch conditions, shoulders, signs, and such structures as retaining walls and guardrails.Update your inventory each year or when you repair or change a road section. A formal pavement management system can help use these records and plan and budget road improvements.ResourcesThe Basics of a Good Road#17649, UW-Madison, 15 min. videotape. Presents the Ten Commandments of a Good Road. Videotapes are loaned free through County Extension offices.Asphalt PASER Manual(39 pp), Concrete PASER Manual (48 pp), Gravel PASER Manual (32 pp). These booklets contain extensive photos and descriptions of road surfacesto help you understand types of distress conditions and their causes. A simple procedure for rating the condition helps you manage your pavements and plan repairs.Roadware, a computer program which stores and reports pavement condition information. Developed by the Transportation Information Center and enhanced by the Wisconsin Department of Transportation, it uses the PASER rating system to provide five-year cost budgets and roadway repair/reconstruction priority lists.Wisconsin Transportation Bulletin factsheets, available from the Transportation Information Center (T.I.C.).Road Drainage, No. 4. Describes drainage for roadways, shoulders, ditches, and culverts.Gravel Roads, No. 5. Discusses the characteristics of a gravel road and how to maintain one.Using Salt and Sand for Winter Road Maintenance,No. 6. Basic information and practical tips on how to use de-icing chemicals and sand.Culverts—Proper Use and Installation, No. 15. Selecting and sizing culverts, designing, installing and maintaining them.Geotextiles in Road Construction/Maintenance andErosion Control, No. 16. Definitions and common applications of geotextiles on roadways and for erosion control.T.I.C. workshops are offered at locations around the state.Crossroads,an 8-page quarterly newsletter published by the T.I.C. carries helpful articles, workshop information, and resource lists. For more information on any of these materials, contact the T.I.C. at 800/442-4615.译文：一个良好的公路的基础长久以来我们已经掌握了如何铺设好一条道路的方法，考古学家发现在4600年古埃及使用建造金字塔的石块铺设道路，后来，罗马人使用同样的方法建立了一个庞大的道路系统，这种方法一直沿用到今天。

土木工程学院交通工程专业中英文翻译Road Design专业：交通工程英文原文The Basics of a Good RoadWe have known how to build good roads for a long time. Archaeologists have found ancient Egyptian roadsthat carried blocks to the pyramids in 4600 BCE. Later,the Romans built an extensive road system, using the same principles we use today. Some of these roads are still in service.If you follow the basic concepts of road building, you will create a road that will last. The ten commandments of a good road are:（1）Get water away from the road（2）Build on a firm foundation（3）Use the best materials（4）Compact all layers properly（5）Design for traffic loads and volumes（6）Design for maintenance（7）Pave only when ready（8）Build from the bottom up（9）Protect your investment（10）Keep good records1．Get water away from the roadWe can’t overemphasize the importance of good drainage.Engineers estimate that at least 90% of a road’s problems can be related to excess water or to poor waterdrainage. Too much water in any laye r of a road’sstructure can weaken that layer, leading to failure.In the surface layer, water can cause cracks and potholes. In lower layers it undermines support, causing cracks and potholes. A common sign of water in an asphalt road surface is alligator cracking — an interconnected pattern of cracks forming small irregular shaped pieces that look like alligator skin. Edge cracking, frost heaves, and spring breakup of pavements also point to moisture problems.To prevent these problems remember that water:• flows downhill• needs to flow someplace• is a problem if it is not flowingEffective drainage systems divert, drain and dispose of water. To do this they use interceptor ditches and slopes,road crowns, and ditch and culvert systems.Divert —Interceptor ditches, located between the road and higher ground along the road, keep the water from reaching the roadway. These ditches must slope so they carry water away from the road.Drain —Creating a crown in the road so it is higher along the centerline than at the edges encourages water to flow off the road. Typically a paved crown should be 1⁄4" higher than the shoulder for each foot of width from the centerline to the edge. For gravel surfaces the crown should be 1⁄2" higher per foot of width. For this flow path to work, the road surface must be relativelywater tight. Road shoulders also must be sloped away from the road to continue carrying the flow away. Superelevations (banking) at the outside of curves will also help drainthe road surface.Dispose —A ditch and culvert system carries water away from the road structure. Ditches should be at least one foot lower than the bottom of the gravel road layer that drains the roadway. They must be kept clean and must be sloped to move water into natural drainage. If water stays in the ditches it can seep back into the road structure and undermine its strength. Ditches should also be protected from erosion by planting grass, or installing rock and other erosion control measures. Erosion can damage shoulders and ditches, clog culverts, undermine roadbeds, and contaminate nearby streams and lakes. Evaluate your ditch and culvert system twice a year to ensure that it works. In the fall, clean out leaves and branches that can block flow. In spring, check for and remove silts from plowing and any dead plant material left from the fall.2．Build on a firm foundationA road is only as good as its foundation. A highway wears out from the top down but falls apart from the bottom. The road base must carry the entire structure and the traffic that uses it.To make a firm foundation you may need to stabilize the roadbed with chemical stabilizers, large stone called breaker run, or geotextile fabric. When you run into conditions where you suspect that the native soil is unstable, work with an engineer to investigate the situation and design an appropriate solution.3．Use the best materialsWith all road materials you “pay now or pay later.” Inferior materials may require extensive maintenance throughout the road’s life. They may also force you to replace the road prematurely.Crushed aggregate is the best material for the base course. The sharp angles of thecrushed material interlock when they are compacted. This supports the pavement and traffic by transmitting the load from particle to particle. By contrast, rounded particles act like ballbearings, moving under loads.Angular particles are more stable than rounded particles.Asphalt and concrete pavement materials must be of the highest quality, designed for the conditions, obtained from established firms, and tested to ensure it meets specifications. 4．Compact all layersIn general, the more densely a material is compacted, the stronger it is. Compaction also shrinks or eliminates open spaces (voids) between particles. This means that less water can enter the structure. Water in soil can weaken the structure or lead to frost heaves. This is especially important for unsurfaced (gravel) roads. Use gravel which has a mix of sizes (well-graded aggregate) so smaller particles can fill the voids between larger ones. Goodcompaction of asphalt pavement lengthens its life.5．Design for traffic loads and volumesDesign for the highest anticipated load the road will carry. A road that has been designed only for cars will not stand up to trucks. One truck with 9 tons on a single rear axle does as much damage to a road as nearly 10,000 cars.Rural roads may carry log trucks, milk trucks, fire department pumper trucks, or construction equipment. If you don’t know what specific loads the road will carry, a good rule of thumb is to design for the largest piece of highway maintenance equipment that will be used on the road.A well-constructed and maintained asphalt road should last 20 years without major repairs orreconstruction. In designing a road, use traffic counts that project numbers and sizes of vehicles 20 years into the future. These are only projections, at best, but they will allow you to plan for traffic loadings through a road’s life.6．Design for maintenanceWithout maintenance a road will rapidly deteriorate and fail. Design your roads so they can be easily maintained. This means:• adequate ditches that can be cleaned regularly• culverts that are marked for easy locating in the spring• enough space for snow after it is plowed off the road• proper cross slopes for safety, maintenance and to avoid snow drifts• roadsi des that are planted or treated to prevent erosion• roadsides that can be mowed safelyA rule of thumb for adequate road width is to make it wide enough for a snowplow to pass another vehicle without leaving the travelled way.Mark culverts with a post so they can be located easily.7．Pave only when readyIt is not necessary to pave all your roads immediately. There is nothing wrong with a well-built and wellmaintained gravel road if traffic loads and volume do not require a paved surface. Three hundred vehicles per day is the recommended minimum to justify paving.Don’t assume that laying down asphalt will fix a gravel road that is failing. Before you pave, make sure you have an adequate crushed stone base that drains well and is properly compacted. The recommended minimum depth of crushed stone base is 10" depending on subgrade soils. A road paved only when it is ready will far outperform one that is constructed too quickly.8．Ê Build from the bottom upThis commandment may seem obvious, but it means that you shouldn’t top dress or resurface a road if the problem is in an underlying layer. Before you do any road improvement, locate the cause of any surface problems. Choose an improvement technique that will address the problem. This may mean recycling or removing all road materials down to the native soil and rebuilding everything. Doing any work that doesn’t solve the problem is a waste of money and effort.9．Ê Protect your investmentThe road system can be your municipality’s biggest investment. Just as a home needs painting or a new roof, a road must be maintained. Wisconsin’s severe climate requires more road maintenance than in milder places. Do these important maintenance activities: Surface —grade, shape, patch, seal cracks, control dust, remove snow and iceDrainage —clean and repair ditches and culverts; remove all excess materialRoadside —cut brush, trim trees and roadside plantings, control erosionTraffic service —clean and repair or replace signsDesign roads with adequate ditches so they can be maintained with a motor grader. Clean and grade ditches to maintain proper pitch and peak efficiency. After grading, remove all excess material from the shoulder.10．Keep good recordsYour maintenance will be more efficient with good records. Knowing the road’s construction, life, and repair history makes it much easier to plan and budget its future repairs. Records can also help you evaluate the effectiveness of the repair methods and materials you used.Good record keeping starts with an inventory of the system. It should include the history and surface condition of the roadway, identify and evaluate culverts and bridges, note ditch conditions, shoulders, signs, and such structures as retaining walls and guardrails.Update your inventory each year or when you repair or change a road section. A formal pavement management system can help use these records and plan and budget road improvements.ResourcesThe Basics of a Good Road#17649, UW-Madison, 15 min. videotape. Presents the Ten Commandments of a Good Road. Videotapes are loaned free through County Extension offices.Asphalt PASER Manual(39 pp), Concrete PASER Manual (48 pp), Gravel PASER Manual (32 pp). These booklets contain extensive photos and descriptions of road surfacesto help you understand types of distress conditions and their causes. A simple procedure for rating the condition helps you manage your pavements and plan repairs.Roadware, a computer program which stores and reports pavement condition information. Developed by the Transportation Information Center and enhanced by the Wisconsin Department of Transportation, it uses the PASER rating system to provide five-year cost budgets and roadway repair/reconstruction priority lists.Wisconsin Transportation Bulletin factsheets, available from the Transportation Information Center (T.I.C.).Road Drainage, No. 4. Describes drainage for roadways, shoulders, ditches, and culverts.Gravel Roads, No. 5. Discusses the characteristics of a gravel road and how to maintain one.Using Salt and Sand for Winter Road Maintenance,No. 6. Basic information and practical tips on how to use de-icing chemicals and sand.Culverts—Proper Use and Installation, No. 15. Selecting and sizing culverts, designing, installing and maintaining them.Geotextiles in Road Construction/Maintenance andErosion Control, No. 16. Definitions and common applications of geotextiles on roadways and for erosion control.T.I.C. workshops are offered at locations around the state.Crossroads,an 8-page quarterly newsletter published by the T.I.C. carries helpful articles, workshop information, and resource lists. For more information on any of these materials, contact the T.I.C. at 800/442-4615.中文译文一个良好的公路的基础长久以来我们已经掌握了如何铺设好一条道路的方法，考古学家发现在4600年古埃及使用建造金字塔的石块铺设道路，后来，罗马人使用同样的方法建立了一个庞大的道路系统，这种方法一直沿用到今天。

桥梁工程中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)BRIDGE ENGINEERING AND AESTHETICSEvolvement of bridge Engineering,brief reviewAmong the early documented reviews of construction materials and structu re types are the books of Marcus Vitruvios Pollio in the first century B.C.The basic principles of statics were developed by the Greeks , and were exemplifi ed in works and applications by Leonardo da Vinci,Cardeno,and Galileo.In the fifteenth and sixteenth century, engineers seemed to be unaware of this record , and relied solely on experience and tradition for building bridges and aqueduc ts .The state of the art changed rapidly toward the end of the seventeenth cent ury when Leibnitz, Newton, and Bernoulli introduced mathematical formulatio ns. Published works by Lahire (1695)and Belidor (1792) about the theoretical a nalysis of structures provided the basis in the field of mechanics of materials .Kuzmanovic(1977) focuses on stone and wood as the first bridge-building materials. Iron was introduced during the transitional period from wood to steel .According to recent records , concrete was used in France as early as 1840 for a bridge 39 feet (12 m) long to span the Garoyne Canal at Grisoles, but r einforced concrete was not introduced in bridge construction until the beginnin g of this century . Prestressed concrete was first used in 1927.Stone bridges of the arch type (integrated superstructure and substructure) were constructed in Rome and other European cities in the middle ages . Thes e arches were half-circular , with flat arches beginning to dominate bridge wor k during the Renaissance period. This concept was markedly improved at the e nd of the eighteenth century and found structurally adequate to accommodate f uture railroad loads . In terms of analysis and use of materials , stone bridges have not changed much ,but the theoretical treatment was improved by introd ucing the pressure-line concept in the early 1670s(Lahire, 1695) . The arch the ory was documented in model tests where typical failure modes were considered (Frezier,1739).Culmann(1851) introduced the elastic center method for fixed-e nd arches, and showed that three redundant parameters can be found by the us e of three equations of coMPatibility.Wooden trusses were used in bridges during the sixteenth century when P alladio built triangular frames for bridge spans 10 feet long . This effort also f ocused on the three basic principles og bridge design : convenience(serviceabili ty) ,appearance , and endurance(strength) . several timber truss bridges were co nstructed in western Europe beginning in the 1750s with spans up to 200 feet (61m) supported on stone substructures .Significant progress was possible in t he United States and Russia during the nineteenth century ,prompted by the ne ed to cross major rivers and by an abundance of suitable timber . Favorable e conomic considerations included initial low cost and fast construction .The transition from wooden bridges to steel types probably did not begin until about 1840 ,although the first documented use of iron in bridges was the chain bridge built in 1734 across the Oder River in Prussia . The first truss completely made of iron was in 1840 in the United States , followed by Eng land in 1845 , Germany in 1853 , and Russia in 1857 . In 1840 , the first ir on arch truss bridge was built across the Erie Canal at Utica .The Impetus of AnalysisThe theory of structures ,developed mainly in the ninetheenth century,foc used on truss analysis, with the first book on bridges written in 1811. The Wa rren triangular truss was introduced in 1846 , supplemented by a method for c alculating the correcet forces .I-beams fabricated from plates became popular in England and were used in short-span bridges.In 1866, Culmann explained the principles of cantilever truss bridges, an d one year later the first cantilever bridge was built across the Main River in Hassfurt, Germany, with a center span of 425 feet (130m) . The first cantileve r bridge in the United States was built in 1875 across the Kentucky River.A most impressive railway cantilever bridge in the nineteenth century was the Fir st of Forth bridge , built between 1883 and 1893 , with span magnitudes of 1711 feet (521.5m).At about the same time , structural steel was introduced as a prime mater ial in bridge work , although its quality was often poor . Several early exampl es are the Eads bridge in St.Louis ; the Brooklyn bridge in New York ; and t he Glasgow bridge in Missouri , all completed between 1874 and 1883.Among the analytical and design progress to be mentioned are the contrib utions of Maxwell , particularly for certain statically indeterminate trusses ; the books by Cremona (1872) on graphical statics; the force method redefined by Mohr; and the works by Clapeyron who introduced the three-moment equation s.The Impetus of New MaterialsSince the beginning of the twentieth century , concrete has taken its place as one of the most useful and important structural materials . Because of the coMParative ease with which it can be molded into any desired shape , its st ructural uses are almost unlimited . Wherever Portland cement and suitable agg regates are available , it can replace other materials for certain types of structu res, such as bridge substructure and foundation elements .In addition , the introduction of reinforced concrete in multispan frames at the beginning of this century imposed new analytical requirements . Structures of a high order of redundancy could not be analyzed with the classical metho ds of the nineteenth century .The importance of joint rotation was already dem onstrated by Manderla (1880) and Bendixen (1914) , who developed relationshi ps between joint moments and angular rotations from which the unknown mom ents can be obtained ,the so called slope-deflection method .More simplification s in frame analysis were made possible by the work of Calisev (1923) , who used successive approximations to reduce the system of equations to one simpl e expression for each iteration step . This approach was further refined and int egrated by Cross (1930) in what is known as the method of moment distributi on .One of the most import important recent developments in the area of analytical procedures is the extension of design to cover the elastic-plastic range , also known as load factor or ultimate design. Plastic analysis was introduced with some practical observations by Tresca (1846) ; and was formulated by Sa int-Venant (1870) , The concept of plasticity attracted researchers and engineers after World War Ⅰ, mainly in Germany , with the center of activity shifting to England and the United States after World War Ⅱ.The probabilistic approa ch is a new design concept that is expected to replace the classical determinist ic methodology.A main step forward was the 1969 addition of the Federal Highway Adim inistration (F HWA)”Criteria for Reinforced Concrete Bridge Members “ that co vers strength and serviceability at ultimate design . This was prepared for use in conjunction with the 1969 American Association of State Highway Offficials (AASHO) Standard Specification, and was presented in a format that is readil y adaptable to the development of ultimate design specifications .According to this document , the proportioning of reinforced concrete members ( including c olumns ) may be limited by various stages of behavior : elastic , cracked , an d ultimate . Design axial loads , or design shears . Structural capacity is the r eaction phase , and all calculated modified strength values derived from theoret ical strengths are the capacity values , such as moment capacity ,axial load ca pacity ,or shear capacity .At serviceability states , investigations may also be n ecessary for deflections , maximum crack width , and fatigue .Bridge TypesA notable bridge type is the suspension bridge , with the first example bu ilt in the United States in 1796. Problems of dynamic stability were investigate d after the Tacoma bridge collapse , and this work led to significant theoretica l contributions Steinman ( 1929 ) summarizes about 250 suspension bridges bu ilt throughout the world between 1741 and 1928 .With the introduction of the interstate system and the need to provide stru ctures at grade separations , certain bridge types have taken a strong place in bridge practice. These include concrete superstructures (slab ,T-beams,concrete box girders ), steel beam and plate girders , steel box girders , composite const ruction , orthotropic plates , segmental construction , curved girders ,and cable-stayed bridges . Prefabricated members are given serious consideration , while interest in box sections remains strong .Bridge Appearance and AestheticsGrimm ( 1975 ) documents the first recorded legislative effort to control t he appearance of the built environment . This occurred in 1647 when the Cou ncil of New Amsterdam appointed three officials . In 1954 , the Supreme Cou rt of the United States held that it is within the power of the legislature to de termine that communities should be attractive as well as healthy , spacious as well as clean , and balanced as well as patrolled . The Environmental Policy Act of 1969 directs all agencies of the federal government to identify and dev elop methods and procedures to ensure that presently unquantified environmenta l amentities and values are given appropriate consideration in decision making along with economic and technical aspects .Although in many civil engineering works aesthetics has been practiced al most intuitively , particularly in the past , bridge engineers have not ignored o r neglected the aesthetic disciplines .Recent research on the subject appears to lead to a rationalized aesthetic design methodology (Grimm and Preiser , 1976 ) .Work has been done on the aesthetics of color ,light ,texture , shape , and proportions , as well as other perceptual modalities , and this direction is bot h theoretically and empirically oriented .Aesthetic control mechanisms are commonly integrated into the land-use re gulations and design standards . In addition to concern for aesthetics at the sta te level , federal concern focuses also on the effects of man-constructed enviro nment on human life , with guidelines and criteria directed toward improving quality and appearance in the design process . Good potential for the upgradin g of aesthetic quality in bridge superstructures and substructures can be seen in the evaluation structure types aimed at improving overall appearance .Lords and lording groupsThe loads to be considered in the design of substructures and bridge foun dations include loads and forces transmitted from the superstructure, and those acting directly on the substructure and foundation .AASHTO loads . Section 3 of AASHTO specifications summarizes the loa ds and forces to be considered in the design of bridges (superstructure and sub structure ) . Briefly , these are dead load ,live load , iMPact or dynamic effec t of live load , wind load , and other forces such as longitudinal forces , cent rifugal force ,thermal forces , earth pressure , buoyancy , shrinkage and long t erm creep , rib shortening , erection stresses , ice and current pressure , collisi on force , and earthquake stresses .Besides these conventional loads that are ge nerally quantified , AASHTO also recognizes indirect load effects such as fricti on at expansion bearings and stresses associated with differential settlement of bridge components .The LRFD specifications divide loads into two distinct cate gories : permanent and transient .Permanent loadsDead Load : this includes the weight DC of all bridge components , appu rtenances and utilities, wearing surface DW nd future overlays , and earth fill EV. Both AASHTO and LRFD specifications give tables summarizing the unit weights of materials commonly used in bridge work .Transient LoadsVehicular Live Load (LL) Vehicle loading for short-span bridges :considera ble effort has been made in the United States and Canada to develop a live lo ad model that can represent the highway loading more realistically than the H or the HS AASHTO models . The current AASHTO model is still the applica ble loading.桥梁工程和桥梁美学桥梁工程的发展概况早在公元前1世纪，Marcus Vitrucios Pollio 的著作中就有关于建筑材料和结构类型的记载和评述。